The years of Soviet power significantly changed the face of Russia. The changes that have occurred cannot be assessed unambiguously. On the one hand, one cannot help but admit that during the years of the revolution and after it, great damage was done to culture: many prominent writers, artists, and scientists were forced to leave the country or died. It became increasingly difficult for those cultural figures who did not leave, but could not find a common language with the established authorities, to reach the viewer, reader, and listener. Architectural monuments were destroyed: only in the 30s. In Moscow, the Sukharev Tower, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Miracle Monastery in the Kremlin, the Red Gate and hundreds of unknown urban and rural churches, many of which were of historical and artistic value, were destroyed.

At the same time, significant progress has been made in many areas of cultural development. These primarily include the sphere of education. The systematic efforts of the Soviet state led to the fact that the proportion of the literate population in Russia grew steadily. By 1939, the number of literate people in the RSFSR was already 89 percent. Since the 1930/31 school year, compulsory primary education was introduced. In addition, by the thirties, the Soviet school gradually moved away from many revolutionary innovations that had not justified themselves: the class-lesson system was restored, subjects that had previously been excluded from the program as “bourgeois” (primarily history, general and domestic) were returned to the schedule. Since the beginning of the 30s. The number of educational institutions involved in the training of engineering, technical, agricultural and pedagogical personnel grew rapidly. In 1936, the All-Union Committee for Higher Education was created.

The situation in the literature has changed significantly. In the early 30s. The existence of free creative circles and groups came to an end. By the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of April 23, 1932 “On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations,” RAPP was liquidated. And in 1934, at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers, the “Writers' Union” was organized, which all people engaged in literary work were forced to join. The Writers' Union has become an instrument of total government control over the creative process. It was impossible not to be a member of the Union, because in this case the writer would be deprived of the opportunity to publish his works and, moreover, could be prosecuted for “parasitism.” M. Gorky stood at the origins of this organization, but his chairmanship did not last long. After his death in 1936, A.A. became chairman. Fadeev (former RAPP member), who remained in this post throughout the Stalin era (until his suicide in 1956). In addition to the "Union of Writers", other "creative" unions were organized: "Union of Artists", "Union of Architects", "Union of Composers". A period of uniformity was beginning in Soviet art.

Having carried out organizational unification, the Stalinist regime set about stylistic and ideological unification. In 1936, a “discussion about formalism” began. During the “discussion”, through harsh criticism, the persecution of those representatives of the creative intelligentsia began, whose aesthetic principles differed from the “socialist realism” that was becoming generally binding. Symbolists, futurists, impressionists, imagists, etc. came under a barrage of offensive attacks. They were accused of “formalistic quirks”, that their art was not needed by the Soviet people, that it was rooted in soil hostile to socialism. Among the “outsiders” were composer D. Shostakovich, director S. Eisenstein, writers B. Pasternak, Y. Olesha and others. Articles appeared in the press: “Confusion instead of music,” “Ballet falsehood,” “About dirty artists.” Essentially, the “fight against formalism” had the goal of destroying all those whose talent was not put to the service of power. Many artists were repressed.

As already mentioned, the so-called “socialist realism” became the defining style in literature, painting and other forms of art. This style had little in common with true realism. Despite the external “liveness”, he did not reflect reality in its present form, but sought to pass off as reality what should only have been from the point of view of official ideology. The function of educating society within the strictly defined framework of communist morality was imposed on art. Labor enthusiasm, universal devotion to the ideas of Lenin-Stalin, Bolshevik adherence to principles - this is how the heroes of the works of official art of that time lived. The reality was much more complex and generally far from the proclaimed ideal.

The limited ideological framework of social realism became a significant obstacle to the development of Soviet literature. However, in the 30s. Several major works appeared that entered the history of Russian culture. Perhaps the most important figure in the official literature of those years was Mikhail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov (1905-1984). An outstanding work is his novel "Quiet Don", which tells about the Don Cossacks during the First World War and the Civil War. The novel “Virgin Soil Upturned” is dedicated to collectivization on the Don. Remaining, at least outwardly, within the boundaries of socialist realism, Sholokhov managed to create a three-dimensional picture of the events that took place, to show the tragedy of fratricidal hostility among the Cossacks that unfolded on the Don in the post-revolutionary years. Sholokhov was favored by Soviet criticism. His literary work was awarded the State and Lenin Prizes, he was twice awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor, and he was elected academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Sholokhov's work received worldwide recognition: he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his writing achievements (1965).

In the thirties, M. Gorky completed his last epic novel, The Life of Klim Samgin. Metaphorical nature and philosophical depth are characteristic of L.M.’s prose. Leonov ("The Thief" 1927, "Sot" 1930), who played a special role in the development of the Soviet novel. The work of N.A. was extremely popular. Ostrovsky, author of the novel “How the Steel Was Tempered” (1934), dedicated to the era of the formation of Soviet power. The main character of the novel, Pavka Korchagin, was an example of a fiery Komsomol member. In the works of N. Ostrovsky, like no one else, the educational function of Soviet literature was manifested. The ideal character Pavka in reality became an example for the broad masses of Soviet youth. A.N. became a classic of the Soviet historical novel. Tolstoy ("Peter I" 1929-1945). The twenties and thirties were the heyday of children's literature. Several generations of Soviet people grew up reading the books of K.I. Chukovsky, S.Ya. Marshak, A.P. Gaidar, S.V. Mikhalkova, A.L. Barto, V.A. Kaverina, L.A. Kassilya, V.P. Kataeva.

Despite ideological dictatorship and total control, free literature continued to develop. Under the threat of repression, under the fire of loyal criticism, without hope of publication, writers who did not want to cripple their work for the sake of Stalinist propaganda continued to work. Many of them never saw their works published; this happened after their death.

In 1928, persecuted by Soviet criticism, M.A. Bulgakov, without any hope of publication, begins to write his best novel, The Master and Margarita. Work on the novel continued until the death of the writer in 1940. This work was published only in 1966. Even later, in the late 80s, the works of A.P. Platonova (Klimentova) "Chevengur", "Pit", "Juvenile Sea". Poets A.A. worked “at the table”. Akhmatova, B.L. Parsnip. The fate of Osip Emilievich Mandelstam (1891-1938) is tragic. A poet of extraordinary strength and great visual precision, he was among those writers who, having accepted the October Revolution in their time, could not get along in Stalinist society. In 1938 he was repressed.

In the 30s The Soviet Union is gradually beginning to isolate itself from the rest of the world, contacts with foreign countries are being minimized, and the penetration of any information “from there” is being placed under the strictest control. Many Russian writers remained behind the Iron Curtain, who, despite the lack of a readership, the unsettled life, and spiritual breakdown, continue to work. Their works convey a longing for a bygone Russia. A writer of the first magnitude was the poet and prose writer Ivan Alekseevich Bunin (1870-1953). Bunin did not accept the revolution from the very beginning and emigrated to France, where he spent the second half of his life. Bunin's prose is distinguished by the beauty of its language and special lyricism. In emigration, his best works were created, which captured pre-revolutionary, noble, estate Russia, and the atmosphere of Russian life of those years was surprisingly poetically conveyed. The pinnacle of his work is considered to be the story "Mitya's Love", the autobiographical novel "The Life of Arsenyev", and the collection of short stories "Dark Alleys". In 1933 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

The classics of socialist realism in fine art were the works of B.V. Ioganson. In 1933, the painting “Interrogation of Communists” was painted. In contrast to the abundance of “paintings” that appeared at that time, depicting and glorifying the Leader or deliberately optimistic paintings like “Collective Farm Holiday” by S.V. Gerasimov, Ioganson’s work is distinguished by great artistic power - the unbending will of people doomed to death, which the artist masterfully managed to convey, touches the viewer regardless of political beliefs. Ioganson also painted large paintings “At the Old Ural Factory” and “Speech by V.I. Lenin at the 3rd Komsomol Congress”. In the 30s, K.S. continued to work. Petrov-Vodkin, P.P. Konchalovsky, A.A. Deineka, a series of beautiful portraits of his contemporaries were created by M.V. Nesterov, the landscapes of Armenia found poetic embodiment in the paintings of M. S. Saryan. The work of the student M.V. is interesting. Nesterova P.D. Corina. In 1925, Korin conceived a large painting that was supposed to depict a religious procession during a funeral. The artist made a huge number of preparatory sketches: landscapes, many portraits of representatives of Orthodox Rus', from beggars to church hierarchs. The title of the painting was suggested by M. Gorky - “Departing Rus'”. However, after the death of the great writer, who provided patronage to the artist, the work had to be stopped. The most famous work of P.D. Corina became the triptych "Alexander Nevsky" (1942).

The pinnacle of the development of socialist realism sculpture was the composition “Worker and Collective Farm Woman” by Vera Ignatievna Mukhina (1889-1953). The sculptural group was made by V. I. Mukhina for the Soviet pavilion at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1937.

In architecture in the early 30s. Constructivism continues to be the leading one, widely used for the construction of public and residential buildings. The aesthetics of simple geometric forms, characteristic of constructivism, influenced the architecture of the Lenin Mausoleum, built in 1930 according to the design of A.V. Shchuseva. The mausoleum is remarkable in its own way. The architect managed to avoid unnecessary pomp. The tomb of the leader of the world proletariat is a modest, small in size, very laconic structure that fits perfectly into the ensemble of Red Square. By the end of the 30s. the functional simplicity of constructivism begins to give way to neoclassicism. Lush stucco molding, huge columns with pseudo-classical capitals come into fashion, gigantomania and a tendency towards deliberate richness of decoration, often bordering on bad taste, appear. This style is sometimes called the “Stalinist Empire style,” although with the real Empire style, which is characterized, first of all, by the deepest internal harmony and restraint of forms, in reality it is only related by a genetic connection with the ancient heritage. The sometimes vulgar splendor of Stalinist neoclassicism was intended to express the strength and power of the totalitarian state.

Cinema is developing rapidly. The number of films being shot is increasing. New opportunities opened up with the advent of sound cinema. In 1938, the film by S.M. was released. Eisenstein "Alexander Nevsky" with N.K. Cherkasov in the title role. The principles of socialist realism are affirmed in cinema. Films on revolutionary themes are being made: “Lenin in October” (dir. M.I. Romm), “Man with a Gun” (dir. S.I. Yutkevich); films about the fate of a working man: the trilogy about Maxim “Maxim’s Youth”, “The Return of Maxim”, “Vyborg Side” (dir. G.M. Kozintsev); comedies: “Jolly Guys”, “Volga-Volga” (dir. S.A. Gerasimov), “Pig Farmer and the Shepherd” (dir. I.A. Pyryev). The film of the brothers (in reality, only namesakes, “brothers” is a kind of pseudonym) G.N. was extremely popular. and S.D. Vasiliev - "Chapaev" (1934).

The 1930s turned out to be difficult for Russian science. On the one hand, large-scale research programs are being launched in the USSR, new research institutes are being created: in 1934 S.I. Vavilov founded the Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences named after. P.N. Lebedev (FIAN), at the same time the Institute of Organic Chemistry was created in Moscow P.L. Kapitsa created the Institute of Physical Problems, and in 1937 the Institute of Geophysics was created. Physiologist I.P. continues to work. Pavlov, breeder I.V. Michurin. The work of Soviet scientists resulted in numerous discoveries, both in fundamental and applied fields. Historical science is being revived. As was said, history teaching is being resumed in secondary and high schools. The Research Institute of History is being created at the USSR Academy of Sciences. In the 1930s, outstanding Soviet historians worked: academician B.D. Grekov is the author of works on the history of medieval Russia ("Kievan Rus", "Peasants in Rus' from ancient times to the 18th century," etc.); Academician E.V. Tarle is an expert on the modern history of European countries and, above all, Napoleonic France ("The Working Class in France in the Age of Revolution", "Napoleon", etc.).

At the same time, Stalin's totalitarianism created serious obstacles to the normal development of scientific knowledge. The autonomy of the Academy of Sciences was eliminated. In 1934, it was transferred from Leningrad to Moscow and subordinated to the Council of People's Commissars. The establishment of administrative methods of managing science led to the fact that many promising areas of research (for example, genetics, cybernetics) were frozen for many years at the arbitrariness of incompetent party functionaries. In an atmosphere of general denunciation and growing repression, academic discussions often ended in violence, when one of the opponents, having been accused (albeit unfoundedly) of political unreliability, was not only deprived of the opportunity to work, but was subjected to physical destruction. A similar fate was destined for many representatives of the intelligentsia. The victims of repression were such prominent scientists as biologist, founder of Soviet genetics, academician and president of the All-Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences N.I. Vavilov, scientist and rocketry designer, future academician and twice Hero of Socialist Labor S.P. Korolev and many others.

Vladimir

Question 1 Situation in the field of culture and education One of the most important tasks facing society was the implementation of fundamental changes in the field of culture and education. Due to the fact that the majority of the population of Ukraine could not read and write, effective measures were taken to eliminate mass illiteracy. In 1921, the All-Ukrainian Extraordinary Commission to Combat Illiteracy was created. Thanks to her efforts, by 1927, 2 million people in Ukraine had learned to read and write. In the 1928/1929 school year, the number of students in schools increased to 2.6 million, although almost a third of school-age children were still not attending school. But already in the 1932/1933 academic year in Ukraine there were 21.7 thousand schools, in which 4.5 million students studied. In 1934, three types of comprehensive schools were established: primary (four-year course of study), incomplete secondary (seven-year), secondary (ten-year). At the same time, the transition to compulsory universal primary education, and in cities to universal seven-year education, ended. By the end of the 30s. Illiteracy among adults has been largely eliminated. A significant drawback in the development of public education was that in the teaching environment of the 30s. There were still few trained specialists, people with higher education. Almost a third of teachers had incomplete secondary education. Even fewer teachers had special pedagogical education. 133 The formation of a new intelligentsia occurred at a rapid pace. The main role in this process was played by higher and secondary educational institutions. If in the 1914-1915 academic year in Ukraine there were 88 secondary specialized educational institutions, in which 12.5 thousand students studied, then in the 1940-1941 academic year there were already 693, and the number of students in them increased to 196.3 thousand. Human. A massive educational campaign was conducted in Ukrainian. Thanks to the activities of the People's Commissar for Education N. Skrypnik, more than 80% of secondary schools and 30% of higher educational institutions provided instruction exclusively in the Ukrainian language. The Ukrainian press experienced a similar revival. By 1927, more than half of the books in the republic were published in Ukrainian, and in 1933, out of 426 republican newspapers, 373 were published in Ukrainian. In Ukrainian literature of the 20s. democratic and revolutionary traditions were combined. At this time, a bright revolutionary-romantic movement was formed, which was represented by P. Tychina, V. Chumak, V. Sosyura, N. Bazhan. Representatives of other creative movements - M. Rylsky, P. Filippovich and others - actively spoke. Significant events in literary life were N. Khvylovy’s pamphlets, G. Kosynka’s short stories and stories, O. Vishny’s satire and humor, N. Kulish’s drama and prose, I. .Dneprovsky, A.Golovko. A characteristic feature of the literary process in Ukraine in the 20s. there was the emergence and collapse of many literary organizations, such as “Hart”, “Plow”, “Vanguard”, “Molodnyak”, “New Generation”, etc. In 1925, the Free Academy of Proletarian Literature (VAPLITE) arose, the ideological leader of which was N. Khvylevoy. All this testified to a real revival of Ukrainian literature and culture in general. However, the literary process was negatively affected by the replacement of universal human values ​​with class ones, which led to the ideologization of all art. And ultimately - to groundless accusations of “nationalism” against many artists. N. Khvylevoy was one of the first to be at the center of this campaign. In the 20s In Ukraine, the formation of the Ukrainian Soviet theater was intensively taking place, associated with the work of such stage masters as L. Kurbas, G. Yura and others. All types of fine arts were developing, represented by artists of the older generation - M. Boychuk, K. Trokhimenko and others, and by young artists - A. Petritsky, V. Kasyan, sculptor M. Lysenko and others. The first and immediately noticeable steps were taken by Ukrainian cinema. In 1928, A. Dovzhenko’s first film “Zvenigora” was released.

An important component of the cultural and political processes in Ukraine in the 20-30s was the policy of indigenization, proclaimed by the XII Congress of the RCP (b). In Ukraine, this distal policy is called “Ukrainization”. The policy of indigenization ("Ukrainization") was determined by many external and internal reasons: 1. By forming an attractive image of the USSR in the international arena as a state in which the harmonious and free development of the Soviet republic is supposedly ensured, the free development of national minorities is guaranteed. 2. The need to achieve a kind of compromise with the peasantry (the bulk of the national republics were the peasantry) and the national intelligentsia through the liberalization of national relations. 3. An attempt by the Bolshevik Party to expand the social base of its system, attracting representatives of non-Russian peoples to the parties and to the management of the republic [In 1920, the Ukrainian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) made up only 19%, while they made up 80% of the population of the Ukrainian SSR, and only 11 % of communists considered Ukrainian their native language, and only 2% spoke it]. 4. An attempt by the Soviet leadership to lead and bring under control the process of national revival of the outskirts, so that it does not result in anti-centrifugal directions. 5. The need to strengthen the newly formed state entity - the USSR, by granting the rights of “cultural-national autonomy” to at least partially compensate the republics for the loss of their political sovereignty, etc. In the practical implementation of “Ukrainization” in Ukraine, the following can be distinguished: consequences: 1. Removal from power of the overt chauvinists of the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (b) E. Quiring and the second secretary D. Lebed, who proclaimed the theory of the struggle of two cultures, progressive, revolutionary, urban Russian and counter-revolutionary, backward rural Ukrainian culture. In their struggle, Ukrainian culture must retreat and perish. 2. Expanding the scope of use of the Ukrainian language in public life. [Since August 1923, Ukrainian language courses have been organized for government officials and party functionaries. Anyone who did not pass them and did not pass the exam risked losing their position. Since 1925, the mandatory use of the Ukrainian language in state office work was introduced. Since 1927, party documentation has been translated into Ukrainian]. 3. The number of Ukrainians in the party and state apparatus is growing. Thus, in 1923 their share was 25-35%, and in 1927 - 52-54%. The quantitative growth was accompanied by important structural changes. One of them was the emergence of a new state-political, economic and cultural elite, the backbone of which were the so-called national communists, natives of the former Ukrainian left parties. 4. “Ukrainization” had the greatest impact on the development of national education. It coincided with the Bolsheviks’ deployment of the so-called cultural revolution, one of the main directions of which was the elimination of illiteracy. In 1930, compulsory primary education began to be introduced in Ukraine. In 1927, 97% of Ukrainian children studied in Ukrainian. This figure was never surpassed during the years of Soviet power (in 1990 it was only 47.9%). The growth of the network of Ukrainian-language educational institutions went in parallel with the development of scientific research in various fields of Ukrainian studies. 5. The number of Ukrainian press increased sharply (in 1933 it accounted for 89% of the total circulation of newspapers in the republic). 6. Ukrainian-language stationary theaters in 1931 accounted for 3/4 of all theaters in Ukraine; in 1927/29, the largest film studio in Europe at that time was built in Kyiv. 7. The city began to lose its position as a citadel of Russian identity. 8. Diverse cultural and educational work was carried out among Ukrainians living compactly outside Ukraine (in 1925, 6.5 million Ukrainians lived outside Ukraine). 9. Much attention was paid to the development of national minorities in Ukraine. Thus, during 1925, 7 German, 4 Bulgarian, one Polish and one Jewish national districts were formed, as well as 954 village councils of national minorities, 100 city councils. Currently, there were 966 schools in Ukraine with German as the language of instruction, 342 with Jewish, 31 with Tatar, etc., and in general, primary education was carried out in more than 20 languages. It should be said that none of the republican “indigenization” has gone as far as the Ukrainian one. During ten years of “Ukrainization” (1923-1933), Ukrainians became a structurally full-fledged nation. However, in the early 30s, “Ukrainization,” which was rightly called the Ukrainian Renaissance, began to be gradually curtailed. The struggle against bourgeois nationalism begins, in the wake of this struggle Khvylyova and N. Skripnik shot themselves (1933), which became a kind of signal of the end of “Ukrainization.” The policy of “Ukrainization” was finally curtailed in 1938, when a resolution of the Council of People’s Commissars of the Ukrainian SSR was issued on the compulsory teaching of the Russian language in all non-Russian schools, which contributed to the process of Russification, and a resolution of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (b) U on the liquidation of national administrative-territorial entities, the so-called. d. So, The course of “Ukrainization” proclaimed by the party and its consequences were of great importance. However, it would be a big mistake to consider it only the result of the deliberate efforts of the Bolshevik Party. It was previously a distant echo of the Ukrainian national revolution of 1917-1920. If the national communists acted as the leading cadres of the “Ukrainization” policy, then the huge army of performers consisted mainly of the Ukrainian intelligentsia, a significant part of which took part in the national liberation struggle. A special group among them were Ukrainian emigrants and people from Galicia, who believed in the seriousness of the course towards “Ukrainization”. In general, the course towards “Ukrainization” was a tactical step that did not correspond to the strategic plans of the Communist Party.

Art of the 20-30s

Basic ideas and directions in the development of art. Painting. During the interwar period, new movements and directions appeared in art, and old ones developed. Before the First World War, realism dominated European fine art. The world then seemed worthy of his realistic depiction. The personality of the artist, his tastes and preferences could be in the choice of genre, composition, in the superiority of form or color.

The First World War and post-war instability led to the fact that the world lost its harmony and rationality in the eyes of artists; its realistic reflection seemed to lose its meaning. There has been a change in the understanding of the artist. It consisted not in an adequate reflection of the world, but in identifying the artist’s vision of the world. And such an understanding of the world could lead, for example, to a certain relationship between lines and geometric shapes. This type of painting is called abstractionism. Its founder was the Russian artist Wassily Kandinsky. The surrealists (surrealism in French means supra-realism) led by Salvador Dali tried to depict an irrational world. In their paintings, unlike the paintings of abstractionists, there are objects that can be known, but sometimes they look strange and are in unusual compositions, as in dreams.

One of the new trends in literature and art was avant-gardeism. Avant-garde is a conventional name for many anti-realist movements in literature and art of the 20th century. It arose on the basis of an anarchic, subjective worldview. Hence the break with the previous realistic tradition, the formalistic search for new means of artistic expression. The predecessors of avant-gardeism were the modernist movements of the first third of the 20th century. Fauvism, cubism, futurism, surrealism and dodecaphony in music. Among the representatives of avant-garde and neo-avant-garde are the artists P. Mondrian, writers R. Desnos, A. Artaud, S. Beckett, composers S. Bussoti, J. Caydogs.

Modernism is the main art direction of the 20-30s, characterized by a break with the ideological and artistic principles of classical art. Originated in the 20-30s of the XX century, covered all types of creativity. Modernist artists E. Kirchner, D. Ensor, E. Munch, E. Nolde, Kandinsky, P. Klee, O. Kokoschka proposed intuition and automatism in the creative process - the use of the physical properties of geometric shapes and colors, the rejection of illusions of space, deformation objects in the depiction of symbols, subjectivity in content.

Realism is one of the main properties of art and literature, which lies in the desire for a truthful, objective reflection and reproduction of reality in forms that correspond to it. In a narrower sense, a movement in art that opposed modernism and avant-garde in the interwar period of the 20th century. its representatives were, in particular, the artists F. Maserel (Belgium), Fougerov and Taslitsky (France), R. Guttuso (Italy), G. Jerni (Switzerland).

Theater. Significant successes have been achieved in the field of theatrical art and cinema. This applies primarily to Western European countries and the USA. The development of theatrical art in the USA was quite complete. Theaters were founded here, where directors G. Klerman, E. Kazan, L. Starsberg, R. Mamu-lian, and actors K. Cornell, J. Barrymore, H. Hayes, E. Le Gallienne worked. The repertoire included plays by young American playwrights K. Odets, Y. ONil, J. Lawson, A. Maltsa and others.

Movie. Film production in the USA began in 1896, and since 1908 it has been concentrated in Hollywood. An outstanding figure in American cinema in those years was director D.W. Griffith, who in his historical films laid the foundations of cinema as an independent art. This was facilitated by the activities of directors T.H. Ince, who started Western films, and M. Sennett, indicated by a high professional culture. Charlie Chaplin became the greatest master of film comedy. The most stars of the 20-30s were M. Pickford, D. Fairbanks, R. Valentino, G. Garbo, L. Hirsch, B. Keaton, K. Gable, F. Astor, G. Cooper, H. Bogart. At this time, V. Disney developed the basics of the animated film. It should be noted that among the films there were those that raised intellectual problems, for example, Citizen Kane (1941 p., Directed by O. Welles).

In the USSR, the development of cinematography took place in the same direction as in other countries, but had its own characteristics associated with the existence of a totalitarian state. In the 20-30s, the films Battleship Potemkin, Chapaev were made, and outstanding directors Eisenstein, Dovzhenko and others worked.

In other parts of the world, cinema was in its infancy, but theatrical art was actively developing. The exception was India, where the first film was shot back in 1913. In the 30s, films by Alam Ara directed by Iran and Devdas directed by Baruah were released here.

Architecture. In the art of the 20-30s, an intensive search for an answer to the question of the role and place of man in society, the principles of its interaction with the environment and the future of humanity continued. The French architect Le Corbusier viewed architecture as part of social progress and preferred the development of comfortable residential buildings and complexes, supported the need for serial design and industrialization of construction. With the help of architecture, architects tried to eliminate existing injustice and improve society. The idea arose to disperse the population of large cities into satellite cities and create a garden city. Similar projects were carried out in England, France, and Holland. In various forms, the idea of ​​a harmonious combination of human habitation and nature was implemented in the USA, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Sweden and other countries. it was picked up in the USSR, but at the same time the essence was emasculated, reducing it to propaganda slogans. I know the city will bloom, I know the garden will bloom, when there are such people in the Soviet country! the poet Mayakovsky wrote in 1929 about the development of the city of Kuznetsk. However, the mining and metallurgical industries still dominate there and the public infrastructure remains weak.

In countries with a totalitarian regime, they tried to impose on art the ideas of the superiority of one social system over another, to instill symbols of the eternity and inviolability of the existing government, which cares about the well-being of the people and their spiritual purity. The architecture and sculpture of Germany and Italy embodied the ideas of unquestioning obedience, national and racial contempt, and cultivated strength and rudeness. The USSR supported those artists who were able to more clearly and convincingly show the pathos of socialist construction and the merits of the Bolshevik Party and its leaders in it. Mukhina’s sculptural group Worker and Collective Farm Woman, created specifically for the 1937 World Exhibition in Paris, has long been called an outstanding phenomenon of international artistic culture here.

Ukrainian architectural modern(ukr. Ukrainian architectural modernism), UAM is one of the Ukrainian architectural styles, a type of modern style, which developed on the territory of Ukraine for almost 40 years, from 1903 to 1941.

The UAM is based on folk traditions of home and church construction and the achievements of Ukrainian professional architecture and, above all, baroque (see Ukrainian baroque), the influence of which, since 1910, has been noticeable and even growing. The influence of European modernity was also strong.

CULTURAL REVOLUTION It was aimed at: The Cultural Revolution provided for: In the USSR in 2010. XX century The Cultural Revolution occurred. It was aimed: 1. To change the social composition of the post-revolutionary intelligentsia, 2. To break with the traditions of the pre-revolutionary cultural heritage. The Cultural Revolution provided for: 1. Elimination of illiteracy, 2. Creation of a socialist system of public education and enlightenment, 3. Development of science, literature, art under party control.

Fine arts In the 1930s, significant changes took place in the visual arts. Despite the fact that the Partnership of Traveling Exhibitions and the Union of Russian Artists continue to exist in the country, new associations appear in the spirit of the times - the Association of Artists of Proletarian Russia, the Association of Proletarian Artists, artist F. Shurpin 1930, artist G. Klutsis

Socialist realism By the mid-30s. The method of socialist realism (the depiction of reality not as it is, but as it should be from the point of view of the interests of the struggle for socialism) was declared a generally obligatory artistic method for Soviet art. Decisive events in this sense were the creation in 1934 of the Union of Soviet Writers and a number of ideological campaigns. Nikolaev K. "Laying a railway track in Magnitogorsk"

M. Grekov. "Trumpeters of the First Cavalry Army", 1934 Tikhova M. "Sculpture laboratory of the Lomonosov porcelain factory"

POSTER ART During the period of the civil war and intervention, the political poster was completely separated from other types of artistic graphics (advertising, posters, political drawings). The poster is characterized by a striking visual image, prompt response, and accessibility of the content. This was very important for a country in which most of the population was illiterate. KUKRYNIKSY Efimov B., Ioffe M., 1936

EASEL PAINTING Soviet easel painting has a craving for monumental, significant forms and images. Painting is becoming increasingly broader in subject matter and less sketchy in style. “Heroic generality penetrates into the easel painting” One of the most significant representatives of easel painting of this period is Boris Ioganson. He introduces “new revolutionary content in tune with the era” into his works. Two of his paintings are especially popular: “Interrogation of Communists” (1933) and “At the Old Ural Factory” (1937). “Interrogation of communists” “At the old Ural plant”

MONUMENTAL PAINTING In the 1990s, monumental painting became an indispensable element of the entire artistic culture. It depended on the development of architecture and was firmly connected with it. Pre-revolutionary traditions were continued at this time by Evgeniy Lanceray, who painted the restaurant hall of the Kazansky railway station (1933), demonstrating his desire for a flexible baroque form. Deineka also made a great contribution to monumental painting at this time. His mosaics of the Mayakovskaya station (1938) were created using a modern style: sharpness of rhythm, dynamics of local colorful spots, energy of angles, conventional depiction of figures and objects. Favorsky, a famous graphic artist, also made a contribution to monumental painting: he applied his system of form construction, developed in book illustration, to new tasks. His paintings of the Museum of Protective Motherhood and Infancy (1933, together with Lev Bruni) show his understanding of the role of the plane, the combination of frescoes with architecture based on the experience of ancient Russian painting.

LANDSCAPE A variety of stylistic directions is achieved: In the 1960s, the era of the grounded method of socialist realism in art in general, and painting in particular, began in the USSR. A variety of stylistic directions is achieved: 1. Lyrical line of landscape painting, 2. Industrial landscape.

PORTRAIT GENRE The development of pictorial portraiture in the avant-garde style of the “first wave” had exhausted itself by the 1930s. In the portrait genre, the techniques and stylistics of a realistic solution to the image of a contemporary were again in demand, while the ideological, propaganda function of the portrait was declared as one of the main tasks. M. Nesterov “Portrait of Academician I.P. Pavlov” 1930 Nesterov M. “Portrait of the artists P.D. and A.D. Korinykh.", 1930

RESULT: The results of the transformations of the first years of Soviet power in the field of culture were far from ambiguous. On the one hand, certain successes were achieved in eliminating illiteracy, there was a rise in the activity of the creative intelligentsia, which was expressed in the organization of new and the revival of old societies and associations, and the creation of values ​​in the field of spiritual and material culture. On the other hand, culture became part of state policy, coming under the control of the party and government apparatus.

In 1934, at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers, Maxim Gorky formulated the basic principles of socialist realism as a method of Soviet literature and art. This moment marks the beginning of a new era of Soviet art, with stricter ideological control and propaganda schemes.

Basic principles:

• - Nationality. As a rule, the heroes of socialist realist works were city and country workers, workers and peasants, representatives of the technical intelligentsia and military personnel, Bolsheviks and non-party people.
• - Ideology. Show the peaceful life of the people, the search for ways to a new, better life, heroic deeds in order to achieve a happy life for all people.
• - Specificity. In depicting reality, show the process of historical development, which in turn must correspond to the materialistic understanding of history (in the process of changing the conditions of their existence, people change their consciousness and attitude towards the surrounding reality).

In the years following this resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks on the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations, a number of major events were carried out aimed at developing art in the direction required by the state. The practice of government orders, creative business trips, and organizing large-scale thematic and anniversary exhibitions is expanding. Soviet artists create many works (panels, monumental, decorative) for the future VDNH. This meant an important stage in the revival of monumental art as an independent art. In these works, it became obvious that the desire of Soviet art for monumentality is not accidental, but reflects “grand prospects for the development of socialist society.”

In 1918, Lenin, in a conversation with K. Zetkin, defined the tasks of art in Soviet society: “Art belongs to the people. It must have its deepest roots in the very depths of the broad working masses. It must be understandable to these masses and loved by them. It must unite the feeling, thought and will of these masses, lift them up. It should awaken the artists in them and develop them.”

During the period under review, along with already existing art directions, several fundamentally new ones appeared, for example, avant-garde.

Within the framework of the monumentalism style, sculpture is of greatest interest. Like all other trends in Soviet art, sculpture of the period had a propaganda orientation and patriotic content of subjects. Lenin’s plan for monumental propaganda, adopted in 1918, played a great role in the development of sculpture. In accordance with this plan, monuments promoting new revolutionary values ​​were to be erected throughout the country. Prominent sculptors were brought in for the work: N.A. Andreev (who later became the creator of sculptural Leniniana). Another prominent sculptor of this period is Ivan Shadr. In 1922, he created the statues “Worker”, “Sower”, “Peasant”, “Red Army Soldier”. The uniqueness of his method is the generalization of an image based on a specific genre plot, powerful sculpting of volumes, expressiveness of movement, and romantic pathos. His most striking work is “Cobblestone is a tool of the proletariat. 1905" (1927). In the same year, on the territory of the hydroelectric power station in the Caucasus ZAGES, a monument to Lenin was erected by him - “one of the best.” Vera Mukhina developed as a master also in the 20s. During this period, she created a project for the monument “Liberated Labor” (1920, not preserved), “Peasant Woman” (1927). Of the more mature masters, the work of Sarah Lebedeva, who created portraits, is noted. In her understanding of form, she takes into account the traditions and experience of impressionism. Alexander Matveev is characterized by classical clarity in understanding the constructive basis of plastic art, the harmony of sculptural masses and the relationship of volumes in space (“Undressing woman”, “Woman putting on a shoe”), as well as the famous “October” (1927), where the composition includes 3 naked men the figures are a combination of classical traditions and the ideal of the “man of the Revolution” (attributes - hammer, sickle, budenovka).

Art forms that could “live” on the streets played a vital role in the first years after the revolution in “the formation of the social and aesthetic consciousness of the revolutionary people.” Therefore, along with monumental sculpture, the political poster received the most active development. It turned out to be the most mobile and operative form of art. During the period of the Civil War, this genre was characterized by the following qualities: “sharpness in the presentation of material, instant reaction to rapidly changing events, propaganda orientation, thanks to which the main features of the plastic language of the poster were formed. They turned out to be laconicism, conventionality of the image, clarity of silhouette and gesture. Posters were extremely common, printed in large quantities and placed everywhere. A special place in the development of the poster is occupied by ROSTA's Windows of Satire, in which Cheremnykh, Mikhail Mikhailovich and Vladimir Mayakovsky played an outstanding role. These are stenciled posters, hand-painted and with poetic inscriptions on the topic of the day. They played a huge role in political propaganda and became a new figurative form. The artistic decoration of festivals is another new phenomenon of Soviet art that had no tradition. The holidays included the anniversaries of the October Revolution, May 1, March 8 and other Soviet holidays. This created a new unconventional art form, thanks to which painting acquired new space and functions. For the holidays, monumental panels were created, which were characterized by enormous monumental propaganda pathos. Artists created sketches for the design of squares and streets.

The following people took part in the design of these holidays: Petrov-Vodkin, Kustodiev, E. Lanceray, S.V. Gerasimov.

Soviet art criticism divided the masters of Soviet painting of this period into two groups:

• - artists who sought to capture subjects in the familiar visual language of factual display;
• - artists who used a more complex, figurative perception of modernity.

They created symbolic images in which they tried to express their “poetic, inspired” perception of the era in its new state. Konstantin Yuon created one of the first works dedicated to the image of the revolution (“New Planet”, 1920, Tretyakov Gallery), where the event is interpreted on a universal, cosmic scale. Petrov-Vodkin in 1920 created the painting “1918 in Petrograd (Petrograd Madonna)”, solving the ethical and philosophical problems of the time in it. Arkady Rylov, as it was believed, in his landscape “In the Blue Expanse” (1918) also thinks symbolically, expressing “the free breath of humanity, bursting into the vast expanses of the world, to romantic discoveries, to free and strong experiences.”

New images can also be seen in the graphics. Nikolai Kupreyanov “seeks to express his impressions of the revolution using the complex technique of wooden engraving” (“Armored Cars”, 1918; “Aurora Volley”, 1920). In the 1930s, monumental painting became an indispensable element of the entire artistic culture. It depended on the development of architecture and was firmly connected with it. Pre-revolutionary traditions were continued at this time by the former World of Art student Evgeniy Lansere - the painting of the restaurant hall of the Kazan railway station (1933) demonstrates his desire for a flexible baroque form. It breaks through the plane of the ceiling, expanding the space outward. Deineka, who also made a major contribution to monumental painting at this time, works differently. His mosaics of the Mayakovskaya station (1938) were created using a modern style: acute rhythm, dynamics of local colorful spots, energy of angles, conventional depiction of figures and objects. The topics are mainly sports. Favorsky, a famous graphic artist, also made a contribution to monumental painting: he applied his system of form construction, developed in book illustration, to new tasks. His murals of the Museum of Motherhood and Infancy (1933, together with Lev Bruni) and the House of Models (1935) show his understanding of the role of the plane, the combination of frescoes with architecture based on the experience of ancient Russian painting. (Both works have not survived).

Constructivism became the dominant style in the architecture of the 20s.

Constructivists tried to use new technical capabilities to create simple, logical, functionally justified forms and expedient designs. An example of the architecture of Soviet constructivism is the projects of the Vesnin brothers. The most grandiose of them, the Palace of Labor, was never brought to life, but had a significant influence on the development of domestic architecture. Unfortunately, architectural monuments were also destroyed: only in the 30s. In Moscow, the Sukharev Tower, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Miracle Monastery in the Kremlin, the Red Gate and hundreds of unknown urban and rural churches, many of which were of historical and artistic value, were destroyed.

Due to the political nature of Soviet art, many artistic associations and groups are being created with their own platforms and manifestos. Art was in search and was diverse. The main groups were AHRR, OST, and “4 Arts”. The Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia was founded in 1922. Its core consisted of former Itinerants, whose style had a great influence on the group’s approach - the realistic everyday writing language of the late Itinerants, “going among the people” and thematic exhibitions. In addition to the themes of the paintings (dictated by the revolution), the AHRR was characterized by the organization of thematic exhibitions such as “Life and Life of Workers”, “Life and Life of the Red Army”.

The main masters and works of the group: Isaac Brodsky (“Lenin’s Speech at the Putilov Factory”, “Lenin in Smolny”), Georgy Ryazhsky (“Delegate”, 1927; “Chairwoman”, 1928), portrait painter Sergei Malyutin (“Portrait of Furmanov”, 1922 ), Abram Arkhipov, Efim Cheptsov (“Meeting of the Village Cell”, 1924), Vasily Yakovlev (“Transport is getting better”, 1923), Mitrofan Grekov (“Tachanka”, 1925, later “To the Kuban” and “Trumpeters of the First Horse”, 1934 ). The Society of Easel Painters, founded in 1925, included artists with less conservative views in terms of painting, mainly students of VKHUTEMAS. These were: Williams “The Hamburg Uprising”, Deineka (“On the construction of new workshops”, 1925; “Before going down into the mine”, 1924; “Defense of Petrograd”, 1928), Labas Luchishkin (“The ball flew away”, “I love life” "), Pimenov ("Heavy Industry"), Tyshler, Shterenberg and others. They supported the slogan of the revival and development of easel painting, but were guided not by realism, but by the experience of contemporary expressionists. Among the topics they were close to were industrialization, city life and sports. The Four Arts Society was founded by artists who were former members of the World of Art and the Blue Rose, who were careful about the culture and language of painting. The most prominent members of the association: Pavel Kuznetsov, Petrov-Vodkin, Saryan, Favorsky and many other outstanding masters. The society was characterized by a philosophical background with adequate plastic expression. The Society of Moscow Artists includes former members of the associations “Moscow Painters”, “Makovets” and “Being”, as well as members of the “Jack of Diamonds”. The most active artists: Pyotr Konchalovsky, Ilya Mashkov, Lentulov, Alexander Kuprin, Robert Falk, Vasily Rozhdestvensky, Osmerkin, Sergei Gerasimov, Nikolai Chernyshev, Igor Grabar. Artists created “thematic” paintings using the developed “Bubnovo-Jack” and so on. trends of the avant-garde school. The creativity of these groups was a symptom of the fact that the consciousness of the older generation of masters was trying to adapt to new realities. In the 1920s, two large-scale exhibitions were held that consolidated the trends - for the 10th anniversary of the October Revolution and the Red Army, as well as the “Exhibition of Art of the Peoples of the USSR” (1927).

The leading sphere of development of literature in the 20s. undoubtedly is poetry. In form, literary life has largely remained the same. As at the beginning of the century, the tone was set by literary circles, many of which survived the bloody hard times and continued to operate in the 20s: symbolists, futurists, acmeists, etc. New circles and associations arise, but the rivalry between them now goes beyond the limits of the artistic spheres and often acquires a political overtones. The associations RAPP, “Pereval”, “Serapion Brothers” and LEF were of greatest importance for the development of literature.

RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers) took shape at the First All-Union Conference of Proletarian Writers in 1925. Its members included writers (the most famous A. Fadeev and D. Furmanov) and literary critics. The predecessor of RAPP was Proletkult, one of the most massive organizations founded in 1917. They treated almost all writers who were not members of their organization as “class enemies.” Among the authors who were attacked by RAPP members were not only A. Akhmatova, Z. Gippius, I. Bunin, but even such recognized “singers of the revolution” as M. Gorky and V. Mayakovsky. The ideological opposition to RAPP was formed by the literary group “Pereval”.

The group “Serapion Brothers” was created in 1921 in the Petrograd House of Arts. The group included such famous writers as V. Ivanov, M. Zoshchenko, K. Fedin and others.

LEF - left front of the arts. The positions of the members of this organization (V. Mayakovsky, N. Aseev, S. Eisenstein, etc.) are very contradictory. Combining futurism with innovation in the spirit of proletkult, they came up with a very fantastic idea of ​​​​creating some kind of “industrial” art, which was supposed to perform a utilitarian function in society of providing a favorable atmosphere for material production. Art was considered as an element of technical construction, without any subtext, fiction of psychologism, etc.

Of great importance for the development of Russian literature of the twentieth century. played by the poetic work of V. Ya. Bryusov, E. G. Bagritsky, O. E. Mandelstam, B. L. Pasternak, D. Bedny, “peasant” poets, the brightest representative of which was Yesenin’s friend N. A. Klyuev. A special page in the history of Russian literature is represented by the work of poets and writers who did not accept the revolution and were forced to leave the country. Among them are such names as M. I. Tsvetaeva, Z. N. Gippius, I. A. Bunin, A. N. Tolstoy, V. V. Nabokov. Some of them, realizing the impossibility of living away from their homeland, subsequently returned (Tsvetaeva, Tolstoy). Modernist tendencies in literature manifested themselves in the work of E. I. Zamyatin, the author of the dystopian science fiction novel “We” (1924). Satirical literature of the 20s. presented by stories by M. Zoshchenko; novels by co-authors I. Ilf (I. A. Fainzilberg) and E. Petrov (E. P. Kataev) “The Twelve Chairs” (1928), “The Golden Calf” (1931), etc.

In the 30s Several major works appeared that entered the history of Russian culture. Sholokhov creates the novels “Quiet Don” and “Virgin Soil Upturned”. Sholokhov's work received worldwide recognition: he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his writing achievements. In the thirties, M. Gorky completed his last epic novel, “The Life of Klim Samgin.” The work of N. A. Ostrovsky, the author of the novel “How the Steel Was Tempered” (1934), was extremely popular. A. N. Tolstoy (“Peter I” 1929-1945) became a classic of the Soviet historical novel. The twenties and thirties were the heyday of children's literature. Several generations of Soviet people grew up on the books of K. I. Chukovsky, S. Ya. Marshak, A. P. Gaidar, S. V. Mikhalkov, A. L. Barto, V. A. Kaverin, L. A. Kassil, V. P. Kataeva.

In 1928, persecuted by Soviet criticism, M. A. Bulgakov, without any hope of publication, began to write his best novel, “The Master and Margarita.” Work on the novel continued until the writer’s death in 1940. This work was published only in 1966. At the end of the 80s, the works of A.P. Platonov (Klimentov) “Chevengur”, “Pit Pit”, “Juvenile Sea” were published. . The poets A. A. Akhmatova and B. L. Pasternak worked at the table. The fate of Mandelstam (1891-1938) is tragic. A poet of extraordinary strength and great visual precision, he was among the writers who, having accepted the October Revolution at one time, could not get along in Stalinist society. In 1938 he was repressed.

In the 30s The Soviet Union is gradually beginning to isolate itself from the rest of the world. There are many Russian writers behind the Iron Curtain who, despite everything, continue to work. A writer of the first magnitude was the poet and prose writer Ivan Alekseevich Bunin (1870-1953). Bunin did not accept the revolution from the very beginning and emigrated to France (the story “Mitya’s Love”, the novel “The Life of Arsenyev”, the collection of stories “Dark Alleys”). In 1933 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

In the early 30s. The existence of free creative circles and groups came to an end. In 1934, at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers, the “Union of Writers” was organized, into which all people engaged in literary work were forced to join. The Writers' Union has become an instrument of total government control over the creative process. It was impossible not to be a member of the Union, because in this case the writer would be deprived of the opportunity to publish his works and, moreover, could be prosecuted for “parasitism.” M. Gorky stood at the origins of this organization, but his chairmanship did not last long. After his death in 1936, A. A. Fadeev became the chairman. In addition to the “Union of Writers”, other “creative” unions were organized: “Union of Artists”, “Union of Architects”, “Union of Composers”. A period of uniformity was beginning in Soviet art.

The revolution unleashed powerful creative forces. This also affected the development of domestic theatrical art. Many theater groups emerged. A major role in the development of theatrical art was played by the Bolshoi Drama Theater in Leningrad, whose first artistic director was A. Blok, the theater named after. V. Meyerhold, theater named after. E. Vakhtangov, Moscow Theater named after. Mossovet.

The mid-20s saw the emergence of Soviet drama, which had a huge impact on the development of theatrical art. The largest events of the theater seasons of 1925-1927. steel “Storm” by V. Bill-Belotserkovsky in the theater. MGSPS, “Yarovaya Love” by K. Trenev at the Maly Theater, “Fracture” by B. Lavrenev at the Theater. E. Vakhtangov and at the Bolshoi Drama Theatre, “Armored Train 14-69” by V. Ivanov at the Moscow Art Theater. Classics occupied a strong place in the theater repertoire. Attempts at a new interpretation of it were made both by academic theaters (“A Warm Heart” by A. Ostrovsky at the Moscow Art Theater) and by “leftists” (“The Forest” by A. Ostrovsky and “The Inspector General” by N. Gogol at the V. Meyerhold Theater).

While drama theaters had restructured their repertoire by the end of the first Soviet decade, the classics continued to occupy the main place in the activities of opera and ballet groups. The only major success in reflecting a modern theme was the production of R. Glier’s ballet “Red Poppy” (“Red Flower”). L.V. performed in Western Europe and America. Sobinov, A.V. Nezhdanova, N.S. Golovanov, the troupe of the Moscow Art Theater, the Chamber Theater, the Studio named after. E. Vakhtangov, Quartet of ancient Russian instruments

The musical life of the country in those years is associated with the names of S. Prokofiev, D. Shostakovich, A. Khachaturian, T. Khrennikov, D. Kabalevsky, I. Dunaevsky and others. Young conductors E. Mravinsky, B. Khaikin came to the fore. Musical ensembles were created, which subsequently glorified the national musical culture: Quartet named after. Beethoven, the Great State Symphony Orchestra, the State Philharmonic Orchestra, etc. In 1932, the Union of Composers of the USSR was formed.

Along with the actors of the older generation (M. N. Ermolova, A. M. Yuzhin, A. A. Ostuzhev, V. I. Kachalov, O. L. Knipper-Chekhova), a new revolutionary theater is emerging. The search for new forms of stage expression is characteristic of the theater that worked under the leadership of V. E. Meyerhold (now the Meyerhold Theater). The plays of V. Mayakovsky “Mystery-bouffe” (1921), “The Bedbug” (1929), etc. were staged on the stage of this theater. A major contribution to the development of the theater was made by the director of the 3rd studio of the Moscow Art Theater E. B. Vakhtangov ; organizer and director of the Chamber Theater, reformer of performing arts A. Ya. Tairov.

One of the most important and interesting phenomena in the history of culture of the 20s. was the beginning of the development of Soviet cinema. Documentary filmmaking is developing, becoming one of the most effective tools of ideological struggle and agitation, along with posters. An important milestone in the development of feature films was the film by Sergei Mikhailovich Eisenstein (1898 - 1948) “Battleship Potemkin” (1925), which was considered one of the world’s masterpieces. Symbolists, futurists, impressionists, imagists, etc. came under a barrage of criticism. They were accused of “formalistic quirks”, that their art was not needed by the Soviet people, that it was hostile to socialism. Among the “aliens” were composer D. Shostakovich, director S. Eisenstein, writers B. Pasternak, Y. Olesha and others. Many artists were repressed.

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Introduction

In the 1930s, a powerful cultural shift undoubtedly occurred in the USSR. If the social revolution destroyed the semi-medieval class system in the country, which divided society into “people” and “tops,” then cultural transformations over two decades moved it along the path of bridging the civilizational gap in the everyday life of many tens of millions of people. In an unimaginably short period of time, people’s material capabilities ceased to be a significant barrier between them and at least elementary culture; inclusion in it began to depend much less on the socio-professional status of people. Both in scale and in pace, these changes can indeed be considered a nationwide “cultural revolution.”

However, cultural transformations, firstly, turned out to be broad, but very poor. They gave rise, in essence, to a “semi-culture” or even a quasi-culture, based on the bizarre spiritual marginality of millions and millions of people. But this is not a mistake or the fault of the Soviet government of those years - it could not have been otherwise: the grandeur of the scale and the lightning speed of the pace do not ensure a high quality of culture. Secondly, culture was “imposed” on the people: by strict regulation of rural life - by the collective farm system, and urban life - by the “mobilization capabilities” of factory shock construction projects, by the organizational and propaganda onslaught of state “coverage” plans, Komsomol campaigns, and trade union competitions. Thus, the germination of the need for culture was essentially replaced by the dictates of social structures and the pressure of the social atmosphere. This was already a historical mistake, generated by confidence in the omnipotence of the “revolutionary onslaught.”

The zeal with which the system, hyperpoliticized by the revolution, sought to create a “new type of culture” in our country already received a “Marxist” theoretical justification in the 30s. These “basic features” were “established”; communist ideology and party spirit, collectivism, internationalism and patriotism, leadership of the CPSU and the Soviet state in the systematic development of culture. This is precisely what was declared to be “a new step in the spiritual development of mankind,” its “peak.”

In our country there was a violent break with cultural and historical tradition. The fight against the “vices of the old culture” led to a significant impoverishment and, in many respects, destruction of this tradition.

The service function made its own demands on the appearance of culture, its content: it began to create “positive images” for imitation, to provide revelations of phenomena and characters for their survival, it began to “reflect”, illustrate, impose boundaries instead of exploring the incomprehensible and elevating a person over the existing existence that exhausts him. Creative and liberating culture has turned into a factory of prescribed happiness. And all this is also a “cultural revolution”. It took place, although it did not completely achieve its goals: Mayakovsky and Sholokhov, Leonov and Tvardovsky, Shostakovich and Sviridov, Eisenstein and Tovstonogov, hundreds of other creators preserved and continued the traditions of domestic and world culture.

1. Reform in the field of education and science

During the period under review, the cultural life of the country developed very ambiguously. At the same time, significant progress has been made in many areas of cultural development. These primarily include the sphere of education.

The historical legacy of the tsarist regime was a significant proportion of the illiterate population. Meanwhile, the need for rapid industrialization of the country required a huge number of competent, productive workers.

The systematic efforts of the Soviet state led to the fact that the proportion of the literate population in Russia grew steadily. By 1939, the number of literate people in the RSFSR was already 89 percent. Since the 1930/31 school year, compulsory primary education was introduced. In addition, by the thirties, the Soviet school gradually moved away from many revolutionary innovations that had not justified themselves: the class-lesson system was restored, subjects that had previously been excluded from the program as “bourgeois” (primarily history, general and domestic) were returned to the schedule. Since the beginning of the 30s. The number of educational institutions involved in the training of engineering, technical, agricultural and pedagogical personnel grew rapidly. In 1936, the All-Union Committee for Higher Education was created.

The 1930s turned out to be difficult for Russian science. On the one hand, large-scale research programs are being launched in the USSR, new research institutes are being created: in 1934 S.I. Vavilov founded the Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences named after. P.N. Lebedev (FIAN), at the same time the Institute of Organic Chemistry was created in Moscow P.L. Kapitsa created the Institute of Physical Problems, and in 1937 the Institute of Geophysics was created. Physiologist I.P. continues to work. Pavlov, breeder I.V. Michurin. The work of Soviet scientists resulted in numerous discoveries in both fundamental and applied fields. In particular, this period saw significant discoveries in the study of the Arctic (O.Yu. Schmidt, I.D. Papanin), the development of space flights and jet propulsion (K.E. Tsiolkovsky, F.A. Tsandler). Historical science is being revived. As was said, history teaching is being resumed in secondary and high schools. The Research Institute of History is being created at the USSR Academy of Sciences. In the 1930s, outstanding Soviet historians worked: academician B.D. Grekov is the author of works on the history of medieval Russia (“Kievan Rus”, “Peasants in Rus' from ancient times to the 18th century”, etc.); Academician E.V. Tarle is an expert in the modern history of European countries and, above all, Napoleonic France (“The Working Class in France in the Age of Revolution,” “Napoleon,” etc.).

At the same time, Stalin's totalitarianism created serious obstacles to the normal development of scientific knowledge. The autonomy of the Academy of Sciences was eliminated. In 1934, it was transferred from Leningrad to Moscow and subordinated to the Council of People's Commissars. The establishment of administrative methods of managing science led to the fact that many promising areas of research (for example, genetics, cybernetics) were frozen for many years at the arbitrariness of incompetent party functionaries. In an atmosphere of general denunciation and growing repression, academic discussions often ended in violence, when one of the opponents, having been accused (albeit unfoundedly) of political unreliability, was not only deprived of the opportunity to work, but was subjected to physical destruction. A similar fate was destined for many representatives of the intelligentsia. The victims of repression were such prominent scientists as biologist, founder of Soviet genetics, academician and president of the All-Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences N.I. Vavilov, scientist and rocketry designer, future academician and twice Hero of Socialist Labor S.P. Korolev and many others.

The repressions caused heavy damage to the country's intellectual potential. The old pre-revolutionary intelligentsia, most of whose representatives conscientiously served the Soviet state, suffered especially hard. As a result of falsified revelations of a number of “sabotage counter-revolutionary organizations” (“Shakhtinsky Affair”, the “Industrial Party” trial) the masses were inflamed with distrust and suspicion towards representatives of the intelligentsia, which as a result made it easier to deal with undesirables and extinguished any manifestation of free thought. In the social sciences, the “Short Course on the History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)”, published in 1938 under the editorship of I.V., acquired decisive importance. Stalin. As a justification for mass repression, the idea was put forward that the class struggle would inevitably intensify as we move towards building socialism. The history of the party and the revolutionary movement was distorted: on the pages of scientific works and periodicals the non-existent merits of the Leader were extolled. The personality cult of Stalin was established in the country.

2. Features of the development of literature

The situation in the literature has changed significantly. In the early 30s. The existence of free creative circles and groups came to an end. By the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of April 23, 1932 “On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations,” RAPP was liquidated. And in 1934, at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers, the “Union of Writers” was organized, which all people engaged in literary work were forced to join. The Writers' Union has become an instrument of total government control over the creative process. It was impossible not to be a member of the Union, because in this case the writer would be deprived of the opportunity to publish his works and, moreover, could be prosecuted for “parasitism.” M. Gorky stood at the origins of this organization, but his chairmanship did not last long. After his death in 1936, A.A. became chairman. Fadeev (former RAPP member), who remained in this post throughout the Stalin era. In addition to the “Union of Writers”, other “creative” unions were organized: “Union of Artists”, “Union of Architects”, “Union of Composers”. A period of uniformity was beginning in Soviet art.

Having carried out organizational unification, the Stalinist regime set about stylistic and ideological unification. In 1936, a “discussion about formalism” began. During the “discussion”, through harsh criticism, the persecution of those representatives of the creative intelligentsia began, whose aesthetic principles differed from “socialist realism”, which was becoming generally binding. Symbolists, futurists, impressionists, imagists, etc. came under a barrage of offensive attacks. They were accused of “formalistic quirks”, that their art was not needed by the Soviet people, that it was rooted in soil hostile to socialism. Among the “outsiders” were composer D. Shostakovich, director S. Eisenstein, writers B. Pasternak, Y. Olesha and others. Articles appeared in the press: “Confusion instead of music,” “Ballet falsehood,” “About dirty artists.” Essentially, the “fight against formalism” had the goal of destroying all those whose talent was not put to the service of power. Many artists were repressed.

As already mentioned, the defining style in literature, painting and other forms of art was the so-called “socialist realism”. This style had little in common with true realism. Despite the external “liveness”, he did not reflect reality in its present form, but sought to pass off as reality what should only have been from the point of view of official ideology. The function of educating society within the strictly defined framework of communist morality was imposed on art. Labor enthusiasm, universal devotion to the ideas of Lenin-Stalin, Bolshevik adherence to principles - this is how the heroes of the works of official art of that time lived. The reality was much more complex and generally far from the proclaimed ideal.

The limited ideological framework of socialist realism became a significant obstacle to the development of Soviet literature. Nevertheless, in the 30s. Several major works appeared that entered the history of Russian culture. Perhaps the most important figure in the official literature of those years was Mikhail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov (1905-1984). An outstanding work is his novel “Quiet Don,” which tells about the Don Cossacks during the First World War and the Civil War. The novel “Virgin Soil Upturned” is dedicated to collectivization on the Don. Remaining, at least outwardly, within the boundaries of socialist realism, Sholokhov managed to create a three-dimensional picture of the events that took place, to show the tragedy of fratricidal hostility among the Cossacks that unfolded on the Don in the post-revolutionary years. Sholokhov was favored by Soviet criticism. His literary work was awarded the State and Lenin Prizes, he was twice awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor, and he was elected academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Sholokhov's work received worldwide recognition: he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his writing achievements.

In the thirties, M. Gorky completed his last epic novel, “The Life of Klim Samgin.” Metaphorical nature and philosophical depth are characteristic of L.M.’s prose. Leonov (“The Thief” 1927, “Sot” 1930), who played a special role in the development of the Soviet novel. The work of N.A. was extremely popular. Ostrovsky, author of the novel “How the Steel Was Tempered” (1934), dedicated to the era of the formation of Soviet power. The main character of the novel, Pavka Korchagin, was an example of a fiery Komsomol member. In the works of N. Ostrovsky, like no one else, the educational function of Soviet literature was manifested. The ideal character Pavka in reality became an example for the broad masses of Soviet youth. A.N. became a classic of the Soviet historical novel. Tolstoy (“Peter I” 1929-1945). The thirties were the heyday of children's literature. Several generations of Soviet people grew up reading the books of K.I. Chukovsky, S.Ya. Marshak, A.P. Gaidar, S.V. Mikhalkova, A.L. Barto, V.A. Kaverina, L.A. Kassilya, V.P. Kataeva.

Despite ideological dictatorship and total control, free literature continued to develop. Under the threat of repression, under the fire of loyal criticism, without hope of publication, writers who did not want to cripple their work for the sake of Stalinist propaganda continued to work. Many of them never saw their works published; this happened after their death.

M.A. Bulgakov, without any hope of publication, begins to write his best novel, “The Master and Margarita.” Work on the novel continued until the writer's death. This work was published only in 1966. Even later, in the late 80s, the works of A.P. Platonova (Klimentova) “Chevengur”, “Pit Pit”, “Juvenile Sea”. Poets A.A. worked at the table. Akhmatova, B.L. Parsnip. The fate of Osip Emilievich Mandelstam (1891-1938) is tragic. A poet of extraordinary strength and great visual precision, he was among those writers who, having accepted the October Revolution in their time, could not get along in Stalinist society. In 1938 he was repressed.

In the 30s The Soviet Union is gradually beginning to isolate itself from the rest of the world, contacts with foreign countries are being minimized, and the penetration of any information “from there” is being placed under the strictest control. Behind the “Iron Curtain” there are many Russian writers who, despite the lack of a readership, the unsettled life, and spiritual breakdown, continue to work. Their works convey a longing for a bygone Russia. A writer of the first magnitude was the poet and prose writer Ivan Alekseevich Bunin (1870-1953). Bunin did not accept the revolution from the very beginning and emigrated to France, where he spent the second half of his life. Bunin's prose is distinguished by the beauty of its language and special lyricism. In emigration, his best works were created, which captured pre-revolutionary, noble, estate Russia, and the atmosphere of Russian life of those years was surprisingly poetically conveyed. The pinnacle of his work is considered to be the story “Mitya’s Love,” the autobiographical novel “The Life of Arsenyev,” and the collection of short stories “Dark Alleys.” In 1933 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

literature art socialist realism

3. Fine arts, architecture, theater and cinema in the 1930s.

During this period, significant changes occurred in the visual arts. New associations are appearing in the spirit of the times - the Association of Artists of Proletarian Russia, the Association of Proletarian Artists.

The works of B.V. Ioganson became classics of socialist realism in fine art. In 1933, the painting “Interrogation of Communists” was painted. In contrast to the abundance of “paintings” that appeared at that time, depicting and glorifying the Leader or deliberately optimistic paintings like “Collective Farm Holiday” by S.V. Gerasimov, Ioganson’s work is distinguished by great artistic power - the unbending will of people doomed to death, which the artist masterfully managed to convey, touches the viewer regardless of political beliefs. Ioganson also painted large paintings “At the Old Ural Factory” and “Speech by V.I. Lenin at the 3rd Komsomol Congress." In the 30s, K.S. continued to work. Petrov-Vodkin, P.P. Konchalovsky, A.A. Deineka, a series of beautiful portraits of his contemporaries were created by M.V. Nesterov, the landscapes of Armenia found poetic embodiment in the paintings of M.S. Saryan. The work of the student M. Nesterov and P.D. is interesting. Corina. Korin conceived a large painting that was supposed to depict a religious procession during a funeral. The artist made a huge number of preparatory sketches: landscapes, many portraits of representatives of Orthodox Rus', from beggars to church hierarchs. The title of the painting was suggested by M. Gorky - “Leaving Rus'”. However, after the death of the great writer, who provided patronage to the artist, the work had to be stopped. The most famous work of P.D. Korina became the triptych “Alexander Nevsky”.

The pinnacle of the development of socialist realism sculpture was the composition “Worker and Collective Farm Woman” by Vera Ignatievna Mukhina. The sculptural group was made by V.I. Mukhina for the Soviet pavilion at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1937.

In architecture in the early 30s. Constructivism continues to be the leading one, widely used for the construction of public and residential buildings. The aesthetics of simple geometric forms, characteristic of constructivism, influenced the architecture of the Lenin Mausoleum, built in 1930 according to the design of A.V. Shchuseva. The mausoleum is remarkable in its own way. The architect managed to avoid unnecessary pomp. The tomb of the leader of the world proletariat is a modest, small in size, very laconic structure that fits perfectly into the ensemble of Red Square. By the end of the 30s. the functional simplicity of constructivism begins to give way to neoclassicism. Lush stucco molding, huge columns with pseudo-classical capitals come into fashion, gigantomania and a tendency towards deliberate richness of decoration, often bordering on bad taste, appear. This style is sometimes called the “Stalinist Empire style,” although in reality it is only related to the real Empire style, which is characterized primarily by the deepest internal harmony and restraint of forms, only by a genetic connection with the ancient heritage. The sometimes vulgar splendor of Stalinist neoclassicism was intended to express the strength and power of the totalitarian state.

A distinctive feature in the field of theater was the formation of innovative activities of the Meyerhold Theater, Moscow Art Theater and others. Theater named after Vs. Meyerhold worked under the direction of director V.E. Meyerhold. There was a special school attached to the theater, which changed several names. Almost all performances were staged by Meyerhold himself (in rare cases, in collaboration with directors close to him). Characteristic of his art in the early 1930s. the desire to combine innovative experiments (“constructivist” productions of “The Magnanimous Cuckold” by F. Crommelynck and “The Death of Tarelkin” by A.V. Sukhovo-Kobylin, both) with the democratic traditions of the common public square theater was especially noticeable in the extremely free, frankly modernized director’s composition “Forests” » A.N. Ostrovsky; the game was played in a buffoonish, farcical manner. In the second half of the 1930s. The desire for asceticism was replaced by a desire for spectacular spectacle, which manifested itself in the performances of “Teacher Bubus” by A.M. Faiko and especially in “The Inspector General” by N.V. Gogol. Among other performances: “Mandate” by N.R. Erdman, “Woe to Wit” (“Woe from Wit”) by A.S. Griboyedov, “Bedbug” and “Bath” by V.V. Mayakovsky, “Krechinsky’s Wedding” by Sukhovo-Kobylin. The play “Lady with Camellias” by A. Dumas the Son brought great success to the theater. In 1937-1938, the theater was sharply criticized as “hostile to Soviet reality” and in 1938, by decision of the Committee on Arts Affairs, it was closed.

Directors S.M. began their careers in the theater. Eisenstein, S.I. Yutkevich, I.A. Pyryev, B.I. Ravenskikh, N.P. Okhlopkov, V.N. Pluchek and others. The acting talents of M.I. were revealed in the theater troupe. Babanova, N.I. Bogolyubova, E.P. Garina, M.I. Zharova, I.V. Ilyinsky, S.A. Martinson, Z.N. Reich, E.V. Samoilova, L.N. Sverdlina, M.I. Tsareva, M.M. Straukha, V.N. Yakhontova and others.

Cinema is developing rapidly. The number of films being shot is increasing. New opportunities opened up with the advent of sound cinema. In 1938, the film by S.M. was released. Eisenstein "Alexander Nevsky" with N.K. Cherkasov in the title role. The principles of socialist realism are affirmed in cinema. Films on revolutionary themes are being made: “Lenin in October” (dir. M.I. Romm), “Man with a Gun” (dir. S.I. Yutkevich); films about the fate of a working man: the trilogy about Maxim “Maxim’s Youth”, “The Return of Maxim”, “Vyborg Side” (dir. G.M. Kozintsev); musical comedies by Grigory Alexandrov with cheerful, fiery music by Isaac Dunaevsky ("Jolly Fellows", 1934, "Circus" 1936, "Volga-Volga" 1938), idealized scenes of the life of Ivan Pyryev ("Tractor Drivers", 1939, "Pig Farm and the Shepherd") create an atmosphere of expectation of a “happy life”. The film of the brothers (in reality, only namesakes, “brothers” is a kind of pseudonym) G.N. was extremely popular. and S.D. Vasiliev - “Chapaev” (1934).

Bibliography

Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. and others. History of Russia in the twentieth century. - M.: AST Publishing House, 1996.

Golubkov M.M. Lost alternatives. Formation of the monistic concept of Soviet literature in the 1930s. M.: Pravda, 1992.

Polevoy V.M. Small history of art. Art of the twentieth century. 1901-1945. M.: Art, 1991.

Repressed Science / Ed. M.G. Yaroshevsky. L., 1991.

Reader on the history of the USSR. 1917 - 1945 Textbook for pedagogical institutes - M.: Education, 1991.

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