Household story of the 17th century. Household stories of the 17th century
Word as a unit of language
Lexicology is a branch of the science of language that studies the vocabulary of a language, or vocabulary. In lexicology, the word is studied as an individual unit, as well as the place of the word in the lexical system of the modern Russian literary language.
Word- the main nominative and cognitive (cognitive) unit of language, which serves to name objects, processes, properties and communicate about them. It belongs to the lexical-semantic level of language and consists of units lower levels: phonemes and morphemes.
One of the most important functions of a word is the nominative function. It is known that every newly appearing object, every new discovery receives a name (title).
The naming function in the language is carried out significant parts of speech: noun, adjective, numeral, verb, adverb.
By its linguistic nature, a word is a complex, multidimensional, diverse unit of language. The following main features of the word are noted:
1) Phonetic design, i.e. a word is a sound complex constructed according to the laws of the phonetic structure of a given language.
2) The presence of a word with a meaning that is assigned to it in the minds of all speakers of a given language.
3) Separateness and impenetrability of the word, i.e. the impossibility of additional insertions inside a word without changing its meaning.
4) Reproducibility, i.e. words are not created in the process of communication, but are extracted from the linguistic memory of native speakers.
5) Isolability, i.e. a word can be isolated from speech or context.
6) Non-two-accent, i.e. the word has one main emphasis - students.
7) Referral to a specific part of speech.
Lexical and grammatical meaning of the word
The word represents a two-way linguistic unit (sign), having a form, i.e. sound or graphic shell and meaning - a specific linguistic reflection of reality. For example, a sequence of letters tree becomes a sign (word) because it has meaning.
However, not every set of sounds (letters) will be a word. N.: And I came up with a word, a simple word - plim.. Here he jumps and jumps. Plim, plim, plim. And it doesn't mean anything. Plim, plim, plim(I. Tokmakova). This set sounds, although formed according to the laws of language. has no meaning, therefore it does not become a word (sign).
The ability of certain sound complexes that form words to express certain meanings is studied by l sexual semantics- the science of the meaning of words
Lexical meaning a word is its “material” meaning, it is the correlation of the sound shell of a word with a certain object or phenomenon of reality with a single national understanding of this correlation.
Lexical meaning of the word individually: it is inherent this word and this distinguishes this word from others, each of which has its own, also individual meaning.
Along with the lexical meaning, the word has a grammatical meaning. Grammatical meaning words- this is a characteristic of it as an element of a certain grammatical class ( table – noun m.r..). Grammatical meaning characterizes entire categories and classes of words; it categorically.
Let's compare the words table, house, knife. Each of them has its own lexical meaning. At the same time, they are characterized by common, one and the same grammatical meanings: they all belong to the same part of speech - noun, to the same grammatical gender - husband. and have the same number - the only one.
An important feature of grammatical meaning that distinguishes it from lexical meaning is obligatory expression: we cannot use a word without expressing its grammatical meaning. So, saying the word book, we not only name a specific object, but also express such characteristics of this noun as gender (g.), number (sing.), case (i.).
Types of lexical meanings
A comparison of various words and their meanings allows us to identify several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.
1. By nomination method, i.e. Based on the nature of the connection between the meaning of a word and the subject of objective reality, two types of lexical meanings are distinguished: direct And indirect(portable).
Direct is the meaning of a word that directly indicates an object, sign, process, etc. and acts as its main nomination in the modern period of language development. Portable a meaning is called, the appearance of which is due to functional-associative connections that unite one object, feature, process with another: bear: 1. ‘animal’; 2. ‘clumsy person’.
II. According to the degree of semantic motivation There are two types of word meanings: unmotivated (non-derivative, primary) and motivated (derivative, secondary).
Unmotivated is called a meaning that is genetically non-derivative for the modern Russian language N.: road, donkey1– ‘animal of burden’.
Motivated is a meaning that is derivative in semantic or word-formation terms. N.: donkey2– ‘dumb stubborn’ (a person is compared to a donkey based on such characteristics as stupidity and stubbornness), roadside– ‘growing by the road’.
III. If possible, lexical compatibility free and non-free values are distinguished.
Free is the meaning of a word that has a relatively wide syntagmatics (combinability). The connections between words in this case are determined real connections phenomena of reality. N.: noun. bread It has wide circle compatibility: fresh, rye, stale, ... But freedom of compatibility is relative, it is limited by the semantic relations of words: combinations like wooden, smart, stupid bread.
Unfree is the meaning of words whose compatibility is limited by semantic and extralinguistic factors. Among the lexically constrained, three groups of word meanings are distinguished: phraseologically related, syntactically limited and structurally determined.
Phraseologically related is the meaning of a word that is realized in combination with a certain and at the same time limited range of words. N.: adj. dun can only be combined with words horse, stallion, horse (it is forbidden dun cow or bus).
Phraseologically related meanings of words real(trifle, trifle, nonsense, true); look down (glance, eyes, look), gape (mouth, mouth).
Syntactically limited this is called figurative meaning a word that is realized by this word only in a certain syntactic position: the position of the predicate, address or definition different types. N.: hat(about a sluggish, uninitiative person, a bungler): He's a real hat; Hat! Wherever you go, He, the hat, can’t handle anything.
Similar syntactic restrictions apply to the figurative use (in relation to a person) of words donkey, bear, elephant, snake, oak.
Structurally determined is the meaning of a word that is expressed only in a certain construction. So, verb cry expresses its meaning only in combination with a prepositional-case combination on + noun in V.p.: cry at fate, respond for what(on request).
IV. By the nature of the functions performed Two types of lexical meanings can be distinguished: proper nominative and expressive-synonymous.
Nominative- such meanings of words that are used primarily to name objects, phenomena, qualities. Additional features (for example, evaluative ones) are not reflected in the semantic structure of words with a similar meaning. The meaning of the words will be nominative eyes, move, horse, payback and a lot others. Each of them is directly related to the concept and names it.
Expressive-synonymous is a meaning in which the main one is connotative, or emotional-evaluative sign. Words with this meaning arose as additional expressive-emotional names for nominations already existing in the language with a denotative meaning. For example, each of the above words can be replaced by a word that has an expressive-synonymous meaning: eyes - zenki, move - trudge, horse - nag, retribution - retribution.
Words with such meanings exist independently in the language and are reflected in dictionaries, but are perceived in the minds of native speakers by association with their nominative synonyms.
Polysemy of the word
Words in a language can have not one, but two or more meanings. The ability of a word to be used in more than one meaning is called polysemy, or polysemy. The “lower limit” of polysemy is uniqueness (monosemy), which is characterized by the presence of only one meaning for a word: birch, tram.
At the moment of its occurrence, the word is always unambiguous. The new meaning is the result of the figurative use of a word, when the name of one phenomenon is used as the name of another. The following types of figurative meanings are distinguished: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.
Metaphor- this is the transfer of a name by similarity, as well as the figurative meaning itself, which is based on similarity.
The similarities between objects can be very diverse. Items may be similar:
A) shape: arched eyebrows, a wheel of cheese, a pot-bellied teapot;
b ) location: comet tail, trains, building wing;
V) size: a mountain of things, a stream of tears, a cloud of mosquitoes;
G) color: copper hair, coral lips, chocolate tan;
d) degree of density, permeability: iron muscles, wall of rain;
e) degree of mobility, re shares: spinning top, dragonfly (about an active child)
and) sound: rain drumming, saw squealing;
h) degree of value: golden words, the highlight of the program.
There are metaphors general language, when one or another metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely and is known to all speakers of a given language (a nail head, a river branch) and individual, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic style:
For example, the metaphors of S.A. Yesenina: fire of red rowan, chintz of the sky, ripe star.
Metonymy- this is the transfer of the name of one object to another based on the contiguity of these objects.
Metonymy is the result of semantic shifts in the language system. It can arise as a result of transfers based on various connections:
a) material - product (mining gold - gold in the ears)
b) vessel - contents of the vessel (drank a glass)
c) room - people (the audience listened carefully)
d) action - place of action (crossing the street - pedestrian crossing)
e) plant - fruit (pear, cherry)
e) animal - fur (fox)
Synecdoche- using the name of some part of an object instead of the whole and vice versa (Synecdoche is a type of metonymic shift). For example: face, mouth, head, hand indicate the corresponding parts human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: A person of Caucasian nationality. There are 5 mouths in a family. Lena is a bright-headed person.
Synecdoche can be expressed by using singular noun to denote a collection, set: The student (=students) went the wrong way today.
Some characteristic features of a person - a beard, glasses, clothes - are often used to designate a person, to address him (in colloquial speech): I stand here for blue cloak(=behind the man in the blue cloak).
Homonyms
Homonyms- these are words that have the same sound and spelling, but different meanings: marriage(marriage) - marriage(defect), p ys(animal) - lynx(horse running).
The most numerous and diverse group make up lexical (absolute) homonyms: rook(boat) - rook(chess figure). In lexicology, there are two types of lexical homonyms - full And incomplete(partial).
TO complete Lexical homonyms include words of the same part of speech, which have the same entire system of forms: key(door) - key(spring)
TO incomplete Lexical homonyms include words of the same part of speech, in which not the entire system of forms coincides: factory (company) - factory(mechanism) - has no plural forms.
From lexical homonyms, full and partial, other types of homonymy should be distinguished: phonetic, graphic, morphological.
1. Phonetic (sound) homonymy- word matching in sound: onion - meadow, mushroom - flu. Phonetic homonyms are called homophones.
2. Graphic homonymy- words that are identical only in spelling, but sound differently: roast(dish) and roast(summer); flour - flour. T what words are called homographs.
3. Morphological homonymy- coincidence of words belonging to both different parts speech, in one or more forms: ate(the form of the verb is) and ate(plural noun spruce); three(num.) and three(implementative verb. rub). Such words are called homoforms.
Homonymy must be distinguished from polysemy (multiple meanings). When polysemous different meanings of one word retain an internal connection with the main meaning. For example, the word build may mean:
1) construct (build a house); 2) make (make plans);
3) draw (build a triangle); 4) put in ranks (build squads).
All these meanings have not lost connection with the basic general ‘to create, to construct’, i.e. the word retains its polysemantic nature.
With homonymy, the connection between the meanings of a word is lost: beam(log) and beam(ravine); braid(hairstyle) and braid(strip of sushi).
One way to distinguish between polysemy and homonymy can be the compatibility of words. For example: shaft 1 ( embankment), val 2 (wave).
1. city, fortress rampart; pour, strengthen the shaft.
2. high, foaming, ninth, rolling, running. The words val 1 and val 2 have different combinability, therefore, these are homonyms.
battle 1 - sea, deadly, long; fight;
fight 2 - fist, deadly, long; fight;
fight 3 - fist, deadly, long; fight
The words fight 1, fight 2, fight 3 have similar combinability, therefore, these are ambiguous words.
Lexical homonyms arise as a result of various processes occurring in the language.
1) as a result of the coincidence in form of the original word and the borrowed word:
club(smoke) - primordial, related to the words swirl, tangle;
club(institution) – borrowed from in English;
marriage(marriage) - primordial, related to the verb to take;
marriage(defect) - borrowed from German.
2) as a result of the coincidence in form of words borrowed from different sources or from one, but in different meanings: tap(plumbing) - from Dutch - tap(construction) - from German; note(musical) and note(diplomatic document) - from Latin.
3) as a result of the collapse of polysemy and the separation of the word from its original meaning: garden(fruity) and garden(children's) - go back to common source- verb plant. These words diverged in meaning and became homonyms in modern Russian.
4) as a result of phonetic processes occurring in the language, or changes in the spelling of a word: never(once upon a time) and once(no time) - originally differed in sounds Ђ And e, which later coincided in one sound e.
5) as a result of word-formation processes, in particular, by attaching affixes with different meanings
cover (re-cover) - cover (block)
Paronyms
Paronyms- these are words that are similar in sound and structure, but have different meaning. Typically, paronyms are words formed from the same root using different affixes. For example: diplomat - dimlomancer- noun common root diploma, distinguished by the suffixes - at and -ant.
Diplomat- an official in the diplomatic service.
Diploma holder- a person awarded an award - a diploma - or writing a diploma.
In speech, paronyms are sometimes mixed, although they mean different things. For example: they say “put on a coat” instead of “put on a coat.” Verbs dress And put on differ in meaning: put on (what) - dress (whom)
Paronyms are distinguished by the synonymous correspondences that each member of the paronymic pair (series) has. For example:
Synonyms
Synonyms– words different in sound, but semantically identical, denoting the same concept and differing in the sphere of use, shades of meaning, stylistic or emotional coloring. Synonyms belong to the same lexical-grammatical category of words (parts of speech).
For example: synonyms elk, elk, elk- identical in meaning, but belong to different lexical layers: elk - literary word; elk- conversational; Sokhach- dialectal. Several words usually enter into synonymous relationships. They form synonymous series. The word that most fully expresses the meaning common to words of the synonymous series is called dominant(Latin djminans - “dominant”). Dominant is a stylistically neutral, commonly used word; all other members of the synonymous series are often words with additional semantic and stylistic shades of meaning. So, in a synonymous series red, scarlet, crimson the dominant will be the adjective red. The dominant is at the head of the synonymous row and is given in dictionaries at the beginning
Depending on the functions there are semantic And stylistic synonyms.
Semantic or ideographic synonyms differ from each other by elements of lexical meaning: red- ‘the color of blood’; scarlet- ‘bright red’, scarlet- ‘red of a dark shade’.
Stylistic synonyms differ from each other in their expressive and stylistic load and are used in different styles speech. In a synonymous series: face - face - muzzle - physiognomy - mug word face- the word is stylistically neutral; face(high, book style); muzzle - face - mug- colloquial.
Synonyms arise as a result of various processes occurring in language.
1. As a result of the “splitting” of one lexical meaning into two or more. For example, verb reforge acquired a figurative meaning ‘to change one’s way of thinking and behavior as a result of upbringing’ and became close in meaning to such verbs as re-educate, transform.
2. As a result of borrowing foreign words: breg - shore, city - city. cruise - journey, And hobby - enthusiasm.
3. Due to the use of dialectal, professional words next to literary ones: hut - hut, hayfield - kosovitsa.
4. As a result of word formation processes in the language: digging - digging, piloting - aerobatics
5. As a result of the addition of a negative particle Not to one of the members of the antonymic pair: low - (high) low, rarely - (often) infrequently, enemy - (friend) foe.
ANTONYMS
Antonyms – These are words belonging to the same part of speech and having opposite meanings: young - old, stupid - smart, meet - see off, above - below.
In its own way structure Antonyms are divided into three groups:
1. Antonyms with different roots: good - evil, long - short;
2. Single-root antonyms: faith - unbelief, sunrise - sunset, work - idleness;
3. Intraword antonyms are pairs that are obtained as a result of the development of the meaning of a word to the complete opposite (a process called enantiosemy). N.: borrow(lend) – (borrow), maybe(presumably) – (certainly ): I'll probably come. They probably told me that the commission would arrive soon. Priceless(having a high price).
Antonyms are one of expressive means language. They have long been used in CNT, for example, in proverbs: A sweet lie is better than a bitter truth; There is an angel in people, and a devil in houses; The poor do not understand the rich; Learning is light and ignorance is darkness.
Antonyms are also widely used in journalism, especially in headlines: Friends and enemies of tourism; The luck and bad luck of famous people.
Antonyms can serve as a means of creating oxymoron– a figure of speech, which is a combination of two opposing concepts (two words that contradict each other in meaning): bitter joy, ringing silence, sweet pain, a living corpse, adult children.
Typically, an oxymoron is created using the “adjective + noun” model, but other models are also found: “adverb + verb”: Oh how fun it is for her to be sad. So elegantly naked (Ahm.).
Antonymy is used in fiction to express antitheses– a figure of speech in which opposite concepts are contrasted to enhance expressiveness: I won’t better or worse, All That I will, no other, From happiness blaze on cold, From the grief gets cold in summer heat(N. Gribachev). Revolted and old and young (P.); I stupid, And you smart, lively, and I dumbfounded (Color).
In an ironic context, one antonym can be used instead of another: Where, smart, your head is delirious. Use of the word in opposite meaning called antiphrase. Antiphrases is often resorted to in everyday conversation; So, absent-minded person they jokingly say: how attentive you are! evil: how kind you are!
Antonyms are characterized primarily by contact use in certain contexts. The deliberate collision of antonyms makes it possible to realize their most important functions:
1) opposition: You are rich, I am very poor(P.);
2) mutual exclusion: He had only one opinion about people - good or bad(Sim.);
3) alternation: He either put out the candle or lit it(Ch.);
4) coverage of the entire class of objects, the entire phenomenon, action: From young to old, from morning to evening, both enemies and friends - everyone is tired.
Antonyms can be linguistic And contextual(individual). Unlike linguistic antonyms, the semantic opposite of which appears regularly and does not depend on use (white – black, soft – hard), contextual antonyms are an occasional (random) phenomenon limited by the context: Wolves and Sheep(N. Ostrovsky), Already and Falcon(M. Gorky), boxes - galleries(E. Yevtushenko); daily work - nightly dream(M. Tsvetaeva). What is allowed to Jupiter is not allowed to the bull. Jupiter (god) and bull (livestock) are opposed in Latin proverb like antonyms, although they are not.
MORPHOLOGY. PART I.
TOPIC 1. MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE
Subject of morphology
Morphology (from the Greek morphe - form and logos - study) is the grammatical study of words. The word is the main object of morphology. Morphology studies the grammatical properties of words, establishes what grammatical meanings certain words and classes of words have, and identifies the specifics of grammatical categories for words belonging to different parts of speech. For example, both nouns and adjectives have the categories of gender, number and case. However, for nouns these categories are independent, and for adjectives they are syntactically determined, depending on the gender, number and case of the noun with which the adjective is combined (cf.: big house, big house, big house and so on.; the big one is ours; large building; big houses and so on.).
The tasks of morphology include determining the range of words that have one or another grammatical category. Grammatical categories either cover the entire lexical base of a certain part of speech, or apply only to the main body of words belonging to it. So, nouns pluralia tantum (scissors, twilight, yeast etc.) do not have a category of gender, impersonal verbs do not have a “category of person. One of the most important tasks of morphology is to identify and describe the specifics of the functioning of grammatical categories in the lexicon various parts speech.
Morphology establishes the composition of the grammatical forms of various types of words, identifies the rules for changing words, and distributes words according to types of declension and conjugation.
Morphology includes the study of parts of speech. It examines the semantic and formal features of words of various categories, develops criteria and rules for classifying words by parts of speech, determines the range of words for each part of speech, establishes a system of parts of speech, studies the lexical and grammatical features of words of each part of speech, and identifies patterns of interaction between parts of speech.
Grammatical meanings of words
A word is a complex unity of lexical and grammatical meanings. For example, the word lamp stands for "lighting or heating device of various devices." This is its lexical meaning. Into the semantic content of the word lamp also includes feminine meanings, nominative case and singular. These are its grammatical meanings.
The lexical meaning of a word is an individual semantic feature that distinguishes it from other words. Even words that are close in meaning (cf.: lamp, lamp, lantern) have different lexical meanings. Lamp -“a small vessel with a wick, filled with oil and lit in front of the icons”; flashlight has three meanings: 1) “a lighting device in the form glass ball, boxes with glass walls"; 2) special: “a glass skylight in the roof, as well as a glazed projection in the building”; 3) figurative: “bruise from a beating, from a contusion.”
Grammatical meanings are characteristic of a whole class of words. Thus, the meanings of the feminine gender, singular number, nominative case unite the words lamp, water, fish, room, mermaid, thought and others, which have nothing in common in their lexical meanings. Wed. also: 1) I run, I fly, I read, I lift, I write, I jump; 2) sang, drew, read, thought, danced, shot; 3) run, read, take, fly, wipe, buy. The words of the first row denote different processes, but they all express the grammatical meanings of the 1st person, singular. The words of the second row are united by the meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine. gender, words of the third row - with the meanings of the imperative mood, units. numbers. Thus the grammatical meaning is abstract meaning, abstracted from the lexical content of a word and inherent in a whole class of words.
Grammatical meanings are not unique. One grammatical meaning necessarily presupposes the presence of another (or others), homogeneous and correlative with it. For example, the singular number implies plural (bird - birds, nagi - pasha); the meaning of the imperfect form is paired with the meaning of the perfect form (take off- remove, accept - accept); meaning to them pad. enters into relationships with all other case meanings.
Grammatical meanings are not isolated from lexical ones. They seem to be layered on the lexical (real, material) meanings of words and rely on them. Therefore, they are often called accompanying. Thus, the grammatical meanings of gender, number and -case in a noun book accompany its lexical meaning; grammatical meanings of the 3rd person, units. numbers, nes. aspect in verb draws based on its lexical meaning. A. A. Shakhmatov wrote about this: “The grammatical meaning of a linguistic form is opposed to its real meaning. The real meaning of a word depends on its correspondence as a verbal sign to one or another phenomenon of the external world. The grammatical meaning of a word is the meaning it has in relation to other words. The real meaning connects the word directly with the outside world, the grammatical meaning connects it primarily with other words."
Grammatical meanings reflect either certain features of phenomena in the external world, or the attitude of the speaker to the thought he expresses, or intralingual connections and relationships between words. They, notes A. A. Shakhmatov, “can be based (1) partly on the phenomena given in outside world: for example, plural. h. birds depends on the fact that we mean the idea of not one, but several birds... (2) Partially, the accompanying meanings are based on the speaker’s subjective attitude to a certain phenomenon: for example, I walked means the same action as me I'm walking but taking place, according to the speaker, in the past tense... (3) Partially, finally, the accompanying meanings are based... on a formal, external reason given in the word itself: thus, the feminine gender of the word book depends only on the fact that it ends in -a.”
The word is one of the basic units of grammar. A word combines its sound matter and its meaning – lexical and grammatical.
Grammatical meaning -generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms and syntactic structures, finding its regular (standard) expression in the language, for example, the meaning of the case of nouns, verb tense, etc.
The grammatical meaning is contrasted with the lexical meaning, which is devoid of regular (standard) expression and does not necessarily have an abstract character.
Criteria for distinguishing lexical and grammatical meanings:
2. LZ is individual for each word (is this always true?), and GZ is typical for a whole group of words with different LZ, for example, nouns.
3. LZ remains the same in all forms of the word, GZ changes in various forms words.
4. When the LZ changes, new words are formed, and when the GZ changes, new forms of words are formed.
A characteristic feature grammatical meaning is also recognized standardity, regularity of way of expression. In most cases, meanings traditionally classified as grammatical are actually directly expressed using fairly regular and standard means of expression.
Grammatical forms and grammatical categories. Grammatical form– this is a form of a word in which the grammatical meaning finds its regular (standard) expression. Within the grammatical form, the means of expressing grammatical meanings are special grammatical indicators (formal indicators).
Grammatical category– a system of opposed series of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as two-way linguistic units.
The concept of a grammatical category is closely related to the concept of grammatical meaning. In this regard, any grammatical category is a union of two or more grammatical meanings. On the other hand, it is known that each grammatical meaning has its own way of expression or grammatical form (or a series of forms).
a) inflectional – manifest themselves in the process of forming the forms of a given word (for example, case and number of Russian nouns, gender and number of French adjectives, mood and tense of the verb);
b) classification categories are inherent in a given word in all its forms and relate it to a class of similar words.
Members of classification categories are presented in different words, for example, the category of gender of nouns in the Russian language ‘table’ – masculine gender, ‘desk’ feminine gender, ‘window’ - neuter. genus.
33. Means of expressing grammatical meanings.
I. Synthetic products
1. Affixation consists of using affixes to express grammatical meaning: books; read-l-i; mәktәp-lәr. Affixes are service morphemes.
2. Suppletivism. By suppletivism we mean the expression of grammatical meaning by a word with a different stem: I go - walked (GZ past tense), person - people (GZ plural), we - us (GZ R. or V.p), I - me, good - best.
Words with different roots are combined into one grammatical pair. Their LZ is one and the same, and the difference serves to express the GZ.
3. Reduplication(repetition) consists of complete or partial repetition of parts of a word to express grammatical meaning. Yes, in Malay orang – ‘ Human' , orang-orang –'People' .
4. Alternation(internal inflection) is a use. changes in sounds. root composition to express grammatical meaning: ‘avoid – avoid’; ‘collect – collect’; ‘sing – sang’.
II. Analytical tools –
GZs receive their expression outside the main word, often in other words.
1. Function words can be used for express.GZ: I will read (weekend time), I would read (conventional mood).
We went to the cafe (V.p.). – We were leaving the cafe (R.p.).
2. Word order.The house (I.p.) obscured the forest (V.p.). – The forest (I.p.) obscured the house (V.p.).
Particularly important, for example, for isolating languages.
The material means of expressing grammatical meaning is not always segmental, i.e. consisting of a chain (linear sequence) of phonemes. It can be supersegmental, i.e. can be superimposed on the segment chain.
3. Accent: hands (I. and V. p. plural) – hands (R. p. singular).
4. Intonation:You will go! - You will go?
Thus, in Russian adjectives we distinguish three forms: ‘ big-big-big’. They express masculine, feminine and neuter meanings. This gives us grounds to assert that the adjectives of the Russian language are characterized by the grammatical category of gender.
The grammatical meaning (plan of content) and the formal indicator of this meaning (plan of expression) form a grammatical sign - a grammatical form, a gramme. Grammema– a component of a grammatical category, which in its meaning represents a specific concept in relation to the grammatical category as a generic concept.
A grammeme can have multiple meanings.
The plural gramme of nouns in Russian has the meaning: set ‘ tables’, ‘trees’; varieties ‘ oils’, ‘wine’; a large number of ' snow', 'sand'.
The languages of the world differ in the number and composition of grammatical categories. Each language is characterized by its own set of grammatical categories, grammes and grammatical ways of expressing grammatical meaning. When comparing the grammatical structure of languages, one should take into account
the following criteria:
Presence/absence of a corresponding grammatical category;
Number of grammes of a grammatical category;
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings of a given grammatical category;
Word categories with which this grammatical category is associated
34. Methods of linguistics
General scientific methods.
Humanity is accumulating research techniques that help identify the hidden specifics of an object. Methods of scientific research are being formed.
Method– the path and method of cognition of an object, depending on the properties of the object, aspect and purpose of the study.
In linguistics there are:
general methods– generalized sets of theoretical principles, language research methods associated with a specific linguistic theory and methodology,
private– individual techniques, techniques, operations – technical means research into a specific aspect of language.
Each method is based on knowledge of objects and phenomena of objective reality, is based on the properties of realities, but nevertheless it is a mental formation, one of the most important categories subjective dialectics.
General scientific methods include observation, experiment, induction, analysis, synthesis.
Observation carried out in natural conditions on the basis of sensory perception of the objects of study. Observation concerns only the external side of phenomena; its results may be random and not reliable enough.
Experiment makes it possible to repeatedly reproduce observations in the process of deliberate and strictly controlled influences of the researcher on the object being studied.
Induction and deduction refer to intellectual ways of knowing. Induction is a generalization of the results of individual private observations. The data obtained as a result of experience is systematized, and a certain empirical law is derived.
Under analysis refers to the mental or experimental division of an object into its component parts or the isolation of the properties of an object for studying them separately. This is the basis for understanding the general through the individual. Synthesis– mental or experimental connection components an object and its properties and studying it as a whole. Analysis and synthesis are connected and mutually determined.
Particular methods of linguistics.
Comparative historical method- a scientific method with the help of which, through comparison, the general and special are revealed in historical phenomena, knowledge of the various historical stages of development of the same phenomenon or two different coexisting phenomena is achieved;
The comparative historical method is a set of techniques that allows one to prove the kinship of certain languages and restore ancient facts their stories. The method was created in the 19th century, its founders were F. Bopp, J. Grimm, R. Rask, A. Kh. Vostokov.
Descriptive method– a system of research techniques used to characterize language phenomena at a given stage of its development; This is a synchronous analysis method.
Comparative method– research and description of a language through its systematic comparison with another language in order to clarify its specificity. The method is aimed primarily at identifying differences between the two languages being compared and is therefore also called contrastive. Underlies contrastive linguistics.
In modern linguistics, considerable attention is given to the study of linguistic phenomena statistical methods of mathematics.
Grammatical meaning (formal) meaning. A meaning that acts as an addition to the lexical meaning of a word and expresses various relationships (the relationship to other words in a phrase or sentence, the relationship to the person performing the action or other persons, the relationship of the reported fact to reality and time, the attitude of the speaker to the communicated, etc. .). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. Thus, the word country has the meaning of feminine, nominative case, singular; the word wrote contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, perfective. Grammatical meanings find their morphological or syntactic expression in the language. They are expressed mainly by the form of the word, which is formed: a) affixation. Book, books, book, etc. (case meanings); b) internal inflection. Collect - collect (imperfect and perfect meanings); c) accent. At home. (gen. fallen. singular) - at home (named. fallen. plural); d) suppletivism. Take - take (meanings of the form). Good - better (values of the degree of comparison); f) mixed (synthetic and analytical methods). To the house (the meaning of the dative case is expressed by a preposition and a case form).
Dictionary-reference book linguistic terms. Ed. 2nd. - M.: Enlightenment. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A.. 1976 .
See what “grammatical meaning” is in other dictionaries:
Grammatical meaning is a meaning expressed by an inflectional morpheme (grammatical indicator). The difference between lexical and grammatical meanings (each of these rules is not absolute and has counterexamples): grammatical ... ... Wikipedia
grammatical meaning- One of the two main aspects of a grammatical unit, along with grammatical form. The grammatical meaning accompanies the word and predetermines the boundaries of its syntactic use (the book has the grammatical meaning of the noun noun).... ...
Grammatical meaning- Grammatical meaning is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular (standard) expression in the language. In the field of morphology it is general values words as parts... ...
grammatical meaning- the meaning of the formal affiliation of the word, i.e. the meaning of a relationship expressed not by a separate word, but by non-independent elements, additional to the main (meaning) part of the word... Explanatory translation dictionary
grammatical meaning as opposed to lexical meaning- 1) G.z. is an intralingual meaning, because contains information about relationships, connections between linguistic units, regardless of the presence of these relationships in extra-linguistic reality; L.z. correlates a linguistic unit with an extralinguistic one... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal
This term has other meanings, see Meaning(s). Meaning is an associative connection between a sign and the object of designation. Words are distinguished by their lexical meaning, the correlation of the sound shell of the word with the corresponding... ... Wikipedia
The meaning contained in a word, the content associated with the concept as a reflection in the consciousness of objects and phenomena of the objective world. The meaning is included in the structure of the word as its content (internal side), in relation to which the sound... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms
This term has other meanings, see Number (meanings). Number (in grammar) is a grammatical category expressing the quantitative characteristics of an object. The division into singular and plural is perhaps... ... Wikipedia
Meaning of the word- For the meaning of the word, see Grammatical meaning, Lexical meaning of the word... Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary
- (derivative meaning) one of the basic concepts of word formation; a special type of word meaning that only a derived word can have. Derivative meaning is expressed using a derivational formant and... ... Wikipedia
Books
- Friedrich Nietzsche. Selected works in 2 books (set of 2 books), Friedrich Nietzsche. Dear reader, we present to your attention two books selected works the great German philosopher, poet and musician - Friedrich Nietzsche. I would like to immediately note that all the syntax...