Cultural achievements of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine culture brief message

In my essay, I would like to talk about the culture of Byzantium, one of the states that made a great contribution to the development of culture in Europe in the Middle Ages. In the history of world culture, Byzantium has a special, outstanding place. In artistic creativity, Byzantium gave the medieval world lofty images of literature and art, which were distinguished by noble elegance of forms, imaginative vision of thought, sophistication of aesthetic thinking, and depth of philosophical thought. In terms of its power of expressiveness and deep spirituality, Byzantium stood ahead of all the countries of medieval Europe for many centuries. The direct heir of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, Byzantium has always remained the center of a unique and truly brilliant culture. If we try to separate Byzantine culture from the culture of Europe, the Near and Middle East, then the most important factors will be the following:

• 1. In Byzantium there was a linguistic community (the main language was Greek);
• 2. In Byzantium there was a religious community (the main religion was Christianity in the form of Orthodoxy);
• 3. In Byzantium, despite all its multi-ethnicity, there was an ethnic core consisting of Greeks.
• 4. The Byzantine Empire was always distinguished by stable statehood and centralized control.

All this, of course, does not exclude the fact that Byzantine culture, which influenced many neighboring countries, was itself subject to cultural influence from both the tribes and peoples that inhabited it, and the states adjacent to it. During its thousand-year existence, Byzantium faced powerful cultural external influences emanating from countries at a similar stage of development to it - from Iran, Egypt, Syria, Transcaucasia, and later the Latin West and Ancient Rus'. On the other hand, Byzantium had to enter into various cultural contacts with peoples who were at a slightly or much lower stage of development (the Byzantines called them “barbarians”).

The process of development of Byzantium was not straightforward. It had eras of rise and decline, periods of triumph of progressive ideas and dark years of domination of reactionary ones. But the sprouts of the new, living, advanced sprouted sooner or later in all spheres of life, at all times. Folk art was an inexhaustible source of culture. Under the cover of traditions and stereotypes, a new, creative principle lived, acted and made its way.

The entire thousand-year history of Byzantium can be divided into three periods: 1st mid-IV-first half of 7th centuries.- the period of decomposition of the slave system and the formation of medieval society. 2.mid.VII-early XIII centuries.- the emergence and development of feudalism in Byzantium. 3.XII-ser. XV centuries- the last period, characterized by the further development of feudalism and the beginning of its decomposition.

The first centuries of the existence of the Byzantine state can be considered as the most important stage in the formation of the worldview of Byzantine society, based on the traditions of pagan Hellenism and the principles of Christianity. In early Byzantium new bloom experienced by the philosophy of Neoplatonism. A number of Neoplatonist philosophers appeared - Proclus, Diadochus, Plotinus, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. Neoplatonism directly adjoined and coexisted with early Byzantine philosophical thought. But Neoplatonism required from its adherents special philosophical training, special thinking, and a turn of mind.

He was elitist, that is, inaccessible to the broad masses, which reflected his historical doom. The formation of Christianity as a philosophical and religious system was a complex and lengthy process. Christianity absorbed many philosophical and religious teachings of that time. Christian dogmatics developed under the strong influence of not only religious Middle Eastern teachings, Judaism, Manichaeism, but also Neoplatonism. The dogma of the trinity of the deity, one of the central tenets of Christian doctrine, is essentially a rethought triad of Neoplatonists. However, Christianity, despite having common features with Manichaeism and Neoplatonism, is fundamentally different from Manichaean dualism and Neoplatonic monism. Christianity itself was not only a syncretic religious teaching, but also a synthetic philosophical and religious system, an important component of which were ancient philosophical teachings. This, perhaps, explains to some extent the fact that Christianity not only fought against ancient philosophy, but also used it for its own purposes. The irreconcilability of Christianity with everything that carried the stigma of paganism is being replaced by a compromise between the Christian and ancient worldviews. In Neoplatonism itself, two movements emerged: one was radical, opposed to Christianity, the other was more moderate. The supporters of a compromise with Christianity are gradually gaining the upper hand. There is a process of repulsion, isolation and at the same time rapprochement, merging of Neoplatonic philosophy and Christian theology, which ends with the absorption of Neoplatonism into Christianity.

The most educated and far-sighted Christian theologians understood the need to master the entire arsenal of pagan culture in order to use it in the creation of philosophical concepts. In the works of Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus, in the speeches of John Chrysostom, one can see a combination of the ideas of early Christianity with Neoplatonic philosophy, sometimes a paradoxical interweaving of rhetorical ideas with new ideological content. Thinkers such as Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus lay the actual foundation of Byzantine philosophy. Their philosophical constructs are deeply rooted in the history of Hellenic thinking. At the center of their philosophy is the understanding of being as perfection, which leads to a kind of justification of the cosmos, and, consequently, the world and man. In Gregory of Nyssa, this concept sometimes approaches pantheism.

During the transitional era of the death of the slave system and the formation of feudal society, fundamental changes occurred in all spheres of the spiritual life of Byzantium. A new aesthetics is born, a new system of spiritual and moral values, more consistent with the mindset and emotional needs of medieval man. Patriotic literature, biblical cosmography, liturgical poetry, monastic tales, world chronicles, Christian hagiography, imbued with a religious worldview, little by little take possession of the minds of Byzantine society and replace ancient culture.

The man himself of that era changes, his vision of the world, his attitude towards the universe, nature, and society. A new “image of the world” is being created, in comparison with antiquity, embodied in a special sign system of symbols. In place of the ancient idea of ​​a heroic personality, the ancient understanding of the world as a world of laughing gods and heroes fearlessly going to death, where the highest good is to fear nothing and hope for nothing (a very nice philosophy), comes the world of the suffering, torn by contradictions, small , a sinful person. He is infinitely humiliated and weak, but he believes in his salvation in another life and tries to find consolation in this. Christianity reveals with unprecedented intensity the painful division within the human personality. Man’s idea of ​​the cosmos, of time, of space, of the course of history is also changing: the closed historical cycles of ancient writers, conditioned by the will of God, are being replaced by the biblical vision of the progressive movement of history of early Byzantine historians and chroniclers.

In early Byzantium, one of the fundamental ideas of the Middle Ages crystallized - the idea of ​​​​the union of the Christian church and the “Christian empire”.

The spiritual life of the society of that time was characterized by dramatic tension; In all spheres of knowledge, literature and art, there is an amazing mixture of pagan and Christian ideas, images, ideas, a colorful combination of pagan mythology with Christian mysticism. The era of becoming new, medieval culture gives birth to talented thinkers, writers, and poets, sometimes marked with the stamp of genius. The individuality of the artist has not yet dissolved in church-dogmatic thinking.

Radical changes are taking place in the field of fine arts and aesthetic views of Byzantine society. Byzantine aesthetics developed on the basis of the entire spiritual culture of Byzantium. She relied heavily on ancient views about the essence of beauty, however, she synthesized and reinterpreted them in the spirit of Christian ideology.

A distinctive feature of Byzantine aesthetics was its deep spiritualism. Giving preference to the spirit over the body, she at the same time tried to remove the dualism of earthly and heavenly, divine and human, spirit and flesh. Without denying physical beauty, Byzantine thinkers placed the beauty of the soul, virtue, and moral perfection much higher. The early Christian understanding of the world as a beautiful creation of a divine artist was of great importance for the establishment of Byzantine aesthetic consciousness. That is why natural beauty was valued higher than beauty created by human hands, as if “secondary” in origin.

Byzantine art was genetically descended from Hellenistic and artistic Eastern Christian art. In the early period of Byzantine art, refined platonicism and the reverent sensuality of late antique impressionism seemed to merge with naive, sometimes rude expressiveness folk art East. For a long time, Hellenism remained the main, but not the only, source from which Byzantine masters drew elegance of forms, correct proportions, enchanting transparency of the color scheme, and technical perfection of their works. But Hellenism could not fully resist the powerful stream of eastern influences that swept through Byzantium in the first centuries of its existence. At this time, the influence of Egyptian, Syrian, Malaysian, and Iranian artistic traditions on Byzantine art was felt.

In the IV-V centuries. Late Antique traditions were still strong in the art of Byzantium. If classical ancient art was distinguished by a peaceful monism, if it did not know the struggle between spirit and body, and its aesthetic ideal embodied the harmonious unity of bodily and spiritual beauty, then already in the artistic work of late antiquity a tragic conflict of spirit and flesh is outlined. Monistic harmony gives way to clash opposite principles, “the spirit seems to be trying to throw off the shackles of the bodily shell.” Subsequently, Byzantine art overcame the conflict of spirit and body, it was replaced by calm contemplation, designed to lead a person away from the storms of earthly life into the supersensible world of pure spirit. This “pacification” occurs as a result of the recognition of the superiority of the spiritual principle over the physical, the victory of the spirit over the flesh. The main aesthetic task of Byzantine art now becomes the artist’s desire to embody a transcendental idea in an artistic image.

In the VI-VII centuries. Byzantine artists managed not only to absorb these diverse influences, but also, having overcome them, to create their own style in art. Since that time, Constantinople has become a famous artistic center medieval world, in the "Palladium of Sciences and Arts". It is followed by Ravenna, Rome, Nicaea, Thessalonica, which also became the focus of the Byzantine artistic style.

The flourishing of Byzantine art in the early period is associated with the strengthening of the power of the empire under Justinian. At that time, magnificent palaces and temples were erected in Constantinople. Built in the 30s of the 6th century, the building became an unsurpassed masterpiece of Byzantine creativity. Church of St. Sofia. For the first time, it embodied the idea of ​​a grandiose centric temple topped with a dome. The shine of multi-colored marbles, the shimmer of gold and precious utensils, the radiance of many lamps created the illusion of the boundlessness of the cathedral space, turned it into a semblance of a macrocosm, and symbolically brought it closer to the image of the Universe. No wonder it always remained the main shrine of Byzantium.

Another masterpiece of Byzantine architecture is the Church of St. Vitaliy in Ravenna - amazes with the sophistication and elegance of architectural forms. This temple gained particular fame from its famous mosaics, not only of an ecclesiastical, but also of a secular nature, in particular images of Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora and their retinue. The faces of Justinian and Theodora are endowed with portrait features, the color scheme of the mosaics is distinguished by full-blooded brightness, warmth and freshness.

In painting of the VI-VII centuries. a specifically Byzantine image, purified of foreign influences, crystallizes. It is based on the experience of masters of the East and West, who independently came to create a new art that corresponded to the spiritualistic ideals of medieval society. Various directions and schools are already appearing in this art. The capital's school, for example, was distinguished by its excellent quality of workmanship, refined artistry, picturesqueness and colorful variety, trembling and iridescent colors. One of the most perfect works of this school were the mosaics in the dome of the Church of the Assumption in Nicaea.

Other trends in the art of early Byzantium, embodied in the mosaics of Ravenna, Sinai, Thessalonica, Cyprus, Parenzo, mark the refusal of Byzantine masters from ancient reminiscences. The images become more ascetic, not only the sensual, but also the emotional moment in such art no longer has a place, but spirituality reaches extraordinary strength.

Church services turned into a kind of magnificent mystery in Byzantium. In the twilight of the vaults of Byzantine churches, many candles and lamps shone twilightly, illuminating with mysterious reflections the gold of the mosaics, the dark faces of icons, multi-colored marble colonnades, and magnificent precious utensils. All this, according to the plan of the church, was supposed to overshadow in a person’s soul the emotional elation of ancient tragedy, the healthy fun of mimes, the vain excitement of circus shows and give him joy in the everyday life of real life.

In the applied art of Byzantium, to a lesser extent than in architecture and painting, the leading line of development of Byzantine art was determined, reflecting the formation of the medieval worldview.

The vitality of ancient traditions was manifested here both in images and in forms of artistic expression. At the same time, the artistic traditions of the peoples of the East gradually penetrated here. Here, although to a lesser extent than in Western Europe, the influence of the barbarian world played a role.

Music occupied a special place in Byzantine civilization. The peculiar combination of authoritarianism and democracy could not but affect the character of musical culture, which represented a complex and multifaceted phenomenon of the spiritual life of the era. In the V-VII centuries. The formation of Christian liturgy took place, new genres of vocal art developed. Music acquires a special civil status and is included in the system of representation of state power. The music of city streets, theatrical and circus performances and folk festivals retained a special flavor, reflecting the rich song and musical practice of many peoples inhabiting the empire. Each of these types of music had its own aesthetic and social meaning and at the same time, interacting, they merged into a single and unique whole. Christianity very early appreciated the special capabilities of music as a universal art and at the same time possessing the power of mass and individual psychological influence, and included it in its cult ritual. It was cult music that was destined to occupy a dominant position in medieval Byzantium.

Mass spectacles still played a huge role in the life of the broad masses. Is it true, antique theater begins to decline - ancient tragedies and comedies are increasingly being replaced by performances of mimes, jugglers, dancers, gymnasts, and wild animal tamers. The place of the theater is now occupied by a circus (hippodrome) with its horse shows, which are extremely popular.

If we summarize the first period of the existence of Byzantium, we can say that during this period the main features of Byzantine culture were formed. First of all, they include the fact that Byzantine culture was open to other cultural influences received from outside. But gradually, already in the early period, they were synthesized by the main, leading Greco-Roman culture.

The culture of early Byzantium was an urban culture. The large cities of the empire, and primarily Constantinople, were not only centers of crafts and trade, but also centers of the highest culture and education, where the rich heritage of antiquity was preserved.

The struggle between secular and ecclesiastical cultures was especially characteristic of the first period of Byzantine history. In the history of Byzantine culture, the first centuries of the existence of Byzantium were a time of acute ideological struggle, collisions of contradictory tendencies, complex ideological collisions, but also a time of fruitful quest, intense spiritual creativity, positive development of science and art. These were centuries when, in the throes of the struggle between the old and the new, the culture of the future medieval society was born.

In the second stage of cultural development, which began in the second half of the 7th century. to the 12th century, they distinguish the time of iconoclasm (the second quarter of the 8th century - the 40s of the 9th century, the reign of the emperors of the Macedonian dynasty (the so-called "Macedonian Renaissance": 867-1056, and the time of the reign of the Comnenos ("Comnenos Revival": 1081-1185 gg.).

By the middle of the 7th century, the defining feature of the spiritual life of the empire was the undivided dominance of the Christian worldview. Deep religiosity was now simulated not so much by dogmatic disputes as by the offensive of Islam, which was waged by the Arabs, inspired by the “holy war” and the fight against the pagans - the Slavs and pro-Bulgarians. The role of the church increased even more. The instability of the foundations of life, the economic and everyday disorder of the masses of the population, poverty and constant danger from an external enemy sharpened the religious feeling of the subjects of the empire: the spirit of humility before the vicissitudes of “this world”, resigned submission to “spiritual shepherds”, boundless faith in miracles and signs, salvation through self-denial and prayer. The class of monks rapidly increased, and the number of monasteries multiplied. As never before, the cult of saints flourished, especially the worship of those known only in a given locality, district, city; All hopes were pinned on them as their “own” heavenly intercessors.

The widespread dissemination of superstitions helped the church to dominate the minds of parishioners, increase its wealth and strengthen its position. This was also facilitated by a decrease in the level of literacy of the population and an extreme narrowing of secular knowledge.

However, the triumph of theology and the assertion of its dominance through violence were fraught with a serious danger - theology could be powerless in the face of criticism from infidels and heretics. Like any ideological system, Christianity needed development. The need for this was recognized in the narrow circles of the church elite, who preserved the traditions of high religious and secular education. Systematization of theology became the primary task, and for this it was necessary to again resort to the spiritual treasures of antiquity - without its idealistic theories and formal logic, the new tasks of theologians were impossible.

The search for original philosophical and theological solutions was undertaken already in the second half of the 7th century, although the most outstanding works in this area were created in the next century. Characteristic in this regard is the fact that against the general background of the decline of culture in the middle of the 7th century, in essence only theology experienced a certain rise: this was required by the vital interests of the ruling elite, passed off as the urgent need of the broadest layers of society.

Regardless of the fact that Maximus the Confessor was persecuted by Emperor Constant II himself, the theoretical quests of this theologian met the needs of the ruling class; Without them, by the way, the manifestation of the “Source of Knowledge” of Damascus would have been impossible.

The basis of Maxim’s theological constructions is the idea of ​​the reunification of man with God (through bridging the gap between the spiritual and the carnal) as the reunification of the root cause of all things, the whole with its part. In the ascent to the spiritual, Maxim assigned an active role to the person himself, to his free will.

John of Damascus set himself and accomplished two main tasks: he subjected sharp criticism enemies of orthodoxy (Nestorians, Manichaeans, iconoclasts) and systematized theology as a worldview, as a special system of ideas about God, the creation of the world and man, defining its place in this world and the other world. Compilation (in accordance with Damascene's motto "I love nothing of my own") based on Aristotelian logic represented the main method of his work. He also used the natural scientific ideas of the ancients, but carefully selected from them, as well as from the dogmas of his theologian predecessors, only that which in no way contradicted the canons of the ecumenical councils.

In essence, Damascus's work, even by medieval standards, lacks originality. His works played a major role in the ideological struggle against iconoclasm, but not because they contained new arguments in defense of traditional ideas and religious rituals, but because they eliminated contradictions from church dogmas and brought them into a coherent system.

A significant step forward in the development of theological science, in the development of new ideas concerning the problems of the relationship between spirit and matter, the expression of thought and its perception, the relationship between God and man, was made during fierce disputes between iconoclasts and icon worshipers.

But in general, until the middle of the 9th century. philosophers and theologians remained within the circle of traditional ideas of late antique Christianity.

The ideological struggle of the era of iconoclasm, which took an acute political form, and the spread of the Paulican heresy made it absolutely obvious the need to increase the education of the clergy and representatives of the upper strata of society. In the context of a general rise in spiritual culture, a new direction in the scientific and philosophical thought of Byzantium emerged in the work of Patriarch Photius, who did more than anyone else before him for the revival and development of sciences in the empire. Photius made a new assessment and selection of scientific and literary works of the previous era and the present, based not only on church teaching, but also on considerations of rationalism and practical benefit, and trying to explain the causes of natural phenomena through natural science knowledge. The rise of rationalistic thought in the era of Photius, accompanied by a new increase in interest in antiquity, became even more noticeable in the 11th-12th centuries.

It is noteworthy, however, that simultaneously with this trend, as quite often happened in Byzantium, purely mystical theological theories were developed and deepened. One of these theories, created at the turn of the X-XI centuries. and which did not receive wide recognition in the 11th-12th centuries, a major ideological and political role was determined in the future: it formed the basis of a powerful movement in the Orthodox Church in the 14th-16th centuries. - hesychasm. We are talking about the mysticism of Simeon the New Theologian, who developed the thesis about the possibility for a person of real unity with the deity, the connection of the sensory and mental (spiritual) world through mystical introspection, deep humility and “mental prayer”.

Even in the time of Photius, contradictions in the interpretation of the idealistic concepts of antiquity between the adherents of Aristotle and Plato were clearly revealed. After an era of long-term preference given by Byzantine theologians to the teachings of Aristotle, from the 11th century. in the development of philosophical thought there was a turn towards platonism and neoplatonism. A prominent representative of this particular direction was Mikhail Psell. For all his admiration for ancient thinkers and for all his dependence on the positions of the classics of antiquity that he quoted, Psellus remained nevertheless a very original (“artistic”) philosopher, able, like no one else, to combine and reconcile the theses of ancient philosophy and Christian spiritualism, to subordinate to orthodox dogmatics even the mysterious prophecies of the occult sciences.

However, no matter how careful and skillful the attempts of the intellectual Byzantine elite were to preserve and cultivate the rationalistic elements of ancient science, a sharp clash turned out to be inevitable: an example of this is the excommunication and condemnation of the philosopher John Italus, a student of Psellus. Plato's ideas were driven into the rigid framework of theology. Rationalistic tendencies in Byzantine philosophy will not revive soon, only in the context of the growing crisis of the 13th-15th centuries, especially in the conditions of a fierce struggle with mystics - hesychasts.

The general decline in creative activity during the “Dark Ages” had a particularly strong impact on the state of Byzantine literature. Vulgarization, lack of literary taste, “dark” style, stereotyped characteristics and situations - all this established itself for a long time as the dominant features of works of literature created in the second half of the 7th - first half of the 9th century. Imitation of ancient models no longer found an echo in society. The main customer and connoisseur of literary work was the black clergy. Monks were often the authors of lives. Hagiography and liturgical poetry came to light foreground. The preaching of asceticism, humility, hopes for a miracle and otherworldly reward, the glorification of religious feats is the main ideological content of literature of this kind.

Byzantine hagiography reached particular heights in the 9th century. In the middle of the 10th century. about one and a half hundred of the most popular lives were processed and rewritten by the prominent chronicler Simeon Metaphrastus (Logothetus). The decline of the genre became apparent in the 11th century: instead of naive but lively descriptions, dry schemes, stereotyped images, and stenciled scenes of the lives of saints began to dominate.

At the same time, the hagiographic genre, which invariably enjoyed wide popularity among the masses, had a noticeable influence on the development of Byzantine literature in both the 10th and 11th centuries. Vulgarization was often combined with vivid imagery, realistic descriptions, vitality of details, and dynamism of the plot. Among the heroes of the lives there were often the poor and the offended, who, committing martyrdom for the glory of God, boldly entered into the struggle with the strong and rich, with injustice, untruth and evil. The note of humanism and mercy is an integral element of many Byzantine lives.

Religious themes dominated this era in poetic works as well. Some of them were directly related to liturgical poetry (church chants, hymns), some were dedicated, like hagiography, to the glorification of religious feats. Thus, Fyodor the Studite sought to poeticize monastic ideals and the very routine of monastic life.

Renaissance literary tradition, which consisted in focusing on the masterpieces of antiquity and in their rethinking, became especially noticeable in the 11th-12th centuries, which affected the choice of subjects, genres, and artistic forms. As in antiquity, epistolography, replete with reminiscences from ancient Greco-Roman mythology, became a means of vividly emotional storytelling and self-expression of the author, rising to the level of exquisite prose. During this period, plots and forms of both Eastern and Western literature were boldly borrowed.

Translations and revisions from Arabic and Latin are carried out. Experiments with poetic compositions in folk, spoken language appear. For the first time in the history of Byzantium since the 4th century. took shape and began to gradually expand from the 12th century. cycle of vernacular literature. Enrichment of the ideological and artistic content of literature by strengthening the folklore tradition, heroic epic most clearly appears in the epic poem about Digenis Akrit, created on the basis of a cycle of folk songs in the 10th-11th centuries. Folklore motifs also penetrate into the Hellenistic love-adventure novel, which was revived at that time.

The second period also saw the flourishing of Byzantine aesthetics. Development of aesthetic thought in the VIII-IX centuries. was stimulated by the struggle over cult images. Icon worshipers had to summarize the main Christian concepts of the image and, on their basis, develop a theory of the relationship between the image and the archetype, primarily in relation to the fine arts. The functions of the image in the spiritual culture of the past were studied, comparative analysis symbolic and mystical (imitative) images - the relationship of the image to the word is comprehended in a new way, the problem of the priority of painting in religious culture is posed.

The antique direction of aesthetics, which was guided by the ancient criteria of beauty, received the most complete development in that era. Interest in the physical (bodily) beauty of a person was revived; received new life the aesthetics of eroticism, condemned by religious rigorists; Secular art again enjoyed special attention. The theory of symbolism, especially the concept of allegory, also gained new impulses; gardening art began to be valued; The revival also affected dramatic art, the understanding of which was devoted to special works.

In general, aesthetic thought in Byzantium in the 8th-12th centuries. reached, perhaps, the highest point of its development, exerting a strong influence on the artistic practice of a number of other countries in Europe and Asia.

The crisis phenomena of the transitional era in Byzantine culture were especially protracted in the field of fine arts of the 7th-9th centuries, the fate of which was affected more strongly than in other industries by iconoclasm. Development of the most popular, religious types of fine arts (icon painting and fresco painting) resumed only after 843, i.e. after the victory of icon veneration.

The peculiarity of the new stage was that, on the one hand, the influence of the ancient tradition noticeably increased, and on the other, the iconographic canon developed in that era with its stable norms concerning the choice of plot, the relationship of figures, their very poses, acquired more and more stable frameworks. selection of colors, distribution of light and shade, etc. This canon would later be strictly followed by Byzantine artists. The creation of a pictorial stencil was accompanied by increased stylization, designed to serve the purpose of conveying through visual image not so much the human face as the religious idea contained in this image.

During this period, the art of color mosaic images reached a new peak. In the IX-XI centuries. Old monuments were also restored. Mosaics were also renewed in the church of St. Sofia. New stories appeared that reflected the idea of ​​a union of church and state.

In the IX-X centuries. The decoration of manuscripts became significantly richer and more complex, and book miniatures and ornaments became richer and more varied. However, a truly new period in the development of book miniatures falls on

XI-XII centuries, when the Constantinople school of masters in this field of art flourished. In that era, in general, the leading role in painting in general (in icon painting, miniature, fresco) was acquired by metropolitan schools, marked by the stamp of special perfection of taste and technique.

In the VII-VIII centuries. In the temple construction of Byzantium and the countries of the Byzantine cultural circle, the same cross-domed composition, which arose in the 6th century, dominated. and was characterized by a weakly expressed external decorative design. The decoration of the facade acquired great importance in the 9th-10th centuries, when a new architectural style arose and became widespread. The emergence of a new style was associated with the flourishing of cities, the strengthening of the public role of the church, a change in the social content of the very concept of sacred architecture in general and temple construction in particular (the temple as an image of the world). Many new temples were erected, big number monasteries, although they were usually small in size.

In addition to changes in decorative design buildings, the architectural forms and the very composition of buildings changed. The importance of vertical lines and divisions of the facade increased, which also changed the silhouette of the temple. Builders increasingly resorted to using patterned brickwork. The features of the new architectural style appeared in a number of local schools. For example, in Greece X-XII centuries. the preservation of some archaic architectural forms is typical (not the dismemberment of the façade plane, the traditional forms of small churches) - with the further development and growth of the influence of the new style - patterned brick decor and polychrome plastic were also increasingly used here.

In the VIII-XII centuries. A special musical and poetic church art took shape. Thanks to his high artistic merits, the influence of folk music on church music, whose melodies had previously penetrated even into the liturgy, has weakened. In order to further isolate the musical foundations of worship from external influences the canonization of the mode-tonal system - "octoecho" (eight-voices) was carried out. Ikos represented certain melodic formulas. However, musical theoretical monuments allow us to conclude that the ikos system did not exclude scale understanding. The most popular genres of church music were the canon (musical and poetic composition during a church service) and the troparion (almost the main unit of Byzantine hymnography). Troparions were composed for all holidays, all solemn events and memorable dates.

The progress of musical art led to the creation of musical notation, as well as liturgical handwritten collections in which chants were recorded (either just the text or text with notation).

Social life also could not exist without music. The book “On the Ceremonies of the Byzantine Court” reports almost 400 chants. These are procession songs, and songs during equestrian processions, and songs at the imperial feast, and acclamation songs, etc.

From the 9th century In the circles of the intellectual elite, interest in ancient musical culture grew, although this interest was predominantly of a theoretical nature: attention was attracted not so much by the music itself, but by the works of ancient Greek music theorists.

As a result of the second period, I would like to say that Byzantium at this time reached its highest power and the highest point of cultural development. In the social development and evolution of the culture of Byzantium, contradictory trends are obvious, due to its middle position between East and West.

The third period (XII-XIV centuries) can be briefly described as the highest point in the development of feudalism and the collapse of the Byzantine Empire. Due to the lack of material on this period, I will only say that, despite the fact that Byzantium existed 1000 years longer

The Great Roman Empire, it was conquered in the 14th century. Seljuk Turks. But, despite this, Byzantium made a huge contribution to the development of world culture. Its basic principles and cultural trends were transferred to neighboring states. Almost all the time, medieval Europe developed on the basis of the achievements of Byzantine culture. Byzantium can be called the “second Rome”, because its contribution to the development of Europe and the whole world is in no way inferior to the Roman Empire.

During the Middle Ages, it is especially important to emphasize the role of Byzantium (IV - mid-XV centuries). She was the only one left guardian of Hellenistic cultural traditions. However, Byzantium significantly transformed the legacy of late antiquity, creating an artistic style that already entirely belonged to the spirit and letter of the Middle Ages. Moreover, in the medieval European art It was the Byzantine that was most orthodox Christian.

The following periods are distinguished in the history of Byzantine culture:

1st period(IV - mid-VII centuries) - Byzantium becomes the successor to the Roman Empire. There is a transition from antique To medieval culture. Proto-Byzantine culture of this period was still urban in nature, but gradually monasteries became centers of cultural life. The formation of Christian theology occurs while preserving the achievements of ancient scientific thought.

2nd period(mid 7th - mid 9th centuries) - there is a cultural decline associated with economic decline, agrarianization of cities and the loss of a number of eastern provinces and cultural centers (Antioch, Alexandria). Center for industrial development, trade, cultural life, Constantinople became the “golden gate” between East and West for the Byzantines.

3rd period(middle of the 10th-12th centuries) - a period of ideological reaction, caused by the economic and political decline of Byzantium. In 1204, the crusaders, during the 4th Crusade, carried out the division of Byzantium. Constantinople becomes the capital of a new state - the Latin Empire. The Orthodox patriarchate is replaced by the Catholic one.

In world culture, Byzantine civilization belongs special place. Throughout its thousand-year existence, the Byzantine Empire, which absorbed heritage of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, was the center of a unique and truly brilliant culture. Byzantine culture is characterized by the flourishing of art, the development of scientific and philosophical thought, and serious successes in the field of education. During the period of the X-XI centuries. The school of secular sciences became widespread in Constantinople. Until the 13th century. Byzantium, in terms of the level of development of education, the intensity of spiritual life and the colorful sparkle of objective forms of culture, was undoubtedly ahead of all the countries of medieval Europe.

The first Byzantine concepts in the field of culture and aesthetics were formed in the IV-VI centuries. They were a fusion of the ideas of Hellenistic Neoplatonism and early medieval patristics (Gregory of Nyssa, John Chrysostom, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite). The Christian God as the source of “absolute beauty” becomes the ideal of early Byzantine culture. In the works of Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa, in the speeches of John Chrysostom, the foundation of medieval Christian theology and philosophy was laid. At the center of philosophical quests is the understanding of being as good, which provides a kind of justification for the cosmos, and, consequently, for the world and man. In the late Byzantine period, the widest knowledge of famous philosophers, theologians, philologists, rhetoricians - George Gemistus Plitho, Dmitry Kidonis, Manuel Chrysolor, Vissarion of Nicaea, etc. - aroused the admiration of Italian humanists. Many of them became students and followers of Byzantine scientists.

The 8th - 9th centuries marked a qualitatively new stage in the development of Byzantine artistic culture. During this period, Byzantine society experienced troubled times, the source of which was the struggle for power between the capital and provincial nobility. A movement has arisen iconoclasm, directed against the cult of icons, declared a relic of idolatry. In the course of their struggle, both iconoclasts and icon-worshippers caused great harm artistic culture, destroying numerous art monuments. However, this same struggle formed a new type of vision of the world - exquisite abstract symbolism with decorative patterns. In the development of artistic creativity, the struggle of iconoclasts against the sensual, glorifying human body and physical perfection, Hellenistic art. Iconoclastic artistic representations paved the way for deeply spiritualistic art of the 10th - 11th centuries. and prepared the victory of sublime spirituality and abstract symbolism in all spheres of Byzantine culture in subsequent centuries.

Features of Byzantine culture include:

1) synthesis of Western and Eastern elements in various spheres of the material and spiritual life of society with the dominant position of Greco-Roman traditions;

2) preservation to a large extent of the traditions of ancient civilization;

3) The Byzantine Empire, unlike the fragmented medieval Europe, retained state political doctrines, which left its mark on various spheres of culture, namely: with the ever-increasing influence of Christianity, secular artistic creativity never faded;

4) the difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism, which was manifested in the originality of the philosophical and theological views of Orthodox theologians and philosophers of the East, in the system of Christian ethical and aesthetic values ​​of Byzantium.

Recognizing their culture as the highest achievement of humanity, the Byzantines consciously protected themselves from foreign influences. Only from the 11th century. they began to draw on the experience of Arab medicine and translate monuments of oriental literature. Later, interest arose in Arabic and Persian mathematics, Latin scholasticism and literature. Among the scientists of an encyclopedic nature, writing on a wide range of problems - from mathematics to theology and fiction, we should highlight John of Damascus (8th century), Michael Psellus
(XI century), Nikephoros Blemmid (III century), Theodore Metochites (XIV century).

The desire for systematization and traditionalism, characteristic of Byzantine culture, were especially clearly manifested in legal science, which began with systematization Roman law, compilation of codes civil law, the most significant of which is Justinian's Codification.

The contribution of Byzantine civilization to the development of world culture is invaluable. It consisted primarily in the fact that Byzantium became a “golden bridge” between Western and eastern cultures; it had a deep and lasting impact on the development of cultures in many countries of medieval Europe. The area of ​​distribution of the influence of Byzantine culture is very extensive: Sicily, Southern Italy, Dalmatia, the states of the Balkan Peninsula, Ancient Rus', Transcaucasia, the North Caucasus and Crimea - all of them, to one degree or another, came into contact with Byzantine education, which contributed to further progressive development of their cultures.

At the beginning of the Middle Ages, Byzantium did not experience such a cultural decline as Western Europe. She became an heiress cultural achievements the ancient world and the countries of the East.

1. Development of education. In the 7th-8th centuries, when Byzantium's possessions declined, Greek became the official language of the empire. The state needed well-trained officials. They had to competently draw up laws, decrees, contracts, wills, conduct correspondence and court cases, respond to petitioners, and copy documents. Often educated people achieved high positions, and with them came power and wealth.

Not only in the capital, but also in small towns and large villages, children of ordinary people who were able to pay for education could study in primary schools. Therefore, even among peasants and artisans there were literate people.

Along with church schools, public and private schools were opened in cities. They taught reading, writing, arithmetic and church singing. In addition to the Bible and other religious books, the schools studied the works of ancient scientists, the poems of Homer, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles, the works of Byzantine scientists and writers; solved quite complex arithmetic problems.

In the 9th century, a higher school was opened in Constantinople, at the imperial palace. It taught religion, mythology, history, geography, and literature.

2. Scientific knowledge. The Byzantines preserved ancient knowledge of mathematics and used it to calculate tax amounts, in astronomy, and in construction. They also widely used the inventions and writings of great Arab scientists - doctors, philosophers and others. Through the Greeks, Western Europe learned about these works. In Byzantium itself there were many scientists and creative people. Leo the Mathematician (9th century) invented sound alarms for transmitting messages over a distance, automatic devices in the throne room of the imperial palace, driven by water - they were supposed to capture the imagination of foreign ambassadors.

Medical textbooks were compiled. To teach the art of medicine, in the 11th century, a medical school (the first in Europe) was created at the hospital of one of the monasteries in Constantinople.

The development of crafts and medicine gave impetus to the study of chemistry; Ancient recipes for making glass, paints, and medicines were preserved. “Greek fire” was invented - an incendiary mixture of oil and tar that cannot be extinguished with water. With the help of “Greek fire,” the Byzantines won many victories in battles at sea and on land.

The Byzantines accumulated a lot of knowledge in geography. They knew how to draw maps and city plans. Merchants and travelers wrote descriptions of different countries and peoples.

History developed especially successfully in Byzantium. Vivid, interesting works by historians were created on the basis of documents, eyewitness accounts, and personal observations.

3. Architecture. Christian religion changed the purpose and structure of the temple. In an ancient Greek temple, a statue of the god was placed inside, and religious ceremonies were held outside in the square. Therefore, they tried to make the appearance of the temple especially elegant. Christians gathered for common prayer inside the church, and the architects cared about the beauty of not only the external, but also its internal premises.

The Christian church's plan was divided into three parts: the vestibule - a room at the western, main entrance; nave (ship in French) - the elongated main part of the temple where believers gathered for prayer; an altar where only clergy could enter. With its apses - semicircular vaulted niches that protruded outwards, the altar faced the east, where, according to Christian ideas, the center of the earth Jerusalem is located with Mount Golgotha ​​- the site of the crucifixion of Christ. In large temples, rows of columns separated the wider and higher main nave from the side naves, of which there could be two or four.

A remarkable work of Byzantine architecture was the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. Justinian did not skimp on expenses: he wanted to make this temple the main and largest church of the entire Christian world. The temple was built by 10 thousand people over five years. Its construction was supervised by famous architects and decorated by the best artisans.

The Church of Hagia Sophia was called “a miracle of miracles” and was sung in verse. Inside it amazed with its size and beauty. A giant dome with a diameter of 31 m seems to grow from two half-domes; each of them rests, in turn, on three small semi-domes. Along the base, the dome is surrounded by a wreath of 40 windows. It seems that the dome, like the vault of heaven, floats in the air.

In the 10th-11th centuries, instead of an elongated rectangular building, a cross-domed church was established. In plan, it looked like a cross with a dome in the middle, mounted on a round elevation - a drum. There were many churches, and they became smaller in size: the inhabitants of a city block, a village, or a monastery gathered in them. The temple looked lighter, directed upward. To decorate its exterior, they used multi-colored stone, brick patterns, and alternated layers of red brick and white mortar.

4. Painting. In Byzantium, earlier than in Western Europe, the walls of temples and palaces began to be decorated with mosaics - images made of multi-colored stones or pieces of colored opaque glass - smalt. Smalt

strengthened with different inclinations in wet plaster. The mosaic, reflecting the light, flashed, sparkled, flickered with bright multi-colored colors. Later, the walls began to be decorated with frescoes - paintings painted with water paints on wet plaster.

There was a canon in the design of temples - strict rules for the depiction and placement of biblical scenes. The temple was a model of the world. The more important the image was, the higher it was placed in the temple.

The eyes and thoughts of those entering the church turned primarily to the dome: it was represented as the vault of heaven - the abode of the deity. Therefore, a mosaic or fresco depicting Christ surrounded by angels was often placed in the dome. From the dome the gaze moved to the upper part of the wall above the altar, where the figure of the Mother of God reminded us of the connection between God and man. In 4-pillar churches, on sails - triangles formed by large arches, frescoes with images of the four authors of the Gospels were often placed: Saints Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.

Moving around the church, the believer, admiring the beauty of its decoration, seemed to be making a journey through the Holy Land - Palestine. On the upper parts of the walls, artists unfolded episodes from the earthly life of Christ in the order as they are described in the Gospels. Below were depicted those whose activities are connected with Christ: prophets (messengers of God) who predicted his coming; apostles - his disciples and followers; martyrs who suffered for the sake of faith; saints who spread the teachings of Christ; kings as his earthly governors. In the western part of the temple, pictures of hell or Last Judgment after the second coming of Christ.

In the depiction of faces, attention was drawn to the expression of emotional experiences: huge eyes, a large forehead, thin lips, an elongated oval face - everything spoke of high thoughts, spirituality, purity, holiness. The figures were placed on a gold or blue background. They appear flat and frozen, and their facial expressions are solemn and concentrated. The flat image was created specifically for the church: wherever a person went, he everywhere met the faces of saints turned to him.

In medieval art there was a special idea of ​​perspective. The masters tried to draw attention to the most important things in the image with their sizes. The figure of Christ was depicted as larger than the rest, and towers, trees, buildings - smaller in size than the people standing nearby.

Icons were placed in churches and dwellings - picturesque images of God, the Mother of God, scenes from the Bible on smooth wooden boards. Unlike mosaics and frescoes, an icon can be moved from place to place, sent as a gift, or taken with you on a hike. One of the most revered icons - “Our Lady of Vladimir” - was brought to Rus' from Byzantium. It was not by chance that paintings, icons and frescoes, and sculptures of churches were called the “Bible for the illiterates”: after all, ordinary people could not or did not know how to read the Bible. This is even more true in Western Europe, where the Bible was copied and read in Latin, and not in the local languages ​​spoken by the people. Only church images and sermons of priests introduced ordinary people to the content of Christianity.

5. Cultural connections of Byzantium. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, Byzantium was the most cultural country in Europe. Kings, princes, bishops of other countries, and most of all Italy, invited architects, artists and jewelers from Byzantium. Inquisitive young men went to Constantinople to study mathematics, medicine, and Roman laws. Architects and artists from European countries studied with Byzantine masters.

Byzantine culture had a particularly strong influence on the culture of the Slavs. Bulgaria, Serbia and Rus' adopted the Christian faith from Byzantium. The Slavic alphabet was brought to Rus' by the Bulgarians who studied with the Greeks (see below). Many books have been translated from Greek into Slavic. The first stone churches in Rus' were built and decorated by craftsmen invited from Byzantium. The culture of Armenia and Georgia, where Christianity established itself at the end of the 4th century, also experienced the strong influence of Byzantium. In Byzantium, many manuscripts of Greek, Roman and Eastern scientists and writers were preserved and thanks to this have come to us.

BYZANTINE CULTURE

culture of Byzantium (4th-15th centuries). In contrast to Western Europe, Eastern Europe experienced relatively weak cultural influences from barbarian tribes. At the same time, V. K. drew a lot from antiquity. heritage, as well as from the culture of the peoples inhabiting Byzantium (Syrians, Armenians, Slavs, etc.); she was influenced by Arab. culture. Education was based not only on the priesthood. Scripture, but also on the poems of Homer; antique the authors were rewritten and studied. However, the development of antiquity. traditions were, as a rule, scholastic: they acquired the power of unquestioning authority; hence the appearance of various compilations and dictionaries, imitation of art. techniques of ancient authors, preservation of classics. Greek language As elsewhere, an ideology that reflected the interests of the domination. class, existed in Byzantium along with the ideology of the opposition. circles and ideology of the people. wt. Ideology of domination. class, although it retained its antique appearance. traditions, rejected the antique. ideal harmonious development of a free personality; it was based on the church. ascetic the ideal of humiliating the flesh before the spirit, ultimately expressing the idea of ​​humility. Despotic. Byzantine character. The state resulted in the establishment of strict control over ideological life, which gave rise to servility before those in power and unbridled praise of the ruling emperor, the dominance of stereotyped images and phrases, and the fear of bold thought. The most important center of official V.K. existed until the 12th century. Constantinople, from the 12th century. Ch. provincial centers became the centers of V.. centers, monasteries and fiefs. estates. Opposition elements (city circles, certain layers of the feudal class) sought to counter the apology of autocracy with the doctrine (albeit inconsistent) of human freedom. personality, as well as criticism of "tyranny". Nar. culture found its expression in epics and fables, in songs in spoken language. (which differed from the literary one), where emperors were sometimes ridiculed in festivities that preserved the language. forms, in the speeches of the leaders of the bears, whose performances were a parody of judges and rich people, etc.

The history of the development of V. k. can be divided into the following. periods: 1) 4-con.

7th centuries - a period characterized by the struggle of an aging civilization of a decaying slave owner. society, within which elements of feudalism are already emerging, with a new ideology; Christ The church not only fights against antiquity. culture, but also strives to give a classic. heritage theologian. coloring, processing it in the spirit of Christ. theology (the decline of the late antique polis in the 6th-7th centuries and the invasions of barbarians had an unfavorable effect on the state of the ancient world). 2) Con. 7-ser. 9th centuries - a period of cultural decline due to the reduction of crafts. production and trade, general agrarianization, economic. decline. 3) Ser. 9th-10th centuries - a new cultural upsurge in Constantinople, which spread in the 10th century. to provincial cities; 4) 11-12 centuries. - the period of the highest development of ancient history, due to the rise of the Byzantine Empire. cities. 5) Con. 12-13 centuries - a period of cultural decline associated with economics. and political the decline of the empire in the end. 12th century, aggravated by the capture and barbaric plunder of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204. 6) 14 - beginning. 15th centuries - a new rise in V. k. in the conditions of the emergence of humanistic. ideology and bitterness. the struggle of reaction against the sprouts of the Byzantine Empire. humanism, which remained limited: the main thing in it was not the struggle for freedom of thought, but the formal restoration of antiquity. education. The weakness of the Byzantines. humanism was rooted in the limitations of early capitalism. development in Byzantium.

Education. In the 4th-7th centuries. the traditions of antiquity were maintained. education, old scientific knowledge was preserved. centers (Athens, Alexandria, Beirut, Gaza), a new one arose - Constantinople. From the end 7th century higher education has virtually disappeared; revived only in the 9th century. (Magnaurian school in Constantinople). In 1045 it was founded. University of Constantinople with 2 departments: legal and philosophical. At the Church of St. The highest medical school was created by the Apostles. school. In the end 13th century Mystras becomes a major center of V.K. Elementary schools (private or church-monastic) existed primarily. in cities. Antique society With the victory of Christianity, the libraries were destroyed (the Constantinople library of 120 thousand books perished in the late 5th century). Despite the spread of bombycin paper (already in the 11th century), books (until the 14th century) were copied primarily. on parchment and were very expensive, the libraries of monasteries and private individuals were small.

Mathematics. In mathematics, commentary on op. antique authors, primarily Euclid and Archimedes (Theon of Alexandria (4th century) and the Neoplatonist philosopher Proclus Diadochos (c. 412-485); the latter owns a commentary on the first book of Euclid’s Elements with a consideration of the postulate of parallel lines). In the 6th century. Eutokius of Ascalon commented on Archimedes and Apollonius. From independent. prod. interesting are the studies of the cross-section of a cone and a cylinder by Serenus of Antinaeus (4th century) and the treatise on arithmetic by Domnin (515-585). Math. knowledge was put into practice: Sinesius of Cyrene (c. 370 - c. 413) improved the astrolabe, which contributed to the development of navigation. affairs. Anthemius of Tralles left op. “About surprising mechanisms”, where he gave an explanation of optical engineering. properties of burning mirrors. In the 1st half. 7th century Stephen of Alexandria wrote a treatise on the design of the astrolabe. Although later mathematics was mainly reduced to commenting on antiquity. samples (primarily Heron), however, some new points were introduced: in the 9-11 centuries. the application of Indian numerals to Arabic begins. writing, which, however, has not received wide circulation; in the 9th century Leo the Mathematician used letters. notations as symbols, laying the foundations of algebra. From the end 13th century interest in mathematics intensified: mathematical. problems are considered in spec. the works of John Pediasim, Maximus Planud, Manuel Moschopul, Isaac Argir. Despite the generally compilative nature of these works, the presence of interest in the exact sciences is indicative of the last (“humanistic”) period of V. k.

Geography. All R. 4th century Kastorius compiled a road map of Rome. empire (from the British Isles to Ceylon), indicating a relatively high level of geographical knowledge. The anonymous author, a Syrian by origin, compiled " Full description world and peoples", which gave a detailed description of the economy and culture of the countries of the East, the customs and morals of the eastern peoples, as well as a description of trade routes and the most important economic centers of the Roman Empire. In the 6th century, Hierocles in the Synecdemus gave a list of provinces and cities of the Byzantine Empire, which served as a model for a number of later state and church reference books.

Cosmography. Astronomy. All R. 6th century Cosmas Indicoplov wrote "Christian Topography". Setting out to refute the Ptolemaic system as contrary to the Bible, Cosmas argued that the earth has the shape of a flat quadrangle, like an ark, surrounded by the ocean and covered by the vault of heaven. This is Op. meant a step back in ideas about the structure of the Universe. However, it contained valuable information about the nature and animal world, about the life and customs of the population of Arabia and the East. Africa, which Cosmas visited himself, and India, which he wrote about from the words of eyewitnesses. In Byzantium, antiquity. cosmogonic ideas were preserved in the 9th century. Photius polemicized against the naive cosmogony of Cosmas. Astronomical observations were subordinated to the interests of astrology, which often became a weapon in politics. struggle. In the 12th century A discussion arose about astrology, the merits of which were defended by Manuel Komnenos. In the 14th century appeared op. in astronomy, taking into account the achievements of the Arab. scientists ("Basic principles of astronomy and science" by Theodore Metochites).

Chemistry and its companion alchemy were inextricably linked with the needs of the craft. production Means. reached the level in the 4th-7th centuries. production of paints and glass. Chemistry served the arts. crafts - making ceramics. products, mosaic smalt, enamels. She played a major role in medicine. There are known recipes for certain dyes and medicines, as well as special ones. instructions for their manufacture. Stephen of Alexandria created a treatise on alchemy, where he raised the question of the production of gold. Chemical scientists in early Byzantium, apparently, already used special. designations of chemistry, substances, which are the predecessors of the designations of elements. Huge practical The invention was important in Byzantium in the 7th century. Greek fire. In 678, the Syrian architect Kalinnik first proposed using it in a naval battle against the Arabs. the ships will be set on fire. a mixture that produces a flame that cannot be extinguished by water and even ignites upon contact with water. Composition Greek fire was kept a deep secret for a long time; it was later found that it consisted of oil mixed with asphalt, resins, quicklime and other flammable substances. Greek invention fire provided Byzantium with an advantage in naval battles for a long time.

Medicine. In medicine, along with the study of op. Galen and Hippocrates were created independently. works summarizing medical experience. Large honey the center was Alexandria, where anatomy was studied. The physician Oribasius from Pergamum (326-403) compiled medical information. encyclopedia in 76 books. (collection of extracts from the works of ancient physicians and a generalization of the author’s personal experience). To 2nd half. 4th century includes the activities of the doctor Philagry (diagnosis and therapy of diseases of the liver and spleen) and Posidonius (an attempt to localize mental abilities in various parts of the brain). In the 6th century. the doctor Aetius from Amida compiled a manual on medicine in 16 books, Alexander of Trallsky - a work on pathology and internal therapy. diseases, later translated into Latin, Syriac, Arabic. and ev. language Paul of Aegina (7th century) was the author of a manual on surgery and obstetrics, which later became famous among the Arabs. In the subsequent period, the Byzantines used not only antique. heritage, but also works of the Arab. doctors: already in the 10th century. Op. was translated. Abu Jafar Ahmed; later Simeon Seth in his book “On the Effects of Food” used not only Galen, but also modern. Arab. recipes. Arab. traditions were also used by the late Byzantines. anatomists and pharmacologists, including I. Nicholas Mirens (late 13th century), op. which, according to the pharmacopoeia, enjoyed authority in the West until the 17th century. Honey. service was at a relatively high level: for example, in Constantinople in the 12th century. a hospital was created with 5 departments with special staff of doctors.

Natural science. Early Byzantine. the period is not rich in serious scientific research. labors; zoology and botany were purely applied, descriptive. character. In the 5th-6th centuries. Timothy from Gaza wrote a treatise on the animals of India (extracted from the works of ancient authors). Peculiar Christians. encyclopedias of natural science became the so-called. "Six Days", based on the Bible. the legend about the “creation of the world” in 6 days. The most famous were the “Six Days” of Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nyssa, in which an attempt was made to rethink the ancient. ideas about the world from the viewpoint Christ theology. Along with this, they contained information about animals and plants, the world, based on observations of living nature. Those created in the first centuries AD were widespread. e. collections of natural history information about animals, so-called. The "physiologists", who have now acquired the church. coloring and theological-allegorical. interpretation. Needs s. farms urgently demanded the expansion and systematization of agricultural technology. knowledge. In the 4th century. Anatoly from Beirut and Didymius from Alexandria created treatises on agronomy, summarizing the accumulated agricultural technology. experience. In the 10th century their treatises were used as the basis for the compilation collection. "Geoponics".

Philosophy and theology. Philosophy in Byzantium was subordinated to theology. Materialistic elements in philosophy were persecuted. However, in the 12th century. they intensified again: for example, in the speech of Michael Anchial, a philosopher at the court of Manuel Comnenus, there is a polemic against those who argued that the world was not created and has no beginning. Disputes also arose between theologians and the followers of Epicurus, who argued that it was not God, but fate that controlled people’s lives. Idealism enjoyed great influence. Philosopher direction. In the 4th-7th centuries. Neoplatonism, on the one hand, was used to develop Christ. creed (Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite), and on the other hand, served as the ideological source of Arianism and certain other heretics. exercises. Later, in the 11th century, Platonic idealism was used by Michael Psellus and especially John Italus to defend the right to criticism. attitude towards theologian. to authorities; among philosophers of the 14th-15th centuries, especially George Gemistus Plitho, Plato’s teaching acts as an ideological justification for humanistic principles. trends. The most important for the Byzantines. sociologists had a question about the nature of imperial power; if Balsamon defended the principles of autocracy, then in a number of authors we find condemnation of imperial tyranny and glorification of abstract humanity (Michael Psellus, Niketas Choniates, Nikephoros Blemmydes). With the completion of the Christological disputes in the 7th century. (Monothelites) the period of systematization of the Byzantines began. theology, which was carried out by John of Damascus, who, in addition to the “church fathers,” relied on Aristotle’s system, rejecting its dialectic. elements; The systematization of theology took place in the struggle against iconoclasm. In the future, dominance. direction to Byzantium. theology focuses its efforts on polemics with heretics: the Paulicians and Bogomils, and with the Latins (see "Division of the Churches"). From the 11th century Mysticism was spreading in Byzantium (Simeon the New Theologian), trying to take away the revived inquisitiveness of man. mind in the wilds of the supernatural. In the fight against the Byzantine elements. humanism and rationalism (Varlaam) spread especially in the 14th-15th centuries. mystical teachings (Gregory Palamas and others).

Literature. In the 4th-6th centuries. inheritances dominate. from antiquity lit. forms: speeches, letters, epigrams, erotic. story; under the strong influence of antiquity. rhetoric are also found in the church. writers (Basily of Caesarea, Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom). New litas are also emerging. forms - church. poetry (Roman Sladkopevets), hagiography, partially using folklore. language and vernacular legends. These lit. forms become leading in the 7th-1st floor. 9th centuries; in the 2nd half. 9th-10th centuries There is an active collection and processing of antiques. monuments (Photius, Arethas of Caesarea, Leo Chirosfactus, Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus), secular themes widely penetrate into literature, the image of a warrior (“Digenis Akritus”) becomes especially popular. From the 11th century basic Speech and writing become genres, providing much greater opportunities for discussing societies. problems (Michael Psellus, John Mavropod, Theophylact of Bulgaria, Eustathius of Thessalonica, Michael Choniates, etc.). With the development of critical relationship to the dominant ideology attracts special attention to such atheistic. a writer like Lucian, who is much imitated (for example, “Timarion”). In poetry of the 11th-12th centuries. one can find not only verbose panegyrics and pseudo-scientific comments (John Tsetsa), but also sketches of live scenes full of humor (Christopher of Mytilene, Theodore Prodromus). Unlike the typical antique. Literature of the heroic image, Byzantine. Literary seeks to create a complex image of a contradictory person, sinful, but striving for good. From the 12th century living language makes his way into poetry. Apparently, with the strengthening of the feud. order is connected with the spread of the “courtly” novel. In the literature of the 14th-15th centuries. society problems are posed very acutely (Alexey Makremvolit, Georgy Gemist Plifon, poetic fables), but the genres characteristic of humanistic literature are still poorly developed (the autobiographical story of Manuel Phil), antique. forms (writing and speech) still attract the greatest prose writers (Nikifor Grigora, Dimitri Kidonis). To a purely middle age. genres ascend as satirical. stories where the heroes are birds, fish or fruits, so do “cry”.

Historical the science. Op. historians - one of the most interesting genres of Byzantium. liters. In the 4th-7th centuries. the ancient traditions were still alive. historical Sciences. The most prominent historian is the ideologist of the aristocracy, Procopius of Caesarea, who critically evaluates the policies of Justinian. Church historiography (Eusebius of Caesarea, Socrates, Sozomen) is openly apologetic and devoid of criticism. relationship to sources. In the 8th-9th centuries. basic historical view Op. - world chronicles, where much attention is paid to the church. events (Theophanes the Confessor, George Amartol). From the 10th century works appear, the authors of which independently evaluate events and set themselves the task of finding out the cause (Feofana Continued). The heyday of history science - 11-12 centuries. (Michael Psellus, Mikhail Attaliat, Anna Komnena, John Kinnam, Nikita Choniates): the images of the characters become full-blooded, the assessments of events become individual, many details are reported, attention is focused on events of which the authors were contemporaries. In historical science 13th century there is a certain decline (the largest historian is George Acropolis). In the 14th century along with historical op., where the theologian. problems occupy a dominant place (Nikifor Grigora), a characteristic humanistic approach emerges. literary genre of subjective history, memoirs (John Cantacuzene). Extensive historiography of the 15th century. (Laonik Khalkokondil, George Sfrandzi, Dukas, Kritovul), trying to preserve cultural heritage before the onslaught of the Turks, raises the question of the greatness of the Byzantines. civilization.

Jurisprudence. Her greatest achievement was the compilation of Justinian's Code of Laws (Corpus iuris), which used Roman. laws and op. lawyers who proceeded from the norms of slave owners. rights. Essentially a compilation, the collection has an exemplary structure and retains the clarity of the wording of Romans. rights. Justinian forbade further independence. creativity of lawyers, limiting it only to translations and comments of the Code. Undertaken in the 8th century. attempts to use the norms of the current law (Agricultural Law, partly the Eclogue of Laws) were then abandoned, and the Byzantine. legal op. from the 9th century (Vasiliki) and until the 14th century. (Armenopoul) - compilations of early Byzantines. translations of Rome rights. However, in practical In legal proceedings, incidents were constantly being sorted out and norms were developed that differed from the norms of Rome. rights; You can study them from the Pira (11th century) and business acts.

Depict. art. In the early period, art preserved antiquity. traditions and motifs that were supplanted by the Middle Ages. art system. creativity. The latter finally took shape by the 9th-10th centuries, partly as a result of the victory of the teachings of icon-worshipers (who believed that a sacred image should be a reflection of an abstract, divine “archetype”) over the iconoclasts (who denied sacred images). The leading role will be portrayed. The art of Byzantium was played by painting, which achieved acute emotional expressiveness ch. arr. through combinations of flat color silhouettes and rhythm of lines. In Byzantium, the art of wall painting developed (mosaics using smalt, including gold, and frescoes, which were usually finished with tempera), which in the 6th century. the abstract spiritual principle was clearly defined (the mosaics of the Church of St. Vitaly in Ravenna), and by the 10th century. A strict system for arranging scenes on the walls and vaults of the temple, associated with the composition of the cross-domed church, developed. Outstanding mosaics are preserved in the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople (9th-12th centuries), the church of the monastery in Daphne near Athens (11th century), the church of the monastery of Chora (Kahrie-Jami) in Constantinople (14th century). Ch. Icon painting became a type of easel painting, usually done on boards with tempera, and in the early period with wax paints (the earliest monuments are c. 6th century). Book miniatures are represented by ecclesiastical and secular works: first on scrolls ("Scroll of Joshua", a copy of the 7th or 10th centuries from an earlier original), then in codices ("Vienna Book of Genesis", 6th century, "Chludov Psalter", 9 c., "Paris Psalter", 10th century). In sculpture, since the time of iconoclasm, the round statue has disappeared; The art of relief and fine plastic art continues to develop. Decorative and applied arts (enamel, jewelry, ivory carving, fabric, glass), which long preserved the traditions of antiquity, played a major role. arts crafts.

Architecture. From late antiquity, Byzantium adopted the traditions of urban planning; Rome was preserved. layout with a rectangular street grid. However, already in the 5th century. In Constantinople, a medieval type layout with a center is determined. square and cathedral, where ch. streets. For late period The city is characterized by a picturesque layout, subordinate to the terrain (Mystras, 13-15 centuries). Cities and monasteries were fortified. The architecture of the home has been poorly studied; it is known that the houses in Constantinople reached several. floors and had arcades in the lower floor; The houses in Mystras have a fortress-like appearance. The palace buildings of Constantinople stood out for their size and splendor (parts of the Great Palace of the Emperors, 5th century; the so-called Tekfur Serai, 14th century). Sat down. the settlements are poorly known, with the exception of Syrian ones; in the architecture of the estates, the antique style probably remained for a long time. traditions. The single type and stylistic features of Byzantine architecture developed as a result of a combination of traditions that existed in different regions of the empire. However, the differences between local schools remained, expressed, in particular, in the use of different materials: brick was typical for the architecture of the capital, for Greek. schools - brick combined with stone, for east. region Byzantium - stone. Religious architecture was leading in Byzantium, already in the early monuments of which (basilicas and centric domed buildings of the 4th-5th centuries) attention was paid to the main. arr. an interior that created a special emotional world, sharply different from the environment. During the 4th-6th centuries. church proportions buildings lose the proportionality with people characteristic of ancient architecture; the order system inherited from antiquity begins to play a secondary, decorative role, and in the developed Middle Ages. architecture disappears completely. The largest monument of the early Byzantine era. architecture Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople (532-537, architect Anthimius of Thrall, Isidore of Miletus) - a three-nave basilica, covered with a grandiose dome mounted on sails. From the 6th century, along with the domed basilica, the type of cross-domed building was developed, which developed in the 9th-10th centuries. and became characteristic of the Middle Ages. architecture of Byzantium; its features: a dome in the center of the building (close in plan to a square), strengthened on four supports with the help of sails; vaulted passages radiating in a cross from the dome; domes in the corners, between the arms of the cross. This type provided a more reliable building structure than a domed basilica: the spread of Ch. The dome is evenly transmitted in all four directions, and the corner domes create a counteracting, dampening pressure on its four supports (the Church of Theodore, 11th century, Pantocrator, 12th century, in Constantinople). For Greece, a more typical option is characterized by the fact that the dome is attached to the ends of the walls using tromps (the monastery church in Daphne, 11th century, etc.). The cross-domed design is expressed in the external appearance of the temple, which, unlike earlier buildings, is given greater importance (articulation of walls and dome drums by arches and columns, patterned masonry, etc.). P.). The cross-domed type of temple, which had a huge influence on the architecture of the countries neighboring Byzantium, existed until the death of Byzantium, undergoing only occasional changes (for example, two-tier churches, basilical in the first and cross-domed in the second tier, in Mystras).

Music. In secular music, which exalted “palace despotism,” choral exclamations were common - doxologies (euphemies) and table songs of greatness, often accompanied by an organ and trumpets; in cult music - prayerful chanting (chanting), psalmody, and later - troparia. Hymnography became widespread; the most prominent representatives of the style were Roman the Sweet Singer (6th century), Andrei of Crete (7th-8th centuries), John of Damascus (8th century), and Cosmas of Jerusalem (8th century). A major center of hymnography was the Studite Monastery (Theodore the Studite, 8th-9th centuries). Music of Byzantium, played until the 9th century. prominent role in Europe, later fell into decline.

The meaning of Byzantine culture. V. k., which was part of the Middle Ages. culture, has preserved many antiques. traditions. At the same time, in a number of regions. science and technology have made certain steps forward. The humanities, the differentiation of which was extremely unclear, despite the constraining influence of theology and the dominance of traditions, raised topical issues, albeit in a veiled form. Literature contributed to the development of a new aesthetic. ideal: in contrast to the ancient ideal of a heroized, harmoniously developed person the image of a small, weak, sinful man, but passionately thirsting for salvation, was put forward. To Byzantium. will depict Art-ve especially clearly formulated the principles of the Middle Ages. arts creativity. Being, at least until the 12th century, the most cultural state in Europe, Byzantium influenced neighboring countries (especially the South Slav states, Rus', the Caucasus, as well as Italy and the countries of Central Europe). Monuments of ancient civilization have reached us through Byzantium: rewritten from the Middle Ages. Greek manuscript scribes poets and collections of Rome. rights; Byzantine writers (Photius, John Zonara, etc.) preserved many fragments from works that are now lost. Byzantine. craft technology, architecture, painting, civil. and canonical law, natural science and literature contributed to the formation of the Middle Ages. the cultures of neighboring peoples who learned a lot from Byzantium. V.K. played a special role in the preparation of humanistic studies. movements of the 14th-15th centuries: people who moved from Greece to Italy and Rus' brought with them “Greek wisdom”, Greek. scientists (George Gemist Plifon) and artists (Theophanes the Greek, El Greco) found their place in the culture of the Renaissance. At the same time, the admiration for tradition inherent in V.K. often shackled those who were under Byzantium. the influence of countries on the free development of science, art and literature.

Source: Byzantinische Geisteswelt. Von Konstantin dem Grossen bis zum Fall Konstantinopols, hrsg. v. H. Hunger, Baden-Baden, Halle, 1958.

Lit.: Uspensky F.I.. Essays on the history of Byzantine education, St. Petersburg, 1891; Sokolov I., About public schools in Byzantium from the half of the 9th to the half of the 15th century, "Church Gazette", 1897, No. 7, 8; Rudakov A.P., Essays on Byzantine culture according to Greek hagiography, M., 1917; Kazhdan A.P., Litavrin G.G., Essays on the history of Byzantium and the South Slavs, M., 1958, p. 125-141; Bank A.V. Claim of Byzantium in the State Assembly. Hermitage, L., 1960; Lipshits E. E., Essays on the history of Byzantine society and culture. VIII - trans. half of the 9th century, M.-L., 1961; Shangin M. A., On the role of the Greek. astrological manuscripts in the history of knowledge, "IAN USSR", Dept. Humanities, 1930, No. 5; Lazarev V.N., History of the Byzantines. painting, vol. 1-2, M., 1947-48; Brunov N.I., Essays on the history of architecture, vol. 2, M.-L., 1935; Krumbacher K., Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur, 2 Aufl., Münch., 1897; Fuchs F., Die höheren Schulen von Konstantinopel im Mittelalter, Lpz. - V., 1926; Hussey J. M., Church and learning in the Byzantine Empire, L., 1937; Vogel K., Buchstabenrechnung und indische Ziffern in Byzanz (Akten des XI Internationalen Byzantinisten-Kongresses, München, 1958), Münch., 1960; Haussig H. W., Kulturgeschichte von Byzanz, Stuttg., 1959; Beck H. G., Kirche und theologische Literatur im Byzantinischen Reich, Münch., 1959; Seidler G. L., Soziale Ideen in Byzanz, W., i960; Tatakis B., La philosophie byzantine, P., 1949 (Histoire de la philosophie, (ed.) par E. Bréhier, Suppl. fasc. 2); Schreiber G., Bysantinisches und abendländisches Hospital, BZ, 1943-49, No. 42; Grabar A., ​​La peinture byzantine, Genève, 1953.

Byzantine culture

Introduction

History of Byzantium as independent state(395-1453) began with the division in 395 of the Roman Empire into the Eastern and Western parts. The city became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire Constantinople,founded in 324 by the emperor Konstantin(c. 285-337). After the invasion of barbarian tribes in 476, the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist, and the Eastern part of the empire became its successor.

The Byzantines themselves called their empire the Roman Empire, i.e. the Roman Empire, and Constantinople - the New Rome. Since Constantinople was located on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium, the entire Eastern part began to be called by this name Byzantine Empire,or Byzantium.

1. Features historical development Byzantium

The history of Byzantium has features associated with geographical, political, economic, ethnic, and religious factors. Mixture of Greco-Roman and eastern traditions left its mark on public life, statehood, religious and philosophical ideas, culture and art of Byzantine society. However, Byzantium followed its own historical path, in many ways different from the fate of the countries of both the East and the West.

. The territory of Byzantium and economic features

At the beginning of its existence, Byzantium had a huge territory. It included Asia Minor, the Balkan Peninsula, part of Mesopotamia and Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, the islands of Crete and Cyprus, Chersonesus in the Black Sea region and Lazika in the Caucasus, some regions of Arabia, and the islands of the Eastern Mediterranean. This geographical location predetermined the connection of Byzantine civilization with two different worlds - East and West. The most important trade routes ran here - the land and sea “Silk Road” to China and the “incense route” through Arabia to the ports of the Red Sea. Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean.

Having resisted the invasion of the barbarians, Byzantium inherited from Rome many prosperous regions with a diverse economy and developed cities. The province of Byzantium in the Balkans - Thrace, as well as Egypt were the main granaries of the empire; they were called the grain pantry. In the east, in Asia Minor, the production of leather, woolen fabrics, and metal products flourished; viticulture, gardening, and cattle breeding were highly developed. Therefore, Byzantium was provided with raw materials, agricultural products, and minerals. In Byzantium, crafts developed that were then unknown in Western Europe: the production of jewelry, glassware, wool and silk fabrics. There were fewer slaves and more free peasants here than in Western Europe, which led to less depletion of the land and higher harvests.

. The role of cities and population

Byzantium preserved lively and populous cities that were cultural centers. In the IV-V centuries. largest cities were Alexandria, Antioch(Syria), Edes(Mesopotamia), Tire, Beirut, Ephesus, Smyrna, Nicaea(Asia Minor), ThessalonikiAnd Corinth(European part). The major urban centers of Byzantium have preserved the appearance of the ancient city. They had a clear street layout with porticoes and squares decorated with ancient statues.

Played an exceptional role Constantinople,conveniently located on the Bosphorus Strait. Already in the 6th century. it turned into the largest trade and craft center, which contemporaries called “a huge workshop of luxury”, “the workshop of the universe”. Dozens of merchant ships from different countries constantly arrived at the port of Constantinople. The Byzantine merchants grew rich in trade with Iran, India, and China. The importance of Constantinople as a cultural and religious center grew. In the capital of Byzantium, extensive construction of secular buildings, entertainment structures, and temples was carried out. By the beginning of the 5th century. 150 thousand people lived here, and in the first half of the 6th century. - 375 thousand, i.e. the same as in Rome. Constantinople personified the power and beauty of the Byzantine Empire.

The population of Byzantium, reaching approximately 30-35 million people, consisted of various ethnic groups: Syrians, Jews, Armenians, Georgians, Copts, Greeks. Many peoples, especially in the eastern provinces, firmly preserved their identity, language, culture, morals and customs. But gradually a main ethnic Greek core was taking shape in Byzantium - the Greeks, who were the largest nationality in the empire. Although few Romans lived in Byzantium, the official language until the 7th century. was Latin, and from the 7th century. - Greek.

. Stages of state development

Over a thousand-year history, Byzantium evolved socio-economically from a slave system to a feudal system, which was finally established in the 9th-11th centuries. The transition to feudalism occurred more slowly in Byzantium than in Western Europe, which was explained by the influence of both internal and external reasons. In the IV-VI centuries. slavery was still widespread in Byzantium, although the forms of exploitation of slaves had already changed: slaves began to be given land, they were allowed to have a family and their own household, and the number of slaves freed increased. In the VII-IX centuries. the development of feudalism in Byzantium acquired synthetic features, which was due to the role of the Slavic tribes. Under the influence of the settlement of the Slavs, the rural community became the main unit of economic life in Byzantium. Slave labor and colons gradually replaced by the labor of dependent peasants. X-XII centuries became a period of the establishment of feudal relations, the establishment of large feudal private property. At the same time, feudalism in Byzantium was significantly different from Western Europe - here the state played an important role. It controlled the amount of land owned by the feudal lord, had the right to confiscate it, and regulate taxes. Byzantine feudal lords did not have a judicial function. The Byzantine state itself was the owner of huge land holdings, served by “state peasants”. The situation changed in the XIII-XV centuries, when

Byzantium fell into pieces and the power of the state was undermined. At this time, the role of the feudal aristocracy increased, the position of large private land ownership strengthened, and the functions of local government authorities passed to the feudal lords.

Byzantium was attacked by the Goths, Slavic tribes (V-VI centuries), and the Bulgarian kingdom, which existed in the 7th - early 11th centuries; experienced the territorial claims of a powerful enemy in the East - Iran, with whom there was a long bloody war in the 6th century for trade routes. In the history of Byzantium in the 7th century. was tragic

. Byzantium and neighbors. End of the Byzantine Empire

Arab tribes, who created their own statehood and united by a new religion - Islam, captured Syria, Palestine, and North Africa. At this time, the territory of the Byzantine Empire was reduced by three times. In the 9th century. Byzantium managed to recover as a strong, centralized empire, which it remained until the 13th century, when its decline began. In 1204, Constantinople was captured by the crusaders, and the empire again fell apart. Despite the restoration of the unity of the empire in the second half of the 13th century, government at this historical stage could not resist feudal separatism. Byzantium in the XIV-XV centuries. was increasingly fragmented into destinies. The Empire was weakening. The army was shrinking. In 1453, the Turks defeated Constantinople, capturing the entire empire. The Byzantine Empire ceased to exist.

. Cult of imperial power

Byzantium was an imperial state in which government was exercised from the center. Tax lists were compiled in the capital, tax collectors were sent from it to the provinces, and complaints about decisions of local courts were received in the capital.

The emperor had virtually unlimited power; he could execute his subjects, regardless of their position, confiscate property, and appoint them to positions. He had legislative power, judicial power, led the army and determined foreign policy. The life of the country was controlled by the emperor's dignitaries. His land holdings were huge. However, the emperor was not deified in the full sense of the word; he was considered a mortal man, but in relation to society he was like the Heavenly Father. The emperor's duty was to imitate God. The entire ritual of palace life was subordinated to this goal. The Emperor was always on an eminence; his throne was double, on holidays and Sundays a place was left for Christ - as his symbol, a cross was placed on the seat.

Despite the perception of the emperor as the likeness of the Heavenly Father, the fate of many Byzantine emperors was tragic: each of them reigned briefly. Many of them were taken by force. The fragility of the emperor's position was aggravated by the fact that in Byzantium royal power was not transferred long time by inheritance. Undesirable emperors were removed. Formally, the emperor was chosen by the army and the people. In the 10th century The rite of accession to the throne has changed - previously, the emperor was proclaimed by the people at the hippodrome, now he was crowned king as God's chosen one in the main temple of the country - the Church of St. Sophia. From this period the emperor was called Basileus,those. the king, and also autocrat(autocrat).

The Byzantines recognized the empire as the most perfect form of government, and the idea of ​​an empire was substantiated in every possible way by political theories. The cult of imperial power was the most important element of the state religion.

7. Church influence

The second major force in Byzantium was the church. The Byzantine emperors showed themselves to be faithful sons of the church. In reality, they arbitrarily managed church affairs, appointing patriarchs at their own discretion. The Byzantine monarchy not only had full power, but also had a profound influence on the church and religious views. But at the same time, the church had a huge impact on Byzantine society.

Despite the fact that Christianity was recognized in Byzantium in the 4th century. state religion, it still remained a semi-pagan country. The practice of domestic pagan cults continued until the end of the 5th century. In the village even in the 12th century. The cult of Dionysus, the patron of agriculture, continued to exist. The emperor made an attempt to return to paganism Julian(331-363), philosopher, brave commander. Although he received a Christian upbringing, when he became emperor, he expressed his commitment to paganism, reforming it on the basis of Neoplatonism. For issuing edicts against Christians Christian church nicknamed him the Apostate.

The establishment of Christianity met resistance; in turn, Christians destroyed pagan monuments, temples, etc. So, in Alexandria at the end of the 4th century. was destroyed Serapium -center of pagan cult and the famous library was burned. A woman philosopher died from a maddened crowd of Christian fanatics Hypatia(370-415). The Olympic Games were banned. The property of closed pagan temples was taken away for the benefit of the treasury. However, gradually the pagan consciousness died, being replaced by a new, Christian one, which increasingly determined the spiritual life of Byzantium.

In Byzantium the church fought against heresies,religious movements whose participants deviated from official teachings. According to the churchmen, a person had to comprehend the content of the Holy Scriptures intact and preserve the Divine truths given to him, not change their meaning and not invent new ones. At the same time, there was no uniformity of opinion - theologians and heretics understood Holy Bible in different ways, and therefore the spiritual life of the Middle Ages was a battlefield where people defended their interpretation of any phrase from Scripture. During the first two centuries of the existence of the Byzantine Church, the minds of the Byzantines were occupied with philosophical reflections and dogmatic disputes. At the Ecumenical Councils they discussed the legality or illegality of teachings. Members of the community were required to observe rituals and recognize church dogmas. Passionate debate flared up around the main dogma of Christianity - the one and indivisible Trinity, including God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit. People of that time were especially concerned about the question of the nature of Christ. Is he God or man?

In Christological disputes, the opinions of those involved constantly diverged and changed. At the Councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451), the prevailing opinion was one that tried to substantiate the myth of the earthly life of Christ.

Over time, contradictions between the Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) churches increased. There was a struggle between the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople for political and religious primacy. In the 9th century. The Eastern Church separated from the Western. In the 11th century happened split (schism),as a result of which the Catholic and Orthodox churches became independent branches of Christianity. Not only Byzantium itself, but also its religious successor, Russia, separated from Western Christianity.

. Early Middle Ages

The process of formation of Byzantine culture lasted several centuries, starting from the late ancient era until the 9th-10th centuries. Byzantine art, like the culture of other countries of medieval states, was a complex, but still unified system of cultural values. Changes occurring in one sphere of culture immediately affected the other, although general phenomena, the struggle between the old and the new, and the emergence of new trends occurred differently in different branches of culture.

. Education

Since the Eastern Roman Empire in the IV-V centuries. was not subjected to barbarian invasions, its old centers of ancient science survived - Athens, Alexandria, Beirut,

Gaza; new ones were also created. In Byzantium at the beginning of the Middle Ages there were more educated people than in Western Europe. In city schools they taught reading, writing, counting, and studied the poems of Homer, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles, although the children of the rich studied in such schools. A commission created in Constantinople, which included the best experts in Greek and Latin, searched for rare books that were copied for the imperial library. Byzantium became the state in which the first higher school in Europe was opened. It began to function in the 9th century. in Constantinople. A higher medical school was also established here. Even then, medical care for the city’s population was thought out. Each doctor in the capital was assigned a specific area of ​​the city in which he treated patients.

. Scientific knowledge

Byzantine geographers achieved success: they skillfully drew maps of the country and seas, plans of city blocks and buildings, which was still unattainable for the West. At the beginning of this stage, scientific creativity did not freeze in Byzantium. In the 4th century. Prominent mathematicians, researchers in the field of astronomy and astrology, as well as optics worked here. There were significant advances in medicine. Doctor Oribasius(326-403) compiled a medical encyclopedia, which included 70 books. It contained extensive extracts from the works of ancient physicians, as well as the author’s own conclusions and generalizations.

After Christianity was established as the state religion, the best representatives of science began to be persecuted. Hypatia died, and Oribasius managed to escape with difficulty. Scientific centers were destroyed: in 489, at the insistence of the bishops, the school in Ephesus was closed, in 529 - the school in Athens - one of the largest centers of Greek education. At the end of the 4th century. Fanatic monks destroyed a significant part of the Library of Alexandria. At the same time, to spread Christianity, church theological schools, and higher ones at that, were created.

With the affirmation of the positions of the church, science becomes theological,which is especially evident in the field of natural sciences. In the middle of the 6th century. monk Kosma Indicoplovwrote "Christian Topography"in which he recognized the Ptolemaic system as incorrect and contrary to the Bible. According to Cosmas, the shape of the Earth is a flat quadrangle, surrounded by an ocean and covered with a vault of heaven, where paradise is located. This work was distributed not only in Byzantium, but also in the West, as well as in Ancient Rus'.

In the VI-VII centuries. In Byzantium, alchemy dominated, searching for the “divine elixir”, with the help of which it is possible to turn any metals into gold, cure various diseases, and restore youth. At the same time, the chemical craft developed - the production of paints for painting and dyeing fabrics, ceramics, mosaics and enamels, which were widely used in Byzantine fine art and textile production.

Most medical works of this period attempted to combine medicine with theology. Only a few doctors continued to defend the achievements of ancient science and generalized their own practice. Among them Alexander Trallsky,studied pathology and therapy of internal diseases. His works were subsequently translated into Latin, Syriac, Arabic and Hebrew. Pavel Eginsky -compiler big encyclopedia, which later enjoyed authority among the Arabs, primarily in surgery and obstetrics.

Despite the lack of sources, it is known that already at the end of the 7th century. the Byzantines invented "Greek fire" -an incendiary mixture of gunpowder, tar and saltpeter, which had the ability to burn on water. This helped the Byzantines defeat their enemies in naval battles. “Greek fire” was widely used during the siege of fortresses in the 7th-15th centuries. Byzantine scholar Leo Mathematicianimproved the light telegraph. Doctor Nikitacompiled a collection on surgery (9th century). There were a number of historical works in which the social struggle of this period was reflected from the position of the ruling class.

In the 9th century. In Constantinople, the highest secular school, closed in the 7th century, was restored.

. Philosophy

Since the crisis of the slave society in Byzantium did not take the same forms as in the Western Roman Empire, this determined the preservation of ancient traditions in the development of Byzantine philosophy. During the Early Middle Ages in the IV-V centuries. was widespread in Byzantium Neoplatonism,representing, according to Marx’s definition, a combination of Stoic, Epicurean and skeptical teachings with the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. Most well-known representatives there were Proclus(410-485) and John Philoponus, or Grammar(VI-VII centuries). Most proponents of Neoplatonism used it to justify Christianity. Some of them were followers of Aristotle. However, the use of Aristotle's system was carried out with the removal of the most progressive elements from it, which was especially evident in the views of the Grammar. At the end of the 6th - beginning of the 7th centuries. In Byzantium, the departure from slavery and the establishment of feudal relations were accompanied by mystical sentiments among the ruling classes. He played a major role in the development of mystical teachings. Maxim the Confessor(580-662).

The era of the Early Middle Ages became for Byzantium a time of struggle between various philosophical views and adapting them to the interests of the emerging feudal society. Conflict was of great importance iconoclastsAnd icon worshipers,resulting in a religious movement in the 8th-9th centuries. One of the leaders of the icon venerators was John of Damascus(c. 675 - c. 754), author of the work "Source of knowledge".The first part of this work - “Dialectics” - became the basis of all medieval scholasticism. The solemn restoration of icon veneration in 843 is celebrated by the Eastern Church.

. Literature

The beginning of the Middle Ages was the final stage of the literature of the slave society. Although Christianity was established everywhere during this period, ancient traditions were still strong in all areas of ideology, especially in poetry. Secular poets of that time retelled ancient myths and used ancient principles of versification. At the same time, ancient metrics are also used by church poets. At the same time, poets pay tribute gospel stories.

Since no monuments of folklore have survived, folk art and its features are judged by the church literature of that time. The Church, trying to consolidate its victory over paganism, used folk beliefs, language and songs, i.e. Church poetry used the vernacular. A poetic meter developed, called folk verse.The lyricist of this period was Roman Sladkopevets,writing in folk language, in a meter similar to folk songs, his hymns became popular in the Orthodox Church. He is considered the greatest poetic talent of Byzantium.

Epic songs appeared about the fight against external enemies, glorifying the heroism of the defenders of their land. On their basis, a feudal poem was subsequently written about Digenis Akrite.The struggle of the masses against feudal exploitation was reflected in oral literature. Fragments of the so-called animal epic,the form of which the people used for a satirical depiction of the masters.

Period VII- IXcenturies characterized by a sharp reduction in the number of surviving literary monuments, as well as a weakening of the ancient tradition. The reduction in written literary sources is explained not by the savagery of Byzantium, but by the acute class struggle that took place during the formation of feudalism and was accompanied by religious fanaticism. In connection with the final victory of Orthodoxy, almost only theological literature was preserved. She was represented by: Kosma Magomsky(VIII century) - one of the largest church hymns, John of Damascus,also gained fame canons.The pillar of icon veneration was Theodore the Studite(759-826) - author of canons, hymns and epigrams from monastic life. By this time, the forms of religious works, including chants, had changed. The anthem was replaced by a canon, characterized by mannerism, artificiality, far from the language and rhythm of folk songs.

But secular poetic creativity did not stop either. Of particular importance is the so-called "Miriobiblon"(Greek: many books), consisting of a kind of annotations to 280 ancient and early Byzantine works with commentaries. “Miriobiblon” is a kind of encyclopedia with elements of an anthology. The author of this collection was the patriarch Photius(approx. 810 or approx. 820-890). He combined service to the church with fruitful activity an enlightened philanthropist, patron of the sciences and arts, an admirer and connoisseur of ancient culture. “Miriobiblon” includes works on philosophy, theology, medicine, works by historians and romance novels, travel descriptions and oratorical works. The value of Photius's work increases immeasurably, since many now lost works of ancient authors have reached us only from this work. Critical assessments Photius is considered the first example literary criticism in the Middle Ages. This secular tendency of Byzantine literature distinguishes it from the entirely theological literature of the West.

Folk art of this period was influenced by Slavic colonization. A number of proverbs and sayings have firmly entered the life of the Byzantines from Slavic folklore.

cult imperial byzantium philosophy

13. Fine arts and architecture

The art of the Byzantine Empire was complex due to the historical characteristics of the country's development. The various peoples who inhabited the empire played a large role in the formation and development of art.

Ideas about the sacred nature of the political organization of the state were reflected in the art of Byzantium and determined the overwhelming predominance of religious themes and the abstract nature of art. At the same time, the development of art was combined with Greco-Roman artistic traditions, which were widely included as a heritage in the culture of Byzantium.

The highest flowering of Byzantine art occurred during the reign of the emperor Justinian(482 or 483-565), when the empire reached a size almost equal to the old Roman state. Under Justinian, Byzantine art acquired complete independence. Art reflected in its images state and religious ideas, as well as the wealth of the Byzantine Empire. The uniqueness of the official art of Justinian's time is the display of palace life as a magnificent ceremony, a theatrical and solemn cult. A series of mosaics was created in the Chalke Palace in Constantinople, depicting the military triumphs of Byzantine commanders.

This is a display of palace life as a magnificent ceremony, a theatrical and solemn cult. A series of mosaics was created in the Chalke Palace in Constantinople, depicting the military triumphs of Byzantine commanders. display of palace life as a magnificent ceremony, theatrical and solemn cult. A series of mosaics was created in the Chalke Palace in Constantinople, depicting the military triumphs of Byzantine commanders.

Equestrian statue Justiniana was installed in one of the squares of the capital. Images of this statue of the emperor are preserved on Russian icons.

Among the outstanding monuments of the mid-5th century. applies Mausoleum of Galla Placidiain Ravenna. This is the tomb of a Byzantine princess, daughter of Emperor Theodosius. The tomb with a dome (belongs to the eastern type of structure) has massive shapes, it has impenetrable walls, low box vaults that preserve the crypt twilight. At the same time, the walls of this tomb were decorated below with precious marble cladding of the most delicate shades. The upper part of the walls sparkles with mosaics with lush floral patterns. Above the entrance to the tomb is a mosaic made in light colors with the image of Christ in the form of a shepherd among sheep against the backdrop of a landscape. In the center of the dome there is a symbolic cross, on the walls - the figures of martyrs against a blue background stand out with clear silhouettes and look like ancient teacher-philosophers. Thus, in the tomb of Galla Placidia, the foundations of the ancient artistic worldview had not yet been completely overcome.

In the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople, an outstanding single architectural ensemble took shape: Hippodrome, Grand Palacewith a mosaic floor, and the central building of the city - Church of Hagia Sophia(built in 532-537). This is the main monument not only of this era, but of the entire Byzantine history. The hippodrome was not only a place for sports competitions, but also the only place where the people could communicate with the rulers.

The Temple of Sophia was built by Asian Minor architects Anthimiemfrom Thrall and Isidorefrom Miletus. Then the building was destroyed by fire and re-erected on one of the hills of Constantinople. In form it is domed basilica:basic artistic design reveals itself in the interior of the cathedral, which is a square hall in plan, crowned with a colossal dome, as if floating in the air. The diameter of the dome is 31.4 m. Gradually rising semi-domes adjoin this dome on both sides. The walls are lined with marble slabs different colors and mosaics. The peculiarity of the decoration of the temple is the combination of splendor with a feeling of limitless space. With its size and boldness of construction techniques, this temple surpasses all other buildings. The Church of Sophia also amazes with its artistic perfection - two types of early Christian architecture merged together - domed and longitudinal. At the same time, this whole is diverse in meaning. The dome contains a heroic, cosmic meaning of the likeness of the world, but at the same time it overshadows the place of community meeting, i.e. living people. It is believed that in no building of antiquity was the greatness of the world given in such proportion to the human as in Sofia.

Along with the creation of large urban centers, local artistic traditions developed, thanks to which national characteristics found expression. Architectural monuments were created in monasteries and villages of Syria, Asia Minor, and Egypt.

Simultaneously with the formation of the early Byzantine temple, the style of wall painting was formed. Her favorite technique was mosaic,originating in antiquity. Byzantine mosaicists used the entire richness of the colorful spectrum. Their palette includes soft blue, green and bright blue colors, lavender, pink and red in various shades. The mosaic achieves its greatest strength due to the merging of smalt color spots with a golden background. The Byzantines loved gold: it was important to them both as a symbol of wealth and luxury, and as the brightest of all colors.

For Byzantium, secular art was rare. In mosaics Church of St. Vitaliy(San Vitale) in RavennaTwo scenes stand out: one shows Emperor Justinian and Bishop Maximian, accompanied by their retinue, and the other shows Justinian’s wife, Empress Theodora. Before us is a bright gallery of images of courtiers - their portraits are expressive. And if the young emperor is somewhat idealized, then minor characters as if snatched from life: the bishop has bristly sparse hair, the monk has a bony, sinewy face and the look of a fanatic, the courtier has a dull face swollen with fat.

Portrait images in the Ravenna mosaic are transformed into a solemn procession - in it the emperor joins the unearthly greatness. The Emperor occupies a central position. In the slight turn of his figure and the direction of his hands, he and his companions express a spiritual impulse - the figures do not step on the ground, but seem to soar and float. This impression is facilitated by the slender, overly elongated proportions of the figures. The Byzantine master first of all sought to express the god-like character of imperial power.

In Nicaea there is a fresco known as "Nicene Angels"Before us is the image of an angel - half-god, half-man. The angels wear the heavy brocade robes of imperial bodyguards. The figures are frozen, little expressive, but their faces are filled with amazing charm. According to art historians, these mosaics, together with the recently discovered mosaics of the Temple of Sophia in Constantinople, are the most sublime of all known creations of early Byzantine painting. In its vitality, “Angels of Nicaea” is not inferior to the best antique portraits: a gentle oval face, an open forehead, loose hair, big eyes, elongated nose and small lips. All this is translated into an image of spiritualized beauty.

By the 7th century relate mosaics of the church of St. Demetrius in Thessaloniki.Compared to the Nicene and Ravenna mosaics described above, they already represent a different artistic world. Although the faces retain portrait features, the entire composition seems frozen: all the figures are motionless, not connected to each other, symmetrical - this is the young saint with huge, wide eyes, and both donors, and representatives of secular and spiritual authorities - the bishop, the prefect. The characters are devoid of lyrical lift; they are almost idols, objects of superstitious worship. Their figures resemble stone pillars - Byzantine art seems to return to the very original stage.

The noted inconsistency of early Byzantine art prepared the emergence iconoclasm -socio-political and religious movement in Byzantium in the 8th-9th centuries, directed against the cult of icons. In art, the struggle was expressed in the denial of the legitimacy of sacred images, i.e. icons, as well as in the destruction by iconoclasts of monuments of church art. In their works, iconoclasts developed non-religious motifs: in temple paintings they depicted birds, animals among vegetation, and architectural motifs; in secular palace buildings, mosaic paintings glorified the victories of emperors or depicted court ceremonies.

Victory icon worshipersmeant the defeat of artistic free-thinking and the further subordination of art to the church. Fifty years of iconoclasm deeply affected the life of Byzantine society. Only in 787 did the Seventh Ecumenical Council meet in Nicea, and not in the capital, at which the dogma of icon veneration was formulated and proclaimed.

An unsurpassed example of monumental art of Byzantium from the mid-9th century. - mosaic of Sophia of Constantinople.The majestic, huge figure of Mary sitting in a calm pose with a baby in her arms is the embodiment of sublime spirituality. The Archangel Gabriel standing nearby strikes with his resemblance to an angel; he is the embodiment of earthly and at the same time heavenly beauty.

Early Byzantine monumental art was supplemented by monuments of applied art, i.e. art of small forms. So, in Ravenna these are carvings that decorated the capitals of the columns; Maximian's chair with ivory reliefs, etc. Sculptures from the 5th-6th centuries have survived to this day. made of ivory, which are called consular diptychs.They often depict circus scenes.

A wonderful example of applied art is a Cypriot dish "The Betrothal of David"in which the features of the Byzantine monumental style are combined with classical ones. The construction is distinguished by solemn calm and symmetry. In the center is the priest, on the left is David, on the right is his bride. The group is flanked by two graceful flutists, similar to shepherdesses in pastoral scenes. The entire composition fits perfectly into a round frame. There is a portico in the background of the group; it not only supports the figure composition, but also highlights central figure. As art historians note, antiquity did not know such a connection between figures and architecture.

The miniature of the Early Middle Ages, despite its adherence to ancient models, at the same time bears the stamp of abstraction of artistic images. The iconography of the ancient period testifies to the transition from individual ancient portraits to symbolic depictions of saints.

. Music

The musical art of Byzantium dates back to Persian, Coptic, Jewish, Armenian song, as well as late Greek and Roman melos. As contacts with other peoples developed, elements of Syrian, Slavic, and Arab musical culture penetrated into the music of Byzantium. Literary sources mention traveling singer-musicians. The secular music that sounded at the imperial court was of a lush style, exalting Byzantine “palace despotism.”

Welcome greetings have received great development shouts of praiseon poetic texts, table songs of praise performed by choirs. They were often accompanied by an organ and pipes. The instrumental music (ensemble) of dulcimer players and trumpeters was known.

Of the yotized monuments, only cult music has reached us, which was purely vocal and monophonic. Widespread in Byzantium hymns -religious and philosophical song lyrics that combined mysticism with emotional content. The heyday of Byzantine hymn-making dates back to the 5th-6th centuries; the most famous poet and musician - author of hymns Roman Sladkopevets,originally from Syria. The famous hymn writer was John of Damascus.His best hymns are collected and grouped according to eight voices in the most famous "Octoiche."From the 9th century the center of hymn-making became the Studite monastery in Constantinople, where the monk chanter worked Theodore the Studite.

Until the 9th century. Byzantine music played a prominent role in Europe. It penetrated into Rome, Franconia, Southern Italy, and Ireland.

Literature

.Albedil, M.F. Buddhism. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006.

.Arutyunov, S.A., Ryzhakova, S.I. Cultural anthropology. - M.: The whole world, 2004.

.Balakina, T.I. Reader on world artistic culture. Russia 9th-early 20th centuries. - M.: LLC Firma MHK, 2000.

.Bashkortostan: Brief encyclopedia. - Ufa: Bashkir Encyclopedia, 1996.

.Belik, A.A. Culturology. Anthropological theories of culture. - M.: Russian. state humanist University, 2000.

.Borzova, E.P. History of world culture. - St. Petersburg: Lan, 2001.

.Vasiliev, L.S. History of the religions of the East. - M.: Book House “University”, 2004.

.Georgieva, T.S. Russian culture: history and modernity. - M.: Yurayt, 1998.

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