The concept of the development of ancient Russian art over the past century has not remained unchanged, and the provision for the consistent adaptation of Byzantine artistic heritage the thesis about local roots was opposed. “ Archaeological research Soviet scientists have now been allowed, albeit only sketchily for now and only in general outline, - to determine the origins of Russian art, dating back to the artistic culture of the Slavic tribes and to the art of the ancient and Scythian Black Sea region. The Byzantine contribution lay on the solid ground of strong Slavic artistic traditions, which determined the decisive creative processing of alien Greek forms and the originality of the most ancient monuments of Russian monumental art,” states the preface to the History of Russian Art, published since 1953. V.N. Lazarev took a more cautious position in this matter, writing: “Assimilate the principles Byzantine art strived in literally all countries, but not everyone was able to do it. Kievan Rus managed to brilliantly solve this problem. She not only made the Byzantine heritage her property, she gave it a deep creative implementation, completely subordinating it to the new tasks that faced her artists.” National and social factors were constantly emphasized by N.N. Voronin, to whom, in particular, the following lines belong: “The dominant feudal elites mainly adhered to Byzantine traditions, to which they more than once turned later in the struggle for their dominance. Folk, national principles inevitably came into conflict with this tradition, processing and changing it in their own way, which determined the uniquely Russian character of the already ancient monuments". Today there is no point in arguing with these voices from a bygone era; rather, they should be remembered as reflecting a certain position of researchers.

At the dawn of the formation of Christian art medieval Rus' What was relevant was, first of all, the demand for the Byzantine artistic heritage, established on Hellenistic foundations and incorporating all the best that distinguished ancient civilization. Having survived the struggle against the iconoclasts, this religious creativity turned out to be closely connected with Christological dogmatics, and its character was naturally consistent with church teaching on icon veneration. The Baptism of Rus' opened the way to the adoption of the Byzantine model as a standard, without any alternative. Therefore, it is permissible to talk about the exclusive role of Byzantium in the formation of artistic culture Ancient Rus'.

The literature especially noted the fact that the Baptism of Rus' took place in an era of political and economic power, and this ensured its introduction to the high achievements of Byzantine culture, the attraction of first-class masters, who predetermined the path of further development of art. In this context, it is easier to understand the amazingly rapid rise of icon painting, transferred to new soil, on which local Slavic artistic traditions, sharply different in their typology, had previously existed. In many ways, everything had to start literally “from scratch.” And the path of apprenticeship turned out to be difficult and uneven. If we recognize early artistically perfect works as belonging to local creative personnel, then we will have to talk about their consistent degradation, in which it is difficult to see natural progress. The icons of the 12th–13th centuries, originating from Russian churches, are not fundamentally different from the Byzantine ones. Taking this into account, we must recognize them as Greek works or conclude that Russian icon painters comprehended the classical foundations of Byzantine art: both are unlikely for completely objective reasons. The medieval West, which had long been in contact with the Byzantine tradition, was only able to approach it. What could medieval Rus' count on?

V. N. Lazarev was interested in the issue of transformation of the Byzantine heritage in Russian painting in early period its history, and a scientist could note that, say, the iconography of Novgorod in the 12th century. was almost entirely in the orbit of attraction of Byzantine art of the Komninian time, and already at the beginning of the 13th century. “something appears that would be impossible for a purely Byzantine artist.” Comparing two icons of St. Nicholas, the one from Constantinople in the monastery of St. Catherine on Sinai and the one from Novgorod from the Novodevichy Convent in Moscow (see color insert, ill. 1), the researcher writes: “In the Greek icon, very delicate in execution, the strict proportionality of the parts is striking faces, dating back to distant Hellenistic traditions. This proportionality deprives the image of expression and leaves a certain academic imprint on it. The Novgorod artist interprets Nikola’s face completely differently. His exorbitantly elongated head takes on a flattened shape, the main place is given to the huge forehead - the center of thought, whimsically curved eyebrows form sharp corners, the relationship between the individual parts of the face loses the strict proportionality of the Byzantine icon, but the overall facial expression gains greater expressiveness.” This icon occupies special position among the Novgorod works, and the image of Nikola differs in manner from the contemporaneous images in the margins. Its exclusivity lies in its adherence to a very original Byzantine model and, most likely, in the deformation of the latter, caused by the icon painter’s lack of skills due to thorough professional training. Hence the lack correct drawing and volumetric modeling, strengthening the role of the graphic line and local color spot. Similar disproportions with a tendency towards enlargement of the head and hand of the blessing hand subsequently become most noticeable in stone carvings following the iconographic originals.

One should not think that popular understanding iconographic images most characteristic of the Russian iconographic tradition. It is preceded by early Eastern Christian icons, associated by their origin with the monastic environment, now kept in the monastery of St. Catherine in Sinai. They are distinguished by a similar deformation of classical forms and an increase in graphics, sometimes more reminiscent of tinted pen drawings decorating the pages of a handwritten book, again reflecting the aesthetic tastes of the same circles. From this we can draw a logical conclusion regarding the progressive democratization of icon painting. Certain historical factors must have contributed to this. Russian-Byzantine cultural ties were, if not completely interrupted, then greatly weakened due to the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204 and the Tatar-Mongol invasion. The real development of sacred art was suspended for a long time, and the consequences of what happened had a painful impact in the future.

This future is a new era, starting from the end of the 13th century. and mainly determined by the Moscow princely policy, leading to the transformation of Moscow not only into the capital of the vast Russian state, but also into the religious center of North-Eastern Russia. The Church turned out to be the most active conductor of Byzantine influences in the spiritual culture of medieval Russian society. Byzantine icon painting of the 13th century. very diverse in nature, especially the products of the Greek workshops that served the crusaders. Some of her samples, although with a certain delay, reached Russian lands, finding a response among local icon painters.

Events of the 13th century. showed that generations of Russian icon painters, while adopting Christian iconography in its Byzantine version, did not undergo serious vocational school, which distinguished the art of Greek masters. Therefore, they were doomed to copy high standards, and exceptions were rare. This tragic situation was revealed every time ties with Byzantium weakened: the quality level of products sharply decreased towards the primitivization of artistic forms. Vivid evidence of this is the widely known Novgorod red-background icons originating from Kresttsy. Here you can pay attention to only one of them, more multi-figured, with the image of the Savior on the throne with selected saints (ill. 2). Byzantine image of the throned Christ in the iconographic version of the 12th–13th centuries. reproduced without significant deviations, except for the violation of proportions and the interpretation of individual details, in particular, the drapery of clothes with flowing folds gives way to a system of contour lines. The folklore interpretation is more definitely manifested in the large-headed figures of short proportions located on the margins of the icon. Their composition clearly reflects the veneration of these saints. Therefore, the typology is quite familiar to the icon painter. And although the iconography did not need to be simplified, the artist still discovered a weak idea of ​​​​bishop's vestments. Dating from the first quarter of the 14th century c, the icon of St. Nicholas of Zaraisky with his life from the Ozerevo churchyard allows us to even more clearly trace the development of the same trends. The compositions of hagiographic stamps evoke the illusion of resemblance to Romanesque painting. However, Western iconographic motifs were sometimes subject to folklorization in Russian icon painting, as illustrated by, say, the Vologda icon of the 14th century. with the image of the Mother of God enthroned with Saints Nicholas and Clement in attendance. In essence, based on the folklorization of the icon painting sample, icon painting of the vast northern lands along the shores of Lake Onega arose and developed over the course of centuries. Sometimes, as in the case of a group of royal doors from the Novgorod provinces, the local soil even managed to develop its own bright and stable iconographic tradition, marked by a unique interpretation of the elite original. We are talking about including in the scheme, along with the Annunciation and the Evangelists, a multi-figure composition of the Eucharist with features of everyday interpretation.

The Paleologian era in the history of Byzantine art, with the revival of Byzantine-Russian church and cultural ties, introduced a lot of new things into the icon painting of Novgorod and Moscow. First of all, the iconographic repertoire expanded and the artistic characteristics changed. However, at the same time, the tendency towards archaization remained practically unchanged, which sometimes left its mark on the perception of new, and, moreover, exquisite samples. It seems as if local masters looked at them as if through the prism of traditional training, which gravitated towards firmly rooted folklorization. It is not surprising that the hagiographic marks of the Novgorod icon of the first half of the 14th century. with the image of Nikola from the Lyuboni churchyard rather resemble a folk painting with all its characteristic features. In accordance with the tastes of the people, the artistic structure of the icon “The Miracle of George on the Serpent, with Life” from the former collection of M. P. Pogodin was determined. Such works of folklore type form a whole direction, reflecting the originality of folk ideas in an extremely intelligible form. It should be noted here that there is a simplification, but not a radical change in the iconographic scheme.

“Novgorod art marks one of highest points in the development of ancient Russian artistic culture. It is characterized by great simplicity and expressiveness, it stands out for its folk character, in it those numerous folklore motifs that have existed among the people for centuries and which have not been so widely used in any other school have found an organic embodiment. Hence the full-bloodedness of Novgorod art, hence its strength and soilness,” wrote V.N. Lazarev, assessing Novgorod’s contribution to Russian art. True, Novgorod icon painting of the 15th century, especially its second half, is noticeably evolving, approaching the Byzantinizing elitist direction, but the northern provinces of Novgorod still retain for a very long time that conspicuous folk coloring that usually distinguishes the products of the traditional direction. Sometimes this coloring seems to be naturally layered onto new, and even partly Europeanized models. The centuries-old artistic context takes its toll, and then the influence of the Old Believer environment. All this supported reverence for antiquity.

However, it cannot be said that the products of other icon painting centers, including Pskov and Rostov, remain free from the penetration of the folklore element. Pskov icons, especially the 14th–15th centuries, are perceived as the result of a radical reworking of examples brought from outside, both Byzantine itself and the Byzantine-Western circle, carried out on local soil. This is probably why you can sometimes feel echoes of the Romanesque artistic tradition. All this is partly leveled out by the folklore interpretation of the image, and here the best example is the icon of the Savior Pantocrator from the Spaso-Eleazarovsky Monastery. The simplicity of the artistic solution is also present in other works, sometimes twilight-decorative, and only in the 16th century. the line that separated Pskov craftsmanship from Novgorod and Moscow. There is no certainty that the surviving icons adequately reflect the character of medieval Rostov icon painting as a whole. But even at the modern stage of studying the material, it is clear that along with elite works, examples of folk direction. Particularly impressive is the temple icon of the Old Testament Trinity, which belongs to this circle, made in the 1360–1380s. . It is distinguished precisely by the folklore interpretation of the plot, which is manifested both in the simplification of forms and insufficient consistency of figures, and in the introduction of everyday motifs (ill. 3).

The folklore element turns out to be an almost constant companion of the masters of various Russian icon-painting centers working on a professional basis. The widespread use of sketches made by experienced draftsmen did not exclude various deviations and errors. The icon of the Savior Pantocrator with the Apostles, late XIV - early XV centuries, localized in Rostov, reproduces the exquisite Byzantine original of the second half XIV V. . At the same time, simplifications are noticeable in the contours of the images, and especially in the modeling of volumes, clearly reflecting the icon painter’s perception of the sample. The same phenomenon is reflected in the one dating back to the 1360s. double-sided icon with images of the Savior Pantocrator and the Mother of God Hodegetria from the Intercession Monastery in Suzdal. The temple icon of the Intercession, executed simultaneously with it and originating from the same place, is noteworthy not only as an example of the development of a multi-figure composition of the indicated plot, but also as evidence of the aesthetic tastes of the then Suzdal princes, who were alien to special sophistication. Russian icon painting could only be brought out of this state by the work of such major masters, like Theophanes the Greek and Andrei Rublev.

Moscow icon painting was formed almost initially with the involvement of Byzantine masters invited by Metropolitan Theognostus (1338–1353). Her works as a whole stand out for their stronger manifestations of aristocracy than the products of other local art centers medieval Rus'. True, the features of folklorization sometimes still penetrated both into early works, and those created in monastery workshops near Moscow. The situation was completely different in the territory adjacent to Tver. The influence of folklorization has already been noted in works of the 14th–15th centuries, such as the icon of the Archangel Michael and the royal doors with the image of two saints, but it is even more intensified in the icons of the Deesis rank of the mid-15th century. from the collection of A.I. Anisimov. Icon of Hypatius of Gangra with his life, late 15th – first half of the 16th century. , reveals trends close to the work of masters of the Novgorod provinces of the Russian North. The latter, as is known, widely adapted the most elite iconographic samples in their usual way. Directly elite works of icon painting, of course, settled primarily only in the largest northern monasteries.

During the last century of existence Byzantine Empire Constantinople, as before, had a decisive influence on the nature of icon painting in Orthodox Slavic countries. Over the next few decades, its development continued rather by inertia, until the question arose of both the quality level and, most importantly, the correctness of the images. In Moscow, it was staged at the Council of the Stoglavy in 1551, which revealed serious concern about the state of icon painting and recommended the introduction of facial icon painting originals. All this can be understood, especially based on the experience of the existence of icon painting in the Belarusian-Ukrainian region in the post-Byzantine period in conditions of active Catholic expansion and a practically absent Orthodox aristocracy. Potential customers for icons represented the clergy, philistines and rural church communities. And in Moscow itself, it was difficult not to notice the penetration into the iconography of Western subjects, obliged for the most part products of Italo-Greek workshops. Later, this circumstance will significantly lull the vigilance of Russian Old Believers. Meanwhile, despite all the measures taken, the Europeanization and folklorization of traditional icon painting continued, especially with the spread of engraving, and their success clearly depended on social environment. In this regard, what comes from the Florovskaya chapel in the village is indicative. Pasmurovo icon of the Miracle of Flora and Laurel, painted by Isaac Grigoriev in 1603 (ill. 4). This is an example of the creativity of the monastic peasant icon painters of Poshekhonye. The traditional iconographic scheme is complicated by the inclusion of an architectural background and an increase in the number of horses.

“The general character of the art of the 17th century,” wrote L. A. Uspensky, “marked by the loss of the basic properties of the great art of previous eras, was the result of that spiritual decline and those historical background, which were determined in the 16th century. AND interest in Russian art in other Orthodox countries was caused not only by the fading artistic life under Turkish rule, but also a certain consonance in the understanding of church art in relation to it, which arose under the influence of the circumstances that developed in this era on the paths of Orthodoxy.” One of The noted circumstances, undoubtedly, was the Europeanization of sacred art of the Byzantine tradition, which took place gradually, gradually, and attracted attention in cases of the most radical innovations. It is worth at least recalling the views of archpriest Avvakum on contemporary Russian iconography. Folklorization remained, as it were, in the shadow of controversy, since it did not affect the iconographic foundations and only gave them a partially everyday interpretation, especially in northern works.

The situation in the nature of folklorization became noticeably more complicated in the second half of the 17th century. in interaction with Ukrainian and Belarusian iconographic traditions and the influx of foreign masters. Here the severity of the problem is rather transferred to the plane of international cultural relations. Traditional icon painting does not disappear, but in the public consciousness it seems to be relegated to the background, remaining primarily in the provincial monastic and Old Believer environment. This creativity becomes predominantly the destiny of folk craftsmen, who thus turned out to be called upon to keep the covenants of medieval Rus' for a long time.

Voronin N. N. Results of the development of ancient Russian art // History of Russian art. T. IV. M., 1959. P. 616.

Ainalov D. V. Hellenistic foundations of Byzantine art. Research in the history of early Byzantine art. St. Petersburg ., 1900; Grabar A. Christian Iconography. A Study of its Origins. Princeton, 1968; Kitzinger E. Byzantine Art in the Making. Main lines of stylistic development in Mediterranean Art 3rd–7th Century. Cambridge, 1977.

Putsko V. G. Byzantium and the formation of the art of Kievan Rus // Southern Russia and Byzantium. Collection scientific works. Kyiv, 1991. pp. 79–99.

Grabar A. N. The Baptism of Rus' in the history of art // Vladimir collection in memory of the 950th anniversary of the Baptism of Rus'. Belgrade, 1938. pp. 73–88; It's him. Secular fine art of pre-Mongol Rus' and “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” // Proceedings of the Department of Old Russian Literature. T. XVIII. M.; L., 1962. pp. 233–271.

Velmans T. Rayonnement de l'icone au XII e et au début du XIIIe siècle // XVe Congrès International d'études byzantines. Reports et co-reports. III. Art et archéologic. Athènes, 1976, pp. 195–227. Pl. XLI–LI; Putsko V. Icon in pre-Mongol Rus' // Icone und frühes Tafelbild; Halle. 1988. pp. 87–116.

Lazarev V.N. Byzantium and Old Russian Art // Lazarev V.N. Byzantine and Old Russian art. Articles and materials. M., 1978. P. 220.

State Tretyakov Gallery. Collection catalogue. T. I: Old Russian art X – beginning of the fifteenth centuries. M., 1995. P. 54 – 57. № 9.

Putsko V. G. Russian icons of St. Nicholas according to small stone sculptures of the 13th–15th centuries // Veneration of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker and its reflection in folklore, writing and art. M. , 2007. pp. 121–131.

Putsko V. G. Sacred art of Rus' before the Mongol-Tatar invasion: results and development prospects // Problems of Slavic Studies. Vol. 7. Bryansk, 2005. pp. 3–10.

Putsko V. G. Church and reception of Byzantine spiritual culture in Russian society in the 11th–15th centuries. // Problems of Slavic studies. Vol. 10. Bryansk, 2008. pp. 9–19.

Xyngopoulos A. Icones du XIII e siècle en Grece // L’art byzantin du XIII e siècle. Symposium de Sopoćani. 1965. Beograd, 1967. P. 75–82; Weitzmann K. Thirteenth Century Crusader Icons on Mount Sinai // The Art Bulletin. Vol. XLV. 1963. P. 179–203; He's the same. Icon Painting in the Crusader Kingdom // Dumbarton Oaks Washington. 1966. P. 49–83; Byzantium. Faith and Power (1261–1557). New York, 2004, pp. 341–381.

Putsko V. Crusaders and Western trends in the art of Rus' in the 12th – early 14th centuries. // Actes du XV e Congrćès International d’études byzantines. Athènes–1976. T.II; Art et archeology. Communications. Athènes, 1981, pp. 953–972.

Porfiridov N. G. Two works of Novgorod easel painting of the 13th century // Old Russian art. Art culture Novgorod. M., 1968. S. 140–144; Smirnova E. S. Painting of Veliky Novgorod. Mid-XIII – early XV centuries. M., 1976. pp. 35–46, 157–165.

Analysis of folklore elements of “The Tale of Woe-Misfortune”

everyday story folklore

Among household stories XVII one of the most significant is “The Tale of the Mountain of Misfortune,” which was discovered by academician A.N. Pypin in 1856 among the manuscripts of the collection of M. N. Pogodin (State Public Library named after Saltykov-Shchedrin). Its full title is “The Tale of Grief and Misfortune, how Grief-Misfortune brought a young man into the monastic rank.” The story is based on a fairy-tale motif - the animation of Grief, however, its theme is far from fairy-tale - topical for that time, about parents who adhere to the old days, and about children striving to live according to their own will.

The Tale has only one person as its hero. This is a monodrama. Other characters pushed into the shadows and characterized by the author through the plural, which is most clearly contrasted, albeit generalized, but at the same time, with the fundamental “uniqueness” of the main character (“father and mother”, “friends”, “good people”, “naked and barefoot” , "transporters"). Only at the beginning of the story is it said about one “dear friend” who deceived and robbed him. But this only concrete human character in the story, besides the Good Man, is depicted in such a generalized way that he is more likely perceived as a symbol of all his drinking companions than as a specific person. There is only one brightly lit character in the story - the unlucky and unhappy Well done.

True, in “The Tale”, besides the Well done, there is another clearly depicted character - this is Grief-Misfortune itself. With his introduction, the “Tale” takes on a fabulous quality. But this character, although fictitious, nevertheless represents the alter ego of the Well done himself. This is his individual destiny, a unique embodiment of his personality. Grief is inseparable from the very personality of the Well done. This is his fate, chosen by him of his own free will, although it subjugated him to itself, relentlessly following him, clinging to him. It does not pass to Molodets from his parents and does not appear to him at birth. Woe-Misfortune jumps out to the Young Man from behind a stone when he has already chosen his own path, has already left home, became a homeless drunkard, made friends with the “naked and barefoot”, dressed in a “tavern gunka”.

The work is permeated with folklore symbolism and imagery. The author widely uses folk song language, common epithets and repetitions (“gray wolf”, “damp earth”, “valiant prowess”).

It was the genres of folk songs and epics that determined the new things that this story introduced into Russian prose of the 17th century: the author’s lyrical sympathy for his hero and folk-poetic artistic elements.

However, it should be noted that the everyday descriptive element in the story is unique. In the narrative there are no precise ethnographic details indicating the location of the action, geographical concepts (list of cities, rivers), the time of action, the characters are not named, and no historical signs of time are found.

The everyday background is recreated by indicating the everyday rules of society, through a description of the parental sermon, the practical wisdom of merchants, household advice, and moral instructions. The moral covenants of good people and relatives create a moral atmosphere in everyday life, however, devoid of historical specificity.

The picture of everyday life is also complemented by individual ethnographic details, although not numerous enough - the “tavern yard” where the good fellow finds himself, “an honest feast”:

And in the yzbe there is a great feast of honor,

guests drink, eat, make fun...

In the story, individual elements of clothing are named: “living room dress”, “tavern gunka”, “dragye ports”, “chiry” (shoes), bast shoes - “heaters”. There is no specific specificity in the description of the scene of action. Details of the surrounding world are drawn in the spirit of folk poetics: “a foreign country is distant, unfamiliar.” It is mentioned without specifications about the “hail”, the hut “with a high tower” in the yard.

On folk style and involvement in folklore is indicated by constant elements and epithets of folk tales. As, for example, in the scene of Grief’s pursuit of the Young Man: “clear falcon”, “white gyrfalcon”, “rock dove”, “feather grass”, “grass grass”, “sharp scythe”, “violent winds”, etc. In the description the specific dynamics of folk speech are conveyed:

Well done flew like a clear falcon,

And Grief follows him like a white merlin.

Well done, he flew like a rock dove,

And Woe follows him like a gray hawk.

Well done, he went into the field like a gray wolf,

And Woe is behind him and the greyhounds are polite.

Well done, the feather grass grass stood in the field,

And grief came with a scythe.

From folk poetry with its characteristic repetitions, emphasizing the intensification of the action, came the spell cast by Grief in the scene of the pursuit of the Well done:

You, little grass, will be whipped,

You, little grass, lie cut down.

And the violent winds will be scattered for you.

In the spirit of folk poetry, lamentations are also given good fellow, addressed to Gore:

Oh, for me, Gorin’s misfortune!

I, the Young Man, was getting into trouble:

It starved me to death, a young fellow.

The techniques, formulas, and constant epithets of the epic style used in the story are typical of folk poetry. So, for example, in the description of the custom according to which the Well done comes to the feast: he “baptized his white face, bowed in a wonderful way, he hit the good people on all four sides with his forehead.” A good fellow is sad at the feast: “at the feast he sits sadly, sad, sad, and joyless.” As in folklore poetics, Grief initially appears to the young man in a dream; elements of reincarnation are also present in the story (Grief takes the form of the Archangel Gabriel).

However, the work contains not only a folklore style, but also a bookish language, which is revealed primarily in the introduction to the story, which sets out the origin of sin on earth after Adam and Eve violated God’s commandment not to eat the fruit of the vine. He is also present in the last lines of the story. Both the introduction and the conclusion bring it closer to works of the hagiographic genre. The book tradition is evident both in some typical bookish epithets of the story and in its thematic proximity to book works on the topic of drunkenness.

Folklore is a type of reflection of popular consciousness. And this distinguishes it from other forms of linguistic art, including literature, in which the lonely personality of the author is expressed. can also reflect a purely personal perception of the environment, while folklore unites a collective, social vision. Modern literary criticism increasingly turns to the phenomenon of mass literature and the peculiarities of its functioning within Russia. Authors of the 21st century Lately tend to actively interpret the extraction of traditional culture. The growth in the popularity of mass literature is ensured by writers using the reader’s ability to reproduce on a subconscious level the images and plots already known to him, presented in the work. Very often this “base” is folklore.

Folklore motives

Folklore motifs are used sooner or later by all writers of both mass and elite literature; the difference lies in their function at a given level. In mass literature, folklore is primarily a “factor of education” national literature”, that is, a guarantor of the correlation of the text with generally accepted standards of literature that the reader is ready to consume. Under such circumstances, literary scholars are trying to determine: what folklore is in literature, how folklore motifs interact with works of mass literature and what are the features of their influence on the author’s text, as well as the transformations that a folklore text experiences as it is included in the modern literary work and changes in its traditional meanings. Researchers establish the limits of the inclusion of a folklore text into a literary text and trace the transformations of universal folklore archetypes. One of the main tasks will be to find out what folklore is in literature, to explore their mutual influence and connections in works of mass literature.

Traditional folklore

Authors of popular literature main task When writing a work, the goal is to interest the reader. To do this, first of all, they strive for a masterful depiction of intrigue. Zofia Mitosek, in her article “The End of Mimesis,” writes that “building suspense is a game of tradition and innovation.” And if by the concept of tradition we mean “the transmission from one generation to another of traditional forms of activity and communication, as well as accompanying customs, rules, ideas, and values,” then for the reader folklore is a worthy representative of tradition in literature. IN modern society it is necessary to instill in the younger generation the need to study traditional folklore.

School curriculum: literature (5th grade) - folklore genres

Fifth grade is an important phase in the development of language education of schoolchildren. Turning to works using folklore materials is due to the need for self-affirmation, the significant sensitivity of fifth grade students to folk art, the correspondence of folklore as an oral word to the active speech of a child who is at the stage of constant development. Such education in high school gives a student a literature lesson.

Genres of folklore that should be studied in modern school:

Ritual creativity

• Calendar-ritual poetry.
• Folk drama.
• Heroic epic.
• Duma.

Ballads and lyrical songs

• Ballads.
• Family and everyday songs.
• Social and everyday songs.
• Gunfighter and rebel songs.
• Ditties.
• Songs of literary origin.

Fairytale and non-fairytale historical prose

• Folk tales.
• Legends and traditions.

Folk paremiography

• Proverbs and sayings.
• Puzzles.
• Popular beliefs.
• Fables.

Folklore is a “genetic” element of worldview

The artistic action in the plot of works of literature is most often simple and understandable, designed to correspond to the everyday consciousness of the reader. Folklore is a “genetic” element of the worldview and, as a rule, is embedded in the consciousness with the first songs, fairy tales, and riddles from childhood. So, the school features folklore works gives a student a literature lesson (5th grade). Folklore makes the world clearer and tries to explain the unknown. Therefore, with the interaction of the functions of folklore and literature, a powerful resource is created to influence the consciousness of the recipient, in which the text is able to mythologize human consciousness and even cause a transformation in the rational sphere of human thinking. The answer to the question “what is folklore in literature” is determined by a whole area of ​​integral creative understanding and use. In works of folklore, ideas of creativity are often revealed on the verge of intersection with literature. Perhaps this is also influenced by the primordial ritual folklore. Literature (5th grade) in modern schools is increasingly returning to the topic of spiritual and cultural revival, the fundamental basis of the existence of our people, one of the main carriers of information about which is folklore.

Tradition of analysis

In our time, there has already emerged a certain tradition of analyzing what folklore is in literature, according to which equating creativity with standards is considered inappropriate: despite the label of “mass” novels, they have their own style, creative manner and, most importantly, the themes of the works. They “regenerated” from the depths of the soul eternal themes, the reader’s interest in which had been dormant since the beginning of the new era. The favorite themes of ancient authors are the village and the city, the historical connection of generations, Mystic stories with a loving and erotic overtones. A modern style of “direct” description of events is built on established historical images; traditional culture is presented in a modified version. The heroes of the works are characterized by a breadth of comprehension of life and psychological experience; descriptions of their characters are emphasized by reminiscences of the history and culture of our people, which most often appear in the author’s digressions and remarks.

Desacralization of folklore

Emphasis is placed on the visualization of paintings, which is carried out using increased dynamism in the presentation of events and the effect of understatement, which stimulates the reader to creative “collaboration”. In every novel, the hero exists in a world created by the author himself, with its own geography, history, and mythology. But when reading, the recipient perceives this space as already known, that is, he penetrates the atmosphere of the work from the first pages. The authors achieve this effect through the inclusion of various folklore schemes; that is, we are talking about “imitation of myth by non-mythological consciousness,” according to which folklore elements appear under their traditional context and acquire a different semantic meaning, but at the same time perform the function of identification by the reader of ancient meanings already known to him. Thus, in the texts of mass literature there is a desacralization of traditions and folklore.

The phenomenon of modification of the past and present

The phenomenon of modification of the past and present can be traced even in the nature of the construction of almost all works. The texts are replete with proverbs and sayings, which makes it possible to convey the centuries-old experience of the people in a condensed, condensed form. The main thing in the works is that they act as elements of the hero’s monologues and dialogues - most often in this, characters are used as bearers of wisdom and morality. Signs and sayings also serve as a hint at the tragic fate of the heroes of that time. They carry a deep meaning; one sign can tell the hero everything.

Folklore is the harmony of the inner world

So, a certain mythologization and attribution to folklore in the works is natural and the same integral part the created world, as the specificity of the peasantry, ethnic flavor and live, real broadcasting. Mass literature is built on the “basic models” of the reader’s consciousness of a given people(which are based on “initial intentions”). In works, such “original intentions” are precisely folklore elements. With the help of folklore motifs there is a closeness to nature and harmony inner world, and other functions of folklore fade into the background, a simplification of sacredness occurs.

The Slavic epic has not reached us, but fairy tales have been preserved, which to a certain extent reflect the ideas of our ancestors about the world, life and death, about man and his opponents. Baba Yaga - so famous character Russian fairy tales, which requires no introduction. In cinema best image The “evil” Baba Yaga was created by actor Georgy Millyar, who himself invented a costume from a pile of rags and a frightening makeup with a hooked nose, warts and protruding teeth.

There is no clear opinion about the origin of this character's name. Yaga, Yaga-baba, Yagaya, Yagaya baba, Yagikha, Yagabikha, Yagabova, Yagishna, Yaginishna - that’s what they call her in fairy tales. There are many possible etymologies. The German linguist and Slavist Max Vasmer finds a root similar in sound in many Indo-European languages, meaning “to be sick, to waste away, to be angry, to be irritated, to mourn.” Some derive “yaga” from “ancestor” (ancestor), but this is rather doubtful. In the Komi language, the word “yag” can mean pine forest, forest. In the mythology of this people you can find a story about Yagmorta, a forest man the size of a young pine tree, who kidnapped livestock, children and women. When he kidnapped the elder's only daughter, her fiancé and the entire settlement finally decided to do something. They found the devil's cave, where they found the dead girl. After which they killed the monster, took the treasures, and filled up the cave.

Baba Yaga, although a forest creature, never lived in a cave. Everyone knows her “hut about a chicken leg, about one window, with a covered red porch.” What kind of “architectural excess” is this? In the dry language of an engineer, this is a pile structure. It is used in areas with regular spills or in swamps. In some regions of Russia, village log houses were placed on stumps to prevent rotting. Among the Finno-Ugric peoples, barns on stilts were common (to protect against mice), which stood at a distance from human habitation (to avoid fire). They are still found in Siberia and the Urals saves- log cabins on poles in the forest where hunters store supplies. If you are not in dire need, you should not take anything from there; but you can put it on your own. It is possible that these supplies will save someone's life.

The prototype of Baba Yaga's hut could have been bdyn. The ancient Slavs cremated their dead. In some regions, a vessel with ashes was placed in a small house or booth on a pillar - a bdyn. It is likely that the grave crosses that have survived to this day and are very common among the Old Believers stuffed cabbage(decorative roof) originated from here. Being fumigated with incense, they were called smoky.

Old Believers. Russian North. Late XIX - early XX centuries

What does Baba Yaga do? The prominent Soviet folklorist Vladimir Propp counted three functions: child abductor (“Swan Geese”); donor (hands the hero a horse or a magic ball); warrior (by defeating her, the hero gains wisdom). According to the scientist, she was once a deity who led the initiation rite. At the same time, each function takes on meaning: the child, ready to transition to a new state, is “kidnapped” from his parents, fights the monster physically or intellectually, proves his independence and returns as an adult. In mythological consciousness, such a transition was associated with the death of the old “I” and the birth of a new one. Thus, Baba Yaga is directly connected with the afterlife. She is a guide, a creature who lives on the border.

She is a rather unfriendly gatekeeper: “On the stove, on the ninth brick, lies Baba Yaga, a bone leg, her nose has grown into the ceiling, snot is hanging over the threshold, her tits are wrapped on a hook, she is sharpening her teeth.” It’s easy to get angry if your home is cramped. The house is surrounded by a wall of bones, and on them are animal or human skulls with flaming eye sockets. The hut itself is sometimes covered with a pancake, propped up with a pie - here this means funeral meal. When a hero comes from the world of the living, he commands the hut to turn to face him, and kingdom of the dead- backwards. The hostess does not see him, but recognizes him by his smell (“ugh, ugh, it smells like the Russian spirit!”).

There is no point in walking here, the places are reserved, so Baba Yaga drives away the uninvited guest. However, he does not leave, but demands maximum attention: heat the bathhouse, feed and drink, put him to sleep. By this he demonstrates the seriousness of his intentions. The hero is going to the distant kingdom, that is afterworld. To do this, he himself needs to die for a while. He performs a ritual ablution and eats the food of the dead, after which he boldly goes to save the princess or get rejuvenating apples.

The girls also come to Baba Yaga. She loads them with back-breaking work (which small animals often help do) and seriously promises to eat them, so that sometimes they have to flee. The girl learns to work hard and be attentive to all creatures, even tiny ones. She also learns to trust her intuition.

In addition to the fairy tale, there is also a popular print image of Baba Yaga. Two popular prints are known late XVII – early XVIII centuries , where she appears in an unusual role for us - comedy. The inscription on the first one reads: “Yaga Baba and a man, with a bald old man, jump, play bagpipes, but don’t know the harmony.” The second is accompanied by the phrase: “Baba Yaga is riding with a crocodile to fight on a pig with a pestle, and they have a bottle of wine under a bush.” In addition to the unusual nature of the plot, the appearance of the old woman is striking. She's not nearly that old; however, she is nosed and hunchbacked, but at the same time she is dressed well and even smartly, on her head is a dress of a married or widowed woman, with kolts attached to it. In one case, a spinning wheel and a bottom are tucked into the belt, in the other - a spinning wheel and an ax. On the second splint, she holds the reins and pestle in her hands.

The comic effect is achieved by contrasting details: a spinning wheel and a bottom can hardly be worn in a belt, a pestle and an ax are masculine attributes, with a spectacular appearance Baba Yaga looks pretty crazy with her tongue hanging out; and flowers around. The crocodile fight is especially good. In the popular consciousness, the crocodile was associated with dragons and snakes and endowed with demonic traits. Heroes on horseback usually fight monsters, but here a woman (!) rushes at a creature that doesn’t look at all like a crocodile, rides a pig, and from right to left (a hero on horseback usually gallops from left to right), and in the bushes the shkalik waits. We don’t know how the fight will end, but the winner will obviously be pleased.

As we see, Baba Yaga has long ago transformed from a mythical character into a folklore character and, at this everyday level, has acquired new qualities. It is not for nothing that she remains one of the most popular fairy-tale characters in our time. And even though she has lost her border post, she still takes part in raising children through fairy tales, plays and films.

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