Historical conditions for the development of Russian classical literature. General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century

XIX century is one of the most significant in Russian literature. It was this era that gave the world the names of great classics who influenced not only Russian but also world culture. The main ideas characteristic of literature this time is growth human soul, the struggle between good and evil, the triumph of morality and purity.

Difference from the previous century

Giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it can be noted that the previous century was characterized by very calm development. Throughout the previous century, poets and writers sang the dignity of man and tried to instill high moral ideals. And only at the end of the century more daring and daring works began to appear - the authors began to focus on human psychology, his experiences and feelings.

Reasons for the rise

While working on homework or a report on the topic “ general characteristics Russian Literature of the 19th Century”, a student may have a natural question: what caused these changes, why literature was able to achieve such high level development? The reason for this was social events - the war with Turkey, the invasion of Napoleonic troops, the abolition of serfdom, and the public reprisal of oppositionists. All this contributed to the fact that completely new methods began to be used in literature. stylistic devices. When working on the general characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is worth mentioning that this era rightfully went down in history as the “Golden Age”.

Literature focus

Russian literature of that time was distinguished by its very bold posing of questions about meaning. human existence, about the most pressing socio-political, moral and ethical problems. She extends the significance of these questions far beyond her own historical era. When preparing a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, one must remember that it became one of the most powerful means of influencing both Russian and foreign readers, acquiring the reputation of an influential force in the development of education.

Phenomenon of the era

If you need to give a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century briefly, it can be noted that a common feature of this era was such a phenomenon as “literary centrism.” This means that literature became a way of communicating ideas and opinions in political debates. It turned into a powerful tool for expressing ideology, defining value guidelines and ideals.

It is impossible to say for sure whether this is good or bad. Of course, giving a general description of the Russian literature of the 19th century century, one can blame the literature of that time for being too “preachy”, “instructive”. After all, it is often said that the desire to become a prophet can lead to inappropriate guardianship. And this is fraught with the development of intolerance towards dissent of any kind. Of course, there is some truth in such reasoning, however, when giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is necessary to take into account the historical realities in which the writers, poets, and critics of that time lived. A. I. Herzen, when he found himself in exile, described this phenomenon as follows: “For a people who have been deprived of freedom of speech and self-expression, literature remains almost the only outlet.”

The role of literature in society

N.G. Chernyshevsky said practically the same thing: “Literature in our country still concentrates the entire mental life of the people.” Here it is worth paying attention to the word “yet.” Chernyshevsky, who argued that literature is a textbook of life, still admitted that mental life people should not be concentrated in it constantly. However, “for now”, in those conditions of Russian reality, it was she who took on this function.

Modern society should be grateful to those writers and poets who, in difficult times, social conditions, despite persecution (it is worth remembering the same N. G. Chernyshevsky, F. M. Dostoevsky and others), with the help of their works they contributed to the awakening of the bright in man, spiritual origin, integrity, active opposition to evil, honesty and mercy. Taking all this into account, we can agree with the opinion expressed by N. A. Nekrasov in his message to Leo Tolstoy in 1856: “The role of a writer in our country is, first of all, the role of a teacher.”

General and different in representatives of the “Golden Age”

Preparing materials on the topic “General characteristics of Russian classical literature 19th century,” it is worth saying that all the representatives of the “Golden Age” were different, their world was unique and original. It is difficult to fit the writers of that time into one general image. After all, every true artist (by this word we mean a poet, a composer, and a painter) creates his own world, guided by personal principles. For example, the world of Leo Tolstoy is not similar to the world of Dostoevsky. Saltykov-Shchedrin perceived and transformed reality differently than, for example, Goncharov. However, representatives of the “Golden Age” also have common feature- this is responsibility to the reader, talent, a high understanding of the role that literature plays in a person’s life.

General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century: table

The “Golden Age” is a time of writers of completely different literary movements. First, let's look at them in a summary table, after which each of the directions will be considered in more detail.

Russian literature of this era reflected the leap that was made in the previous century. The “Golden Age” began mainly with the flourishing of two movements - sentimentalism and romanticism. Since the middle of the century, the direction of realism has become increasingly powerful. This is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century. The tablet will help the student navigate the main movements and representatives of the “Golden Age”. In the process of preparing for the lesson, it should be mentioned that the further socio-political situation in the country is becoming more and more tense, the contradictions between the oppressed classes and common people. This leads to the fact that in the middle of the century the development of poetry somewhat subsides. And the end of the era is accompanied by revolutionary sentiments.

Classicism

This direction is worth mentioning when giving a general description of Russian literature of the early 19th century. After all, classicism, which arose a century ago before the beginning of the “Golden Age”, primarily refers to its beginning. This term translated from Latin language means “exemplary” and is directly related to the imitation of classical images. This trend arose in France in the 17th century. At its core, it was associated with absolute monarchy and the establishment of the nobility. It is characterized by ideas of high civic themes, strict adherence to the norms of creativity, established rules. Classicism reflects real life V ideal images, which gravitate towards a certain pattern. This direction strictly adheres to the hierarchy of genres - the highest place among them is occupied by tragedy, ode and epic. They are the ones who illuminate the most important issues for society, are designed to reflect the highest, heroic manifestations of human nature. As a rule, “high” genres were contrasted with “low” ones - fables, comedies, satirical and other works that also reflected reality.

Sentimentalism

Giving a general description of the development of Russian literature of the 19th century, one cannot fail to mention such a direction as sentimentalism. The narrator's voice plays a big role in it. This direction, as indicated in the table, is characterized by increased attention to a person’s experiences, to his inner world. This is the innovation of sentimentalism. In Russian literature special place Among the works of sentimentalism, Karamzin’s “Poor Liza” ranks.

The words of the writer are noteworthy, which can characterize this direction: “And peasant women know how to love.” Many claimed that a common person, a commoner and a peasant, is morally superior in many ways to a nobleman or a representative of high society. Landscape plays an important role in sentimentalism. This is not just a description of nature, but a reflection of the inner experiences of the characters.

Romanticism

This is one of the most controversial phenomena of Russian literature of the Golden Age. For more than a century and a half, there have been debates about what lies at its basis, and no one has yet given any recognized definition to this movement. The representatives themselves this direction They emphasized the uniqueness of the literature of each individual people. One cannot but agree with this opinion - in each country, romanticism acquires its own characteristics. Also, giving a general description of the development of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is worth noting that almost all representatives of romanticism advocated social ideals, however, they did it differently.

Representatives of this movement dreamed not of improving life in its particular manifestations, but of a complete resolution of all contradictions. For many romantics, the prevailing mood in their works is the struggle against evil, protest against the injustice reigning in the world. Also, romantics tend to turn to mythological, fantasy, folk tales. In contrast to the direction of classicism, serious influence is given to the inner world of man.

Realism

The goal of this direction is a truthful description of the surrounding reality. It is realism that matures on the basis of tense political situation. Writers are starting to turn to social problems, to objective reality. The three main realists of this era are considered to be Dostoevsky, Tolstoy and Turgenev. The main theme of this direction is life, customs, life events ordinary people from the lower classes.

UDC 882

annotation: The article analyzes character traits Russian literature,socio-historicalreasons for its emergence as one of the most original literatures peace.

Keywords: Russian literature, fundamental features of Russian literature.

The work was carried out within the framework of the project "Russia and Europe: Dialogue of cultures in the mutual reflection of literatures", carried out with the support of the Russian Humanitarian Science Foundation (RGNF) (grant No. 06-04-00578a).

Russian literature has a specificity that is resistant to various changes, distinguishing it from other literatures of the world. Big role Socio-historical reasons played a role here. Initially, Russian literature arose with a focus on very narrow circle literate people, leaving folklore to serve the needs of the vast population of Rus', Russia, who are not allowed to read and write. The main layer of literate people are leaders of the church and state, therefore Russian literature for many centuries has been characterized by spirituality and statehood. “Spirituality” (as esoteric knowledge, only for initiates), so characteristic of Eastern literature, during the strengthening of the secular principle in Russian culture, was transformed into “spirituality.” Hence the special sincerity of the works of Russian classics, which forced foreigners to talk about the “mysterious Russian soul.”

If in the literature of Europe for many centuries the aesthetic principle took precedence, then in Russian literature the ethical principle initially took precedence. More precisely, we should even talk about the moral core, and not about the ethical principle, which comes from the mind (requires precise formulations), while morality comes from the soul, the heart, not from the idea of ​​what should be, but from the image of what should be.

In the same way, the content of the work was more important than the form. Pushkin balanced the moral and aesthetic, content and form. But in Tolstoy and Dostoevsky the original priority of the moral principle, the substantive side, is again palpable. One of the reasons for this lies in the struggle of major Russian writers with the theory of “art for art’s sake,” which is not by chance represented in Russian culture much weaker than, for example, in French. It is characteristic that even the work of the head of European aestheticism, Wilde, is perceived by Russians primarily in a moral aspect.

For European countries The 19th century is characterized by the rapid development of forms of mass, entertainment culture, focused on the lower part of the “thesaurus pyramid”; the genres of adventure novel, detective story, melodrama, etc., focused on attracting attention, are developing. wide range readers. In Russian literature, only some elements of these genres are used (for example, detective episodes in Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment); classical examples of this kind of literature practically do not arise.

A fundamental change in the situation could occur in Soviet period, when, as a result of the nationwide eradication of illiteracy, huge masses of people gained access to books. But here are Soviet guidelines for educating a new person who has mastered all the riches of culture, a person of high moral principles(often naively straightforward, but generated by centuries-old Russian cultural tradition) played a decisive role: literature retained its moral orientation, even with the distortions that arose due to the vulgar sociological understanding of reality, which was established at the official level.

The most important factor here is the introduction of a single school curriculum on literature. It included classical works Russian literature, and even not understanding enough “Eugene Onegin” in the 8th grade, and “War and Peace” in the 10th grade, millions of schoolchildren formed their taste on great examples of art. From works Soviet writers predominantly those were chosen that were supposed to provide examples of moral, heroic behavior (“How the Steel Was Tempered” by N. A. Ostrovsky, “Pedagogical Poem” by A. S. Makarenko, “Young Guard” by A. A. Fadeev, “Vasily Terkin” by A. T. Tvardovsky), while such aesthetically perfect works as the poems of A. A. Akhmatova, B. L. Pasternak, M. I. Tsvetaeva were not even mentioned. One can condemn such a selection, but from the above it is clear that in the new conditions he continued the line traditional for Russian literature.

Obviously, the formalism of some phenomena of Russian art of the early twentieth century and Soviet art 1920s, which had a huge influence on Western culture, in our country was very short-lived not only because of Stalin’s attitudes in the field of culture, but also because it was incongruous with the centuries-old Russian tradition. Thus, K. Malevich’s painting “Black Square”, which received global recognition and valued at $1 million, only makes the vast majority of the Russian intelligentsia smile.

Already in the first works ancient Russian literature“monumental historicism” arose (the term of Academician D.S. Likhachev), where historicism appears not in the form of a principle discovered by the romantics, but in the sense of the connection of any private event, the individual fate of a person with the fate of society, the state. This quality has passed through all centuries of the development of Russian literature. She is quite alien to admiration for an individualist and close to a person’s desire to feel his connection with other people. This quality is often associated with the traditions of life in the peasant community, which were preserved even in secular society. Career, personal success, enrichment, well-being and even personal happiness are considered by Russian writers not to be values, but rather to be minus values.

Traditional for the composition of many works of Western literature happy ending (« a happy ending") is not often present in Russian writers, and if it is used (for example, in “Guilty Without Guilt” by A. N. Ostrovsky), it is colored by the suffering of the heroes and, in fact, is not the true end. In general, compositional completeness is not very characteristic of works of Russian literature. Writers prefer open finals(“Woe from Wit” by Griboyedov, “Eugene Onegin” and “ Queen of Spades"Pushkin, "The Inspector General" and "Dead Souls" by Gogol, "Crime and Punishment" and "The Brothers Karamazov" by Dostoevsky, plays by Chekhov and Gorky, " Quiet Don" Sholokhov, etc.). Where the narrative is brought to its logical conclusion, the writer often continues his thoughts (“War and Peace” and “Anna Karenina” by L. Tolstoy). It is no coincidence that Western literature The genre of the short story (a work with a closed composition) became established, and in Russian literature, among small narrative forms, preference was given to the short story (a work with an open ending).

Russian literature is designed for slower reading than, for example, English or French literature. It's connected with linguistic features: Russian words are longer than English or French. Russian is a synthetic language, and a single word, where a root appears surrounded by prefixes, suffixes, endings, or in combination with another root, requires more attention than in analytical languages. The writing of letters in the Cyrillic alphabet itself is longer and more difficult to recognize (especially in handwriting) than in the Latin alphabet. The slowdown in reading is also associated with a large number of punctuation marks, which are often placed in the Russian language where they are not required in European languages. Such a slowdown requires writers to more saturate each phrase with thought, smoothness, leisurely style, the absence of sharp leaps in the narrative and too acute emotional outbursts when describing the feelings of the characters. This is one of the reasons for special attention to the description of Russian nature, discreet, flat, awakening philosophical reflection on the meaning of life and existence.

Nouns, adjectives, and adverbs have an unprecedented richness and variety of shades in the Russian language. On the contrary, the verb tense system is much poorer than in Western languages. Hence such a feature of Russian literature as the tendency to create static paintings, grandiose panoramas, multi-figure compositions and relative indifference to action, its rapid change, so, for example, characteristic of the action genre in Western cinema and literature. Time appears in Russian literature, as a rule, in simple and large forms of the past, present and future in the spirit of figurative “monumental historicism”.

The current state of Russian literature, marked by significant renewal and at the same time weakening moral core, passion for formal experiments, rapid development of genres popular culture(detective, women's novel etc.), obviously through certain time will change, and its fundamental features that have developed over a thousand years of existence will again clearly appear (but in updated forms).

Lukov Vladimir Andreevich — Doctor of Philology, Professor, Head of the Center for Theory and History of Culture at the Institute for Humanitarian Research at Moscow University for the Humanities, Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Academician of the International Academy of Sciences ( IAS , Innsbruck), Academician-Secretary of the International Academy of Sciences of Teacher Education.

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Barbos and the crook A. - the dog and the lion of L. Tolstoy

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Two frivolous retired generals found themselves on a desert island. “generals served all their lives in some kind of registry; they were born there, raised and grew old, and therefore did not understand anything. They didn’t even know any words except: “Accept the assurance of my complete respect and devotion.” one day the generals woke up - lo and behold, they were lying on the shore and there was nothing on either one or the other, except nightgown Yes, there are medals around my neck. the general who served as a calligraphy teacher was a little smarter than the other. he suggests walking around the island and looking for food. but where to go? the generals cannot determine where is west and where is east. The island is abundant, there is everything, but the generals are suffering from hunger and cannot get anything. they find only the “Moscow Gazette”, where, as luck would have it, luxurious dinners are described. from hunger the generals almost missed each other. former teacher I came up with calligraphy: we need to find a man who will take care of them. “They wandered around the island for a long time without any success, but finally the pungent smell of chaff bread and sour sheepskin put them on the trail.” They look at a lazy man sleeping under a tree. He saw the generals and wanted to run, but they grabbed him tightly. the man begins to work: he picked the generals a dozen ripe apples, and took one sour one for himself; dug in the ground and got potatoes; rubbed two pieces of wood against each other - and got fire; He made a snare from his own hair and caught a hazel grouse. and prepared so much food that the generals even thought about giving the “parasite” a piece? Before lying down to rest, the man, on the orders of the generals, twists a rope, and they tie him to a tree so that he does not run away. two days later the man became so skilled that “he even began to cook soup in a handful.” the generals are well-fed and happy, and in the meantime their pensions are accumulating in St. Petersburg. The generals are sitting and reading the Moscow Gazette. but they got bored. the man built a boat, covered its bottom with swan's down, laid the generals down and, crossing himself, sailed. “How much fear the generals gained during the journey from various storms and winds, how much they scolded the man for his parasitism - this cannot be described with a pen, nor in a fairy tale.” but finally here is St. Petersburg. “The cooks clasped their hands when they saw how well-fed, white and cheerful their generals were! the generals drank coffee, ate buns, went to the treasury and received a lot of money. however, they didn’t forget about the peasant; sent him a glass of vodka and a nickel of silver: have fun, man

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What influence does true art have on a person? is it capable of morally transforming him? The author of the text makes us think about these questions. G.I. Uspensky in this text reflects on the role of art. he talks about how he accidentally went into the Louvre and saw a statue of the Venus de Milo. He looked at her for a long time, as if spellbound, feeling genuine joy within himself. something unusual happened to him at that moment. After this meeting, Mr. Uspensky changed a lot. the author believes that art is morally capable of transforming a person. I completely share the author’s point of view that art can create miracles. we should spend more time on what surrounds us, because there is so much beauty around us, but often, being in ourselves, we do not notice it. in the story of a. And. "ballroom pianist" main character Yura Azagarov attracted A.'s interest with his brilliant piano playing. city ​​of Rubinstein. At the end of this story, the reader understands that everything in Yura’s life is going well with his love for art. One of Anna Akhmatova’s poems, “solitude,” is dedicated to the theme of art. According to the poetess, love for beauty can heal a person, take him out of the circle of encircling interests and passions, depression and despondency. and to the beautiful wise life. so many stones have been thrown at me that not one of them is any longer scary, and a trap has become a slender tower, high, in the middle tall towers. After reading the article, I realized how great the role of art is, which can make our world kinder and better. after all, as the great f. Dostoevsky, “beauty will save the world.”

Russian literature is a great heritage of the entire Russian people. Without it, since the 19th century, it is unthinkable World culture. The historical and cultural process and periodization of Russian literature have their own logic and characteristic features. Having begun more than a thousand years ago, its phenomenon continues to develop in the time frame of our days. This will be the subject of this article. We will answer the question of what is the periodization of Russian literature (RL).

general information

At the very beginning of the story, we summarized and presented the periodization of Russian literature. The table, compactly and clearly demonstrating the main stages of its development, illustrates the development cultural process in Russia. Next, let's look at the information in detail.

Conclusion

Russian literature is truly capable of stirring up “good feelings.” Her potential is bottomless. From the sunny musical style of Pushkin and Balmont to the intellectually deep and imaginative representation of our virtual century by Pelevin. Fans of sentimental lyrics will enjoy Akhmatova’s work. It contains both the wisdom inherent in Tolstoy and the filigree psychologism of Dostoevsky, to whom Freud himself doffed his hat. Even among prose writers there are those whose style is artistic expression reminds me of poetry. These are Turgenev and Gogol. Lovers of subtle humor will discover Ilf and Petrov. Those who want to taste the adrenaline from the plots of the criminal world will open the novels of Friedrich Neznansky. Fantasy connoisseurs will not be disappointed by Vadim Panov's books.

In Russian literature, every reader can find something that will touch his soul. Good books like friends or fellow travelers. They are able to console, advise, entertain, support.