Archaic era of ancient Greece. Archaic period in the history of Greece (8th-6th centuries

The history of mankind is divided into many periods. It is believed that this method allows you to better understand the past. The most ancient periods in which humanity existed are called archaic. What this concept means and where it is used can be found out in the article.

Translation and general meaning

The word comes from and is translated into Russian as “ancient” or “ancient”. What is the meaning of the word "archaic"? There are two of them in dictionaries.

The first means an early stage in the historical formation of a phenomenon. The second meaning is described in more detail, since this is what the period is called. That is, archaic is the period that preceded the classics.

Archaic period of Ancient Greece

The period was coined by historians in the eighteenth century. It dates back to 750-480 BC. Such time frames were not taken in vain. 750 BC marked the peak of the dramatic growth of the Greek population and the improvement of its material well-being. The archaic period ended in 480 BC, when Xerxes invaded Hellas.

Archaic is the concept of It arose as a result of the study of Greek art, namely decorative and plastic.

Later the concept spread to the entire history of art and social life of Hellas. The archaic period saw significant developments in philosophy, political theory, poetry, theater, as well as the rise of democracy and the revival of writing.

Scholar Anthony Snodgrass criticizes the term "archaic" for the history of ancient Greece. For him, archaic is primitive, therefore it is unacceptable to apply such a concept in relation to Hellas of that time. He considers this period the most fruitful in world history. What is this historical phenomenon in outline?

Archaic culture

This period in its historical development precedes the civilized world. It is the earliest form of human collectivity with a corresponding culture and ideas of faith.

Archaic is a certain constant value that guarantees the constant and stable reproduction of a sociocultural object. Time in this culture is an endless chain of return to origins. Thanks to this, the world never changes and remains at the stage of its emergence.

What is archaic for spiritual world person? It represents the absolute immutability of life. Its mechanisms protect a person from new patterns of behavior in the world. Sociocultural mechanisms prevent the emergence of new desires.

The existing myth of a constant return to origins gave a person of this period the opportunity to overcome the transience of his existence. The world in this culture was distinguished by its orderliness. He remained the same as at the moment of his creation from chaos.

Archaic principles form the basis of ethnic cultures of human history. The archaic was finally introduced into the sphere of art in the modern period.

The achievements of ancient Greek civilization formed the basis European culture

Early Greece

Turn of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC is the most important stage in the history of Europe. It was then that societies divided into classes emerged in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula and on the adjacent islands.

Around 2500 BC Large metallurgical centers are being created on many islands of the Aegean Sea and on the mainland. Significant progress has been observed in ceramic production, where the potter's wheel began to be used. Thanks to the development of navigation, contacts between different regions are intensifying, and technical and cultural innovations are spreading. Equally noticeable was the progress in agriculture associated with the creation of a new multicultural type (the so-called Mediterranean triad), which was based on the cultivation of cereals, primarily barley, grapes and olives. The proximity of ancient civilizations of the Near East also had a great influence on the development of this region.

Painted vessel from the Old Palace of Phaistos. Around the XIX-XVIII centuries. BC.

The initial stages of the formation of class society and the state in this region have not yet been sufficiently studied, and this is mainly due to the fact that researchers have relatively few sources at their disposal. Archaeological materials relating to this period cannot illuminate political history, character social relations, and the oldest writing system that appeared in Crete (the so-called Linear A) has not yet been deciphered. Subsequently, the Greeks of the Balkan Peninsula adapted this letter to their language (the so-called Linear B). It was deciphered only in 1953 by English scientists M. Ventris and J. Chadwick. But all texts are business reporting documents, and therefore the volume of information provided by them is limited. Certain information about society of the 2nd millennium BC. preserved the famous Greek poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey”, as well as some myths. However, it is difficult to interpret these sources historically, since reality in them is artistically transformed, ideas and realities of different times are fused together and it is extremely difficult to isolate what undoubtedly dates back to the 2nd millennium BC.

As some researchers believe, it is quite possible that the first centers of statehood appeared on the Balkan Peninsula as early as the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. But the process of formation of class society and statehood in the southern part of the Balkan region was interrupted by the invasion of tribes from the north. Around XXII century BC. Here the Greek tribes themselves appeared, calling themselves Achaeans or Danaans. The old, pre-Greek population, whose ethnicity has not been established, was partially displaced or destroyed by the newcomers, and partially assimilated. The conquerors stood at a lower level of development, and this circumstance affected a certain difference in the destinies of the two parts of the region: the mainland and the island of Crete. Crete was not affected by the mentioned process and therefore for several centuries represented the zone of the most rapid socio-economic, political and cultural progress.

Minoan civilization

The Bronze Age civilization that arose in Crete is usually called Minoan. This name was given to it by the English archaeologist A. Evans, who first discovered monuments of this civilization during excavations of the palace in Knossos. Greek mythological tradition considered Knossos the residence of King Minos, the powerful ruler of Crete and many other islands of the Aegean. Here, Queen Pasiphae gave birth to the Minotaur (half-man, half-bull), for whom Daedalus built a labyrinth at Knossos.

In the second half of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, apparently, all the lands suitable for agriculture - the leading branch of the economy of Crete - were developed. Cattle breeding probably also played an important role. Significant progress was observed in the craft. The growth of labor productivity and the creation of surplus product led to the fact that part of it could be used in intercommunity exchange. For Crete this was of particular significance, since the island lay at the crossroads of ancient sea routes.

At the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC. The first states emerge on Crete. At first there were four of them with palace centers in Knossos, Phaistos, Mallia, and Kato Zakro. It is the appearance of palaces that testifies to the class character of society and the development of statehood.

The era of "palace civilization" in Crete spans approximately 600 years: from 2000 to 1400 BC. Around 1700 BC palaces were destroyed. According to some scientists, this was caused by natural disasters (most likely a huge earthquake), others see this as the result of social conflicts, a consequence of struggle masses. However, the outbreak of the disaster briefly delayed development. Soon, on the site of the destroyed palaces, new ones appeared, surpassing the old ones in monumentality and luxury.

We know a little more about the era of “new palaces”. For example, the four palaces mentioned above, a number of settlements, and necropolises have been well explored. The Knossos palace excavated by A. Evans is the best studied - a grandiose structure on a common platform (about 1 hectare). Although only one floor has survived to this day, it is clear that the building was two, and possibly three, stories high. The palace had an excellent water supply and sewerage system, terracotta baths in special rooms, thoughtful ventilation and lighting. Many household items are made at a high artistic level, some are made of precious metals. The walls of the palace premises were decorated with magnificent paintings that reproduced the surrounding nature or scenes from the life of its inhabitants. Most of the ground floor was occupied by storerooms in which wine, olive oil, grain, local crafts, as well as goods coming from distant countries were stored. The palace also housed craft workshops, where jewelers, potters, and vase painters worked.

The question of the social and political organization of Cretan society is solved by scientists in different ways, but based on the available data, it can be assumed that the basis of the economic life of the state was the palace economy. The Cretan society of its heyday was probably a theocracy: the functions of king and high priest were combined in one person. Slaves had already appeared, but their number remained insignificant.

The apogee of the Minoan civilization falls on the 16th - first half of the 15th centuries. BC. At the beginning of this period, the whole of Crete was united under the rule of the Knossos rulers. Greek tradition considers King Minos the first "lord of the sea" - he built a large fleet, destroyed piracy and established his dominance in the Aegean Sea. At the end of the 15th century. BC. A catastrophe struck Crete, dealing a mortal blow to the Minoan civilization. Obviously, it occurred due to a huge volcanic eruption on the island of Thira. Most of the settlements and palaces were destroyed. Taking advantage of this, the Achaeans invaded the island from the Balkans. From the leading center of the Mediterranean, Crete turns into a province Achaean Greece.

Achaean civilization

The heyday of the civilization of Achaean Greece began in the 15th-13th centuries. BC. The center of this civilization was obviously Argolis. Expanding, it then covered the entire Peloponnese, Central Greece (Attica, Boeotia, Phocis), a significant part of Northern Greece (Thessaly), as well as many islands of the Aegean Sea.

As in Crete, palaces played a vital role in the life of society. The most significant of them were discovered in Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Athens, Thebes, Orkhomenes, Iolka. But the Achaean palaces differ sharply from the Cretan ones: they are all powerful citadels. The most impressive example is the citadel of Tiryns, the walls of which are made of huge limestone blocks, sometimes weighing 12 tons. The thickness of the walls exceeded 4.5 m, and the height only in the preserved part was 7.5 m.

Like the Cretan ones, the Achaean palaces have the same layout, but they are characterized by clear symmetry. The Pylos Palace is the best studied by archaeologists. It was two-story and consisted of several dozen rooms: ceremonial, sacred, chambers of the king and queen, their households: warehouses where grain, wine, olive oil, and household items were stored; utility rooms. An important part of the palace was the arsenal with a supply of weapons. The palace had an established water supply and sewerage system. The walls of many rooms were decorated with paintings, often with battle scenes.

Of exceptional importance for the history of the 2nd millennium BC. present the results of excavations begun by Greek archaeologists in 1967 on the island of Thira, the southernmost of the Cyclades group of islands. Under a layer of volcanic ash, the remains of a city that was destroyed by a volcanic eruption were found here. Excavations have revealed cobbled streets, large buildings, from which the second and even third floors with staircases leading to them have been preserved. The paintings on the walls of the buildings are amazing: blue monkeys, stylized antelopes, two fighting boys, one of them has a special glove on his hand. Against a background of red, yellow and green rocks covered with grass and moss, red lilies on yellow stems and swallows flying above them. Apparently, this is how the artist painted a picture of the arrival of spring, and the painting makes it possible to judge what this flourishing island looked like before disaster befell it. The same kind of houses the Tirenians of that time lived in and what ships they sailed on can be judged from another painting, obviously depicting a panorama of the city and the sea with many ships.

Achaean economy

basis economic structure Achaean society had a palace economy, which included large craft workshops - processing agricultural products, spinning and sewing, metallurgical and metalworking, producing tools and weapons. The palace economy also controlled the main types of craft activities throughout the territory; metalworking was under especially strict control.

The owner of the land, as follows from documents in the Pylos archive, was the palace. All lands were divided into two categories: privately owned and communal. The lowest stratum of society were slaves, but there were relatively few of them, and they belonged mainly to the palace. Slaves varied in their status, and there was no clear boundary between slaves and freemen. Formally free community members constituted an important social group. They had their own plots of land, house, and household, but were economically and politically dependent on the palace. The dominant layer included, first of all, a developed bureaucratic apparatus - central and local. The state was headed by a king (“vanaka”), who had political and sacred functions.

Political events

The political history of Achaean Greece is poorly known. Some scholars write about a unified Achaean power under the hegemony of Mycenae. However, it is more correct to assume that each palace is the center of an independent state, between which military conflicts often arose. This, however, did not exclude the possibility of temporary unification Achaean kingdoms. Apparently, this was the case during the campaign against Troy, the events of which formed the basis of the Iliad and Odyssey. It is possible that Trojan War- one of the episodes of the widespread colonization movement that began in the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Achaean settlements appeared on the western and southern coasts of Asia Minor, the islands of Rhodes and Cyprus were actively populated, Achaean trading posts were opened in Sicily and Southern Italy. The Achaeans participated in that powerful onslaught on the coastal countries of the Near East, which is usually called the movement of the “sea peoples”.

In the 13th century BC. prosperous Achaean states began to feel the approach of terrible events. In many places, new fortifications are being built and old ones are being repaired. As evidenced by archaeological excavations, the disaster occurred at the very end of the 13th century. BC. Almost all the palaces and most of the settlements were destroyed. The agony of the Achaean civilization lasted about a hundred years, and at the end of the 12th century. BC. The last Achaean palace in Iolka perished. The population was partially destroyed, partially settled in unsuitable areas for habitation, and even emigrated from the country altogether.

Scientists have long been searching for the causes of these fateful events in Greek history. There are a number of hypotheses explaining the destruction of the Achaean civilization. The most convincing, in our opinion, is the following. At the end of the 13th century. BC. Northern peoples moved to Greece, including the Dorian Greeks, as well as other tribes. However, there was no mass migration then, and only later did the Dorians gradually begin to penetrate into the devastated territory. The old Achaean population survived only in some areas, for example in Attica. The Achaeans, forced out of Greece, settled eastward, occupying the islands of the Aegean Sea, the western coast of Asia Minor and Cyprus.

Dark Ages of Greece

The birth of the foundations of Greek society

Important changes took place in craft production, primarily in metallurgy and metalworking. This is when iron begins to be widely used. The development of this metal, the production process of which was simpler in comparison with bronze, had enormous consequences. The need for production cooperation of a number of families disappeared, and opportunities arose for the economic independence of the patriarchal family, centralized production, storage and distribution of iron ceased to justify itself, and the economic need for a bureaucratic apparatus, characteristic of all Achaean states, disappeared.

The leading figure in the Greek economy was the free farmer. A somewhat different situation developed in those areas where the Dorian conquerors conquered the local Achaean population, for example in Sparta. The Dorians conquered the Eurotas valley and made the local population dependent on them.

The main form of organization of society was the polis as a special form of community. The citizens of the polis were the heads of the patriarchal families that were part of it. Each family represented an economically independent unit, which determined their political equality. And although the emerging nobility sought to bring the community under its control, this process was still far from complete. The polis community performed two important functions:

protection of land and population from the claims of neighbors
regulation of intra-community relations.

Only policies such as Sparta, where there was a conquered population, in this era acquired the features of primitive state formations.

Thus, by the end of the period under review, Greece was a world of hundreds of small and minute communities-polises, uniting peasant farmers. It was a world where the main economic unit was the patriarchal family, economically self-sufficient and almost independent, with a simple life and lack of external connections, a world where the top of society had not yet sharply separated from the bulk of the population, where the exploitation of man by man was just emerging. In primitive forms social organization There were no forces yet capable of forcing the bulk of producers to give away excess product. But this was precisely the economic potential of Greek society, which revealed itself in the next historical era and ensured its rapid rise.

Archaic Greece

The archaic period in the history of Greece is usually called the VIII-VI centuries. BC. According to some researchers, this is the time of the most intensive development of ancient society. Indeed, over the course of three centuries, many important discoveries were made that determined the nature of the technical basis of ancient society, and those socio-economic and political phenomena developed that gave ancient society certain specificity in comparison with other slave-holding societies:

classic slavery;
monetary circulation and market system;
the main form of political organization is the polis;
the concept of popular sovereignty and democratic form of government.

At the same time, the main ethical norms and principles of morality, aesthetic ideals were developed that influenced the ancient world throughout its history until the emergence of Christianity. Finally, during this period the main phenomena of ancient culture arose:

philosophy and science,
main genres of literature,
theater,
order architecture,
sport.

To more clearly imagine the dynamics of the development of society in the archaic period, we present the following comparison:

Around 800 BC e. The Greeks lived in a limited territory of the south of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea and the western coast of Asia Minor.	Around 500 BC e. they already occupy the shores of the Mediterranean from Spain to the Levant and from Africa to the Crimea.
Around 800 BC e. Greece is essentially a rural world, a world of self-sufficient small communities.	By 500 BC. e. Greece already has a lot of small towns with local markets, monetary relations powerfully invade the economy, trade relations cover the entire Mediterranean, the objects of exchange are not only luxury goods, but also everyday goods.
Around 800 BC e. Greek society is a simple, primitive social structure with a predominance of the peasantry, an aristocracy not much different from it, and with an insignificant number of slaves.	Around 500 BC e. Greece has already experienced an era of great social changes, the slave of the classical type is becoming one of the main elements of the social structure, along with the peasantry there are other socio-professional groups; known various shapes political organization: monarchy, tyranny, oligarchy, aristocratic and democratic republics.
In 800 BC. e. There are still practically no churches, theaters, or stadiums in Greece.	In 500 BC. e. Greece is a country with many beautiful public buildings, the ruins of which still amaze us. Emerge and develop lyric poetry, tragedy, comedy, natural philosophy.

The decomposition of old traditional relations and the emergence of new ones

The rapid rise prepared by previous development and the spread of iron tools had multiple consequences for society. The increase in labor productivity in agriculture and crafts led to an increase in surplus product. An increasing number of people were released from the agricultural sector, which ensured the rapid growth of crafts. The separation of the agricultural and handicraft sectors of the economy entailed regular exchange between them, the emergence of a market and a universal equivalent - minted coins. The new kind wealth - money - begins to compete with the old - land ownership, disintegrating traditional relations.

As a result, there is a rapid decomposition of primitive communal relations and the formation of new forms of socio-economic and political organization of society. This process proceeds differently in different parts of Hellas, but everywhere it entails the maturation of social conflicts between the emerging aristocracy and the ordinary population, first of all, communal peasants, and then other strata.

Modern researchers usually date the formation of the Greek aristocracy to the 8th century. BC e. The aristocracy of that time was a limited group of people characterized by a special way of life and value system that was obligatory for its members. She occupied a dominant position in the field public life, especially in the administration of justice, played a leading role in the war, since only noble warriors had heavy weapons, and therefore the battles were essentially duels of aristocrats. The aristocracy sought to completely bring ordinary members of society under its control and turn them into an exploited mass. According to modern researchers, the attack of the aristocracy on ordinary citizens began in the 8th century. BC e. Little is known about the details of this process, but its main results can be judged by the example of Athens, where the increased influence of the aristocracy led to the creation of a clearly defined class structure, a gradual reduction in the layer of the free peasantry and an increase in the number of dependents.

"The Great Greek Colonization"

Closely related to this situation is such a phenomenon of enormous historical significance as the “great Greek colonization.” Since the middle of the 8th century. BC e. Greeks were forced to leave their homeland and move to other countries.

Over three centuries they created many colonies on the shores of Mediterranean Sea. Colonization developed in three main directions:

western (Sicily, Southern Italy, Southern France and even the eastern coast of Spain),
northern (Thracian coast of the Aegean Sea, the area of straits leading from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea, and its coast),
southeastern (the coast of North Africa and the Levant country).

Modern researchers believe that its main incentive was the lack of land. Greece suffered from both absolute agrarian overpopulation (an increase in population due to general economic growth) and relative (lack of land among the poorest peasants due to the concentration of land ownership in the hands of the nobility). The reasons for colonization also include political struggle, which usually reflected the main social contradiction of the era - the struggle for land, as a result of which those defeated in civil war were often forced to leave their homeland and move overseas. There were also trade motives: the desire of the Greeks to bring trade routes under their control.

Moschophorus (“calf-carrying”). Acropolis. Athens. Around 570 BC

The pioneers of Greek colonization were the cities of Chalkida and Eretria located on the island of Euboea - in the 8th century. BC, apparently, the most advanced cities in Greece, the most important centers of metallurgical production. Later, Corinth, Megara, and the cities of Asia Minor, especially Miletus, were included in the colonization.

Colonization had a huge impact on the development of ancient Greek society, especially in the economic sphere. The inability to establish the necessary branches of craft in a new place led to the fact that very soon the colonies established the closest economic ties with the old centers of the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor. From here, both the colony and the local population neighboring them began to receive products of Greek crafts, especially artistic ones, as well as some types of agricultural products (the best varieties of wine, olive oil, etc.). In return, the colonies supplied grain and other food products, as well as raw materials (timber, metal, etc.) to Greece. As a result, Greek craft received an impetus further development, and agriculture began to acquire a commercial character. In this way, colonization muted social conflicts in Greece, removing the masses of the landless population from its borders and at the same time contributing to changes in the social and economic structure of Greek society.

Changes in the socio-political situation

The attack of the aristocracy on the rights of the demos reached its apogee in the 7th century. BC, causing counter-resistance. In Greek society, a special social stratum of people appeared who acquired, most often through craft and trade, significant wealth, led an aristocratic lifestyle, but did not have the hereditary privileges of the nobility. “Money is held in high esteem by everyone. Wealth has mixed the breeds,” the poet Theognis of Megara notes bitterly. This new layer greedily strived for control, thereby becoming an ally of the peasants in the fight against the nobility. The first successes in this struggle were most often associated with the establishment of written laws that limited the arbitrariness of the aristocracy.

Resistance to the growing dominance of the nobility was facilitated by at least three circumstances. Around 675-600 BC. thanks to technical progress There is a kind of revolution in military affairs. Heavy armor becomes available to ordinary citizens, and the aristocracy loses its advantage in the military sphere. Due to the scarcity of the country's natural resources, the Greek aristocracy could not catch up with the aristocracy of the East. Due to the features historical development in Iron Age Greece there were no such economic institutions (similar to the temple farms of the East), based on which it would be possible to exploit the peasantry. Even the peasants who were dependent on the aristocrats were not economically connected to the latter’s farms. All this predetermined the fragility of the dominance of the nobility in society. Finally, the force that prevented the aristocrats from strengthening their position was their ethics. It had an “atonal” (competitive) character: every aristocrat, in accordance with the ethical standards inherent in this layer, strived to be the first everywhere - on the battlefield, in sports competitions, in politics. This value system was created by the nobility earlier and transferred to the new historical period, when to ensure dominance she needed the unity of all forces. However, the aristocracy was unable to achieve this.

The emergence of tyranny

Exacerbation of social conflicts in the 7th-6th centuries. BC. led to the birth of tyranny in many Greek cities, i.e. sole power of the ruler.

At that time, the concept of “tyranny” did not yet have the negative connotation inherent in it today. The tyrants carried out an active foreign policy, created powerful armed forces, decorated and improved their cities. However, the early tyranny as a regime could not last long. The historical doom of tyranny was explained by its internal contradictions. The overthrow of the rule of the nobility and the struggle against it were impossible without the support of the masses. The peasantry, who benefited from this policy, initially supported the tyrants, but when the threat posed by the aristocracy waned, they gradually came to realize the uselessness of the tyrannical regime.

Tyranny was not a stage characteristic of the life of all policies. It was most typical for those cities that, back in the archaic era, became large trade and craft centers. The process of formation of the classical polis due to the relative abundance of sources is best known to us from the example of Athens.

Athens option

The history of Athens in the archaic era is the history of the formation of a democratic polis. The monopoly on political power in the period under review belonged to the nobility here - the eupatrides, who gradually turned ordinary citizens into a dependent mass. This process already in the 7th century. BC. led to outbreaks of social conflicts.

Fundamental changes occur at the beginning of the 6th century. BC, and they are connected with the reforms of Solon. The most important of them was the so-called sisakhfiyah (“shaking off the burden”). As a result of this reform, the peasants, who, due to debts, had essentially turned into shareholders of their own land, restored their status as owners. At the same time, it was forbidden to enslave Athenians for debt. The reforms that undermined the political dominance of the nobility were of great importance. From now on, the scope of political rights depended not on nobility, but on the size of property (all citizens of the policy were divided into four property categories). In accordance with this division, the military organization of Athens was also restructured. A new governing body was created - the council (bule), and the importance of the people's assembly increased.

Solon's reforms, despite their radicality, did not solve all the problems. The aggravation of social struggle in Athens led in 560 BC. to the establishment of the tyranny of Pisistratus and his sons, which lasted here intermittently until 510 BC. Peisistratus pursued an active foreign policy, strengthening the position of Athens on maritime trade routes. Crafts flourished in the city, trade developed, and large-scale construction was carried out. Athens was turning into one of the largest economic centers of Hellas. Under the successors of Pisistratus, this regime fell, which again caused an exacerbation of social contradictions. Soon after 509 BC. e. conducted under the leadership of Cleisthenes New episode reforms that finally established the democratic system. The most important of them was the reform of electoral law: from now on all citizens, regardless of their property status, had equal political rights. The system of territorial division was changed, destroying the influence of aristocrats on the ground.

Sparta variant

Sparta offers a different development option. Having captured Lakonica and enslaved the local population, the Dorians already in the 9th century. BC. created a state in Sparta. Born very early as a result of conquest, it retained many primitive features in its structure. Subsequently, the Spartans, during two wars, sought to conquer Messenia, a region in the western Peloponnese. The internal social conflict between the nobility and ordinary citizens, which had already been brewing before, erupted in Sparta during the Second Messenian War. In its main features it resembled the conflicts that existed in other parts of Greece around the same time. The long struggle between ordinary Spartiates and the aristocracy led to the restructuring of Spartan society. A system was created, which in later times was called Lykurgov, after the name of the legislator who allegedly established it. Of course, tradition simplifies the picture, because this system was not created immediately, but developed gradually. Having overcome the internal crisis, Sparta was able to conquer Messenia and became the most powerful state in the Peloponnese and, perhaps, in all of Greece.

All the land in Lakonica and Messenia was divided into equal plots - claires, which each Spartiate received for temporary possession; after his death, the land was returned to the state. Other measures also served the desire for complete equality of the Spartiates:

a harsh education system aimed at creating an ideal warrior;
the strictest regulation of all aspects of the lives of citizens - the Spartiates lived as if they were in a military camp;
prohibition to engage in agriculture, crafts and trade, to use gold and silver;
limiting contacts with the outside world.

The political system was also reformed. Along with the kings, who performed the functions of military leaders, judges and priests, the council of elders (gerusia) and the people's assembly (apella), a new governing body appeared - the college of five ephors (overseers). The Ephorate was the highest control body that ensured that no one deviated one step from the principles of the Spartan system, which became the object of pride of the Spartans, who believed that they had achieved the ideal of equality.

In historiography, there is traditionally a view of Sparta as a militarized, militaristic state, and some authoritative experts even call it a “police” state. There is a reason for this definition. The basis on which the “community of equals” was based, that is, a collective of equal and full-fledged Spartiates who were not at all engaged in productive labor, was the exploited mass of the enslaved population of Laconia and Messenia - the helots. Scientists have been arguing for many years about how to determine the position of this segment of the population. Many tend to consider helots as state slaves. The helots owned plots of land, tools, and had economic independence, but they were obliged to transfer a certain share of the harvest to their masters, the Spartiates, ensuring their existence. According to modern researchers, this share was approximately 1/6-1/4 of the harvest. Deprived of all political rights, the helots belonged entirely to the state, which disposed not only of their property, but also of their lives. The slightest protest on the part of the helots was severely punished.

In the Spartan polis there was another social group- perieki (“living around”), descendants of the Dorians who were not included in the citizens of Sparta. They lived in communities, had internal self-government under the supervision of Spartan officials, and were engaged in agriculture, crafts and trade. The Perieki were obliged to field military contingents. Similar social conditions and a system close to the Spartan system are known in Crete, Argos, Thessaly and other areas.

Archaic culture

Ethnic identity

Like all other areas of life, Greek culture in the archaic era experienced rapid changes. During these centuries, the development of ethnic identity took place; the Greeks gradually began to recognize themselves as a single people, different from other peoples, whom they began to call barbarians. Ethnic self-awareness was also reflected in some social institutions. According to Greek tradition, starting in 776 BC. The Olympic Games began to be held, to which only Greeks were allowed.

Ethics

In the archaic era, the main features of the ethics of ancient Greek society took shape. Its distinctive feature was the combination of an emerging sense of collectivism and an agonistic (competitive) principle. The formation of the polis as a special type of community, which replaced the loose associations of the “heroic” era, gave rise to a new, polis morality - collectivist at its core, since the existence of an individual outside the framework of the polis was impossible. The development of this morality was also facilitated by the military organization of the polis (phalanx formation). The highest valor of a citizen consisted in the defense of his polis: “It is sweet to lose your life, among the valiant warriors, to a brave man in battle for the sake of his fatherland” - these words of the Spartan poet Tyrtaeus perfectly expressed the mentality of the new era, characterizing the system of values \u200b\u200bthat prevailed then. However, the new morality retained the principles of morality of Homer's time with its leading principle of competition. The nature of the political reforms in the policies determined the preservation of this morality, since it was not the aristocracy that was deprived of its rights, but ordinary citizenship was raised in terms of the scope of political rights to the level of the aristocracy. Because of this, the traditional ethics of the aristocracy spread among the masses, although in a modified form: the most important principle is who will best serve the polis.

Religion

Religion also experienced a certain transformation. The formation of a single Greek world, with all its local features, entailed the creation of a pantheon common to all Greeks. Evidence of this is Hesiod’s poem “Theogony”. The cosmogonic ideas of the Greeks were not fundamentally different from the ideas of many other peoples. It was believed that Chaos, Earth (Gaia), the underworld (Tartarus) and Eros originally existed - life beginning. Gaia gave birth to the starry sky - Uranus, who became the first ruler of the world and the husband of Gaia. From Uranus and Gaia the second generation of gods was born - the Titans. The Titan Kronos (god of agriculture) overthrew the power of Uranus. In turn, the children of Kronos - Hades, Poseidon, Zeus, Hestia, Demeter and Hera - under the leadership of Zeus overthrew Kronos and seized power over the Universe. Thus, the Olympian gods are the third generation of deities. Zeus became the supreme deity - the ruler of the sky, thunder and lightning. Poseidon was considered the god of moisture that irrigates the earth and seas, Hades (Pluto) was the ruler of the underworld. Zeus's wife Hera was the patroness of marriage, Hestia was the goddess hearth and home. Demeter was revered as the patroness of agriculture, whose daughter Cora, once kidnapped by Hades, became his wife.

From the marriage of Zeus and Hera, Hebe was born - the goddess of youth, Ares - the god of war, Hephaestus, who personified the volcanic fire hidden in the bowels of the earth, and also patronized artisans, especially blacksmiths. Among the descendants of Zeus, Apollo stood out especially - the god of the light principle in nature, often called Phoebus (Shining). According to myths, he defeated the dragon Python, and at the place where he accomplished his feat, and it was in Delphi, the Greeks built a temple in honor of Apollo. This god was considered the patron of the arts, a healing god, but at the same time a deity who brings death, spreading epidemics; he later became a patron of colonization. The role of Apollo increases more and more over time, and he begins to displace Zeus.

Apollo's sister Artemis is the goddess of the hunt and patroness of youth. The many-sided functions of Hermes, initially the god of material wealth, then trade, the patron of deceivers and thieves, and finally the patron of speakers and athletes; Hermes also took the souls of the dead to the underworld. Dionysus (or Bacchus) was revered as the deity of the productive forces of nature, viticulture and winemaking. Athena, born from the head of Zeus, was highly respected - the goddess of wisdom, all rational principles, but also war (unlike Ares, who personified reckless courage). Athena's constant companion is the goddess of victory Nike, the symbol of Athena's wisdom is the owl. Aphrodite, born from sea foam, was worshiped as the goddess of love and beauty.

For Greek religious consciousness, especially at this stage of development, the idea of the omnipotence of a deity is not typical; a faceless force reigned over the world of the Olympian gods - Fate (Ananka). Due to political fragmentation and the lack of a priestly class, the Greeks did not develop a single religion. A large number of very close, but not identical religious systems arose. As the polis worldview developed, ideas about the special connection of individual deities with one or another polis, whose patrons they acted, took shape. Thus, the goddess Athena is especially closely associated with the city of Athens, Hera with Samos and Argos, Apollo and Artemis with Delos, Apollo with Delphi, Zeus with Olympia, etc.

The Greek worldview is characterized not only by polytheism, but also by the idea of the universal animation of nature. Every natural phenomenon, every river, mountain, grove had its own deity. From the Greek point of view, there was no insurmountable line between the world of people and the world of gods; heroes acted as an intermediary link between them. Heroes such as Hercules joined the world of the gods for their exploits. The gods of the Greeks themselves were anthropomorphic, they experienced human passions and could suffer like people.

Architecture

The Archaic era is the time of the formation of architecture. The primacy of public, primarily sacred, architecture is indisputable. The dwellings of that time were simple and primitive, all the forces of society were directed towards monumental buildings, primarily temples. Among them, the temples of the patron gods of the community took precedence. The emerging sense of unity of the civil collective was expressed in the creation of such temples, which were considered the habitat of the gods. Early temples repeated the structure of the megaron of the 2nd millennium BC. A new type of temple was born in Sparta, the oldest city in Hellas. A characteristic feature of Greek architecture is the use of orders, i.e. a special construction system that emphasizes the architectonics of the building, gives expressiveness to the load-bearing and non-supporting elements of the structure, revealing their function. An order building usually has a stepped base; a number of load-bearing vertical supports were placed on it - columns that supported the supporting parts - an entablature that reflected the structure of the beam floor and roof. Initially, temples were built on acropolises - fortified hills, ancient centers of settlements. Later, due to the general democratization of society, changes occurred in the location of temples. They are now erected in the lower city, most often on the agora - the main square, which was the center of social and business life of the polis.

The role of temples in Greek society

The temple as an institution contributed to the development of various types of art. Early on, the custom of bringing gifts to the temple was established; part of the booty captured from enemies, weapons, offerings on the occasion of deliverance from danger, etc. were donated to him. A significant part of such gifts were works of art. An important role was played by temples that gained panhellenic popularity, especially the temple of Apollo at Delphi. Rivalry first noble families, and then the policies contributed to the fact that they concentrated here best works art, and the territory of the sanctuary became something like a museum.

Sculpture

Black-figure amphora. 540s BC.

In the archaic era, monumental sculpture arose - a form of art previously unknown to Greece. Ancient sculptures were images crudely carved from wood, often inlaid with ivory and covered with sheets of bronze. Improvements in stone processing techniques not only affected architecture, but also led to the emergence of stone sculpture, and in metal processing techniques - to the casting of bronze sculptures. In the VII-VI centuries. BC. two types dominate in sculpture: nude male figure and draped women's. The birth of the statue type of the male nude figure is associated with the main trends in the development of society. The statue depicts a fine and valiant citizen, a winner in sports competitions, who glorified hometown. Tombstone statues and images of deities began to be made using the same type. The appearance of relief is mainly associated with the custom of erecting tombstones. Later, reliefs in the form of complex multi-figure compositions became an indispensable part of the temple entablature. Statues and reliefs were usually painted.

Vase painting

Greek monumental painting is much less known than vase painting. The example of the latter best illustrates the main trends in the development of art: the emergence of realistic principles, the interaction of local art and influences coming from the East. In the 7th - early 6th centuries. BC. Corinthian and Rhodian vases with colorful paintings of the so-called carpet style predominated. They usually depicted floral patterns and various animals and fantastic creatures arranged in a row. In the VI century. BC. The black-figure style dominates in vase painting: figures painted with black varnish stood out sharply against the reddish background of clay. Paintings on black-figure vases often represented multi-figure compositions on mythological subjects: various episodes from the life of the Olympian gods, the exploits of Hercules and the Trojan War were popular. Less common were subjects related to the everyday life of people: a battle of hoplites, athletic competitions, scenes of a feast, a round dance of girls, etc.

Since individual images were executed in the form of black silhouettes against a clay background, they give the impression of being flat. Vases made in different cities have their own unique features. The black-figure style reached a special peak in Athens. Attic black-figure vases were distinguished by their graceful forms, high technology production, subject variety. Some vase painters signed their paintings, and thanks to this we know, for example, the name of Clytius, who painted a magnificent wine vessel (crater): the painting consists of several belts on which multi-figure compositions are presented. Another magnificent example of painting is the Exekia kylix. The vase painter occupied the entire round surface of the wine bowl with one scene: the god Dionysus reclines on a ship sailing under a white sail, grape vines curl around the mast, and heavy grapes hang down. Seven dolphins are diving around, into which, according to myth, Dionysus turned the Tyrrhenian pirates.

Alphabetic writing and philosophy

The greatest achievement of Greek culture of the archaic era was the creation of alphabetic writing. By transforming the Phoenician syllabary system, the Greeks created a simple way of recording information. In order to learn to write and count, years of hard work were no longer needed; there was a “democratization” of the education system, which made it possible to gradually make almost all free residents of Greece literate. Thus, knowledge was “secularized,” which became one of the reasons for the absence of the priestly class in Greece and contributed to the increase in the spiritual potential of society as a whole.

The archaic era is associated with a phenomenon of exceptional importance for European culture - the emergence of philosophy. Philosophy is a fundamentally new approach to understanding the world, sharply different from the one that prevailed in the Near East and Greece of an earlier period. The transition from religious and mythological ideas about the world to its philosophical understanding meant a qualitative leap in the intellectual development of mankind. The formulation and formulation of problems, reliance on the human mind as a means of cognition, focus on searching for the causes of everything that happens in the world itself, and not outside it - this is what significantly distinguishes the philosophical approach to the world from religious and mythological views.

In modern scientific literature, there are two main views on the emergence of philosophy.

According to one, the birth of philosophy is a derivative of the development of science; the quantitative accumulation of positive knowledge resulted in a qualitative leap.
According to another explanation, early Greek philosophy was practically no different, except for the method of expression, from the stage-wise earlier mythological system of knowledge of the world.
However, in last years a view was expressed that seems to be the most correct: philosophy was born from the social experience of a citizen of the early polis.

The polis and the relations of citizens in it are the model by analogy with which Greek philosophers saw the world. This conclusion is confirmed by the fact that the emergence of philosophy in its earliest form - natural philosophy (that is, philosophy addressed primarily to the knowledge of the most general laws of the world) - occurs in the most advanced policies of Asia Minor. It is with them that the activities of the first philosophers are connected - Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes. Natural philosophical teachings about the primary elements made it possible to build a general picture of the world and explain it without resorting to the help of the gods. The emerging philosophy was spontaneously materialistic, the main thing in the work of its first representatives was the search for the material fundamental principles of all things.

The founder of Ionian natural philosophy, Thales, considered water, which is in continuous movement, to be such a fundamental principle. Its transformations created and create all things, which in turn turn back into water. Thales imagined the earth as a flat disk floating on the surface of primordial water. Thales was also considered the founder of mathematics, astronomy and a number of other specific sciences. Comparing records of successive events solar eclipses, he predicted the eclipse of the sun in 597 (or 585) BC. and explained it by the fact that the Moon obscured the Sun. According to Anaximander, the fundamental principle of everything is apeiron, indefinite, eternal and limitless matter, in constant motion. Anaximander gave the first formulation of the law of conservation of energy and created the first geometric model of the Universe.

The materialism and dialectics of the Ionian natural philosophers were opposed by the Pythagoreans - followers of the teachings of Pythagoras, who created a religious and mystical community in Southern Italy. The Pythagoreans considered mathematics to be the basis, believing that it was not quality, but quantity, not substance, but form that determined the essence of everything. Gradually they began to identify things with numbers, depriving them of material content. The abstract number, transformed into an absolute, was thought of by them as the basis of the immaterial essence of the world.

Literature

At the beginning of the archaic era dominant genre literature was an epic inherited from a previous era. The recording of Homer's poems, carried out in Athens under Pisistratus, marked the end of the “epic” period. The epic, as a reflection of the experience of the entire society in the new conditions, had to give way to other types of literature. In this era, filled with turbulent social conflicts, lyrical genres are developing that reflect the experiences of the individual. Citizenship distinguishes the poetry of Tyrtaeus, who inspired the Spartans in their struggle for the possession of Messenia. In his elegies, Tyrtaeus praised military virtues and set out standards of behavior for warriors. And in later times they were sung during campaigns; they were also popular outside of Sparta as a hymn to the patriotism of the city. The work of Theognis, an aristocratic poet who realized the death of the aristocratic system and suffered from it, is permeated with hatred of the lower classes and a thirst for revenge:

Firmly trample the empty-hearted people with your heel, mercilessly
If you stab me with a sharp stick, crush me with a heavy yoke!

One of the first lyric poets, Archilochus, lived a life full of hardships and suffering. The son of an aristocrat and a slave, Archilochus, driven by poverty, went from his native Paros with the colonists to Thasos, fought with the Thracians, served as a mercenary, visited “beautiful and happy” Italy, but found happiness nowhere:

My bread is kneaded in a sharp spear. And in the spear -
Wine from Ismar. I drink, leaning on a spear.

The work of another great lyricist, Alcaeus, reflected the turbulent political life of that time. Along with political motives, his poems also contain table songs, they contain the joy of life and the sadness of love, reflections on the inevitability of death and calls to friends to enjoy life:

The rains are raging. Great cold
Carries from the sky. The rivers are all bound...
Let's drive away winter. Blazing bright
Let's light the fire. Give me sweets generously
Pour some wine. Then under the cheek
Give me a soft pillow.

“Sappho is violet-haired, pure, with a gentle smile!” - the poet addresses his great contemporary Sappho.

At the center of Sappho's work was a woman suffering from love and tormented by the pangs of jealousy, or a mother tenderly loving her children. Sappho’s poetry is dominated by sad motifs, which gives it a peculiar charm:

Fortunately, it seems to me equal to God
The man who is so close
Sitting in front of you, your sounding tender
Listens to the voice
And a lovely laugh. I have at the same time
My heart would immediately stop beating.

Anacreon called his work poetry of beauty, love and fun. He did not think about politics, wars, civil strife:

My dear is not the one who, while feasting, speaks at his full cup
It only talks about litigation and a regrettable war;
Dear to me, who, Muses and Cypris, combining good gifts,
He makes it his rule to be more cheerful at the feast.

Anacreon's poems, marked by undeniable talent and enchanting in their form, had a huge influence on European, including Russian, poetry.

The end of the archaic era marks the birth of artistic prose, represented by the works of logographers who collected local legends, genealogies of noble families, and stories about the founding of policies. At the same time, theatrical art appeared, the roots of which lie in the folk rituals of agricultural cults.

The Rhaic period is not separated from the Homeric period by a sharp chronological boundary: its beginning is determined approximately by the 8th century, the end by the beginning of the 5th century, sometimes by the end of the 1st quarter of the 5th century. The historical background of the period was the Great Greek Colonization, which expanded the boundaries of the world known to the Greeks. In the archaic era, lyric poetry arose and flourished (Sappho 29, Alcaeus, Alcman, Ibycus, Anacreon and many others), epic poetry continued to develop, a special genre of historiography was born (logographer Hecataeus of Miletus), the first playwrights appeared (Thespis, etc.), the formation of the system of dramatic theatrical performance itself.

A characteristic feature of Greek archaic culture and the entire Greek civilization as a whole becomes agonistic thirty . Competitiveness permeates all areas of Greek activity: from sports, music, theater, poetry competitions to competition in the field of art, which has an undoubted impact on the ever-accelerating development and change in all branches of knowledge and experience among the Greeks 31 . In the archaic period, philosophy was born - Pythagoras was the first to call himself a philosopher 32. The greatest philosophers, or rather sages in the ancient sense, were representatives of the Milesian (Ionian) school, Thales, Heraclitus, etc. At the same time, the concept of a philosophical school arose, transmitting and developing the tradition from its founder: the very development of philosophical schools gradually became one from the cores connecting Greek thought until the end of ancient civilization itself.

For Greek art, this is an era of discovery: innovations in architecture, sculpture and painting determined the appearance of Greek culture as a whole. Never again has Greece known so many art schools, paths, richness, diversity and originality of searches. In the 7th-6th centuries. a type of Greek temple is emerging with a cella surrounded on all sides by a colonnade, with a pediment with a sculptural group dominating the front portico, Two main orders of Greek architecture were formed: strict Doric and graceful Ionic. The oldest of the Greek temples, known to us largely from remains, are the temples of Hera in Argos and Olympia and the temple of Apollo in Therma (Aetolia).

In Greek ceramics, stylistically very diverse, in the 8th century. The so-called Orientalizing (Eastern) manner, which is influenced by a strong Middle Eastern influence, is widespread. In the 7th century. Athenian black-figure vase painting acquires a dominant position, and when the Athenian ceramists (Andocides) move into the middle. 6th century BC e. to the red-figure technique, this step is decisive for all Greek territories.

Greek classics

The highest point in the development of Greek culture and art of antiquity was the classical (from Latin classicus - exemplary) period , the beginning of which is usually attributed to the time after the Greco-Persian wars (480–470 BC), the end - to the time of the beginning of the aggressive campaigns of Alexander the Great at the end of the 4th century. BC e. The political background of the flourishing of culture and art in the classical era, a kind of analogue of it, was the flourishing of the democratic city-states of Greece (for example, Athens during the reign of Pericles 33). In the 5th century Greece survived the worst wars in its history and came under the rule of a stronger and politically unified Macedonia.

Sculpture

Physical perfection and spiritual beauty as a reflection of the highest nobility and dignity of man are the main meaning of the search for classical art. The great masters of Greek classical sculpture were Polykleitos - the creator of the famous “Spearman” (“Doriphoros”), in which he calculated the “correct” proportions of the human figure and for the first time tried to imagine a person in a calm movement-step; Miron, who developed the theme of complex foreshortening movement (the statue of the “Discus Thrower” - “Disco Thrower”); Phidias- probably the designer of the entire architectural and sculptural complex of the Acropolis in Athens, the highest creation of the Greek world, Praxiteles - the creator of the most famous statue of antiquity, “Aphrodite of Knidos,” who for the first time presented the human figure in a state of rest and peace (“Hermes with Dionysus,” “Resting Satyr,” etc.); Scopas and Lysippos, who for the first time depicted pain and suffering on the human face and no longer followed the canon of Polykleitos, but according to the ideas of pure artistry and plasticity. It was the art of Praxiteles, Lysippos and Scopas that had the strongest influence on Hellenistic sculpture.

Architecture

the architecture of the classical period created exemplary types Doric and Ionic temples(peripter, dipter, prostyle, amphiprostyle, etc.). In the 4th century. BC e. lush and graceful was introduced into the arsenal of architecture Corinthian order, gradually replacing the two main ones - Doric and Ionic. The temple construction of the era is represented by the Temple of Zeus in Olympia, the Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis, and the Temple of Apollo in Bassae. The best architects of this time were Iktin(Parthenon, temple in Bassae) and Callicrates(Parthenon, Temple of Nike Apteros on the Acropolis). The appearance of architectural buildings of the classical period is distinguished by clarity and simplicity, rigor and purity of lines. The great experiment of the era was the Acropolis complex in Athens, which combines buildings of different orders, elements of different orders in one building (Ionic frieze with the Panathenaic procession in the Parthenon, Doric peripterus). In the 5th and 4th centuries. BC e. The famous theater buildings of Greece are created - the Theater of Dionysus in Athens and the Theater in Epidaurus.

Literature

The literature of the classical period is the most representative corpus of the ancient world. Considered the father of tragedy Aeschylus, whose younger contemporaries were Sophocles, king of poets, and Euripides, the father of comedy and its largest representative - Aristophanes, the father of history - Herodotus. An outstanding historian of the 5th century. BC e. was also Thucydides- author of the history of the Peloponnesian War.

In the field of philosophy 5–4 centuries. BC e. - the time of its true and great flourishing, the expansion of the activities of philosophical schools (Socrates 34, Plato 35 - founder of the Academy, Aristotle 36 - founder of the Lyceum 37 and the Peripatetic school, etc.).

The next period that will be discussed is archaic period(VIII - VI centuries BC), period archaic, this is the era of the formation of the Greek polis.

So, what is a policy? There are many definitions of what a polis is, and this was thought about even in the era of antiquity. In particular, in the works of Aristotle, in his “Politics”, a study of the definition of this unique phenomenon is given. That is, the Greeks themselves were already aware of the specificity and peculiarity of their social life. In modern science, the two most widely used definitions are usually used.

The most elementary, most primitive definition, which is also in the school textbook: a polis is a city-state. This is a good definition, it originated in German historical science in the 19th century, and in this definition the following is fair. The first thing this definition indicates is that the presence of an urban center is very important for the policy. Here is the Greek civilization, which from this moment, that is, from the period archaic, will arise - this is a civilization, unlike the previous era, this is an urban civilization. This is an urban civilization. The city will be the center of all life: economic, cultural, political life, etc. Do you understand, and were there before cities, and there were cities in the east, but they fit into the structures of existing despotic monarchies, first of all, as administrative centers, as fortifications, etc., here the city first arose, first of all, as a political and economic center. It is very important.

Here is modern urban civilization, Western civilization, it is mainly urban, it to some extent originates from there. Although it is difficult to trace direct continuity here. Next year, I hope, when I tell you about the Middle Ages, we will talk about medieval cities. They are to some extent the heirs of antiquity, but to a large extent they will arise based on their own reasons and will develop according to their own laws. Modern cities are strictly connected with the medieval cities of Western Europe. But, I repeat, the city as such arose in our country back in antiquity.

The second thing that is important in this definition is the city-state. This definition emphasizes a very interesting feature, especially interesting for us. The fact that all Greek states, and a polis is a state, the same word denotes a city, is also a polis, because this, in principle, characterizes the fact that all Greek states were very small. But this is a very important point.

You see, of course it’s good to live in a big, powerful country; all nations somehow strive to be big. It was good for us to be 1/6 of the land. Now we are 1/8 of the land, that's not bad either. The Chinese, say, empire, the empire of Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, all such colossal political formations. So these are the Greek policies, and today we will talk about archaic period, in particular, we will talk about one of the most striking achievements of Greek civilization - namely democracy. So I want to immediately determine that many of the phenomena that make antiquity so bright and impressive were possible only because this culture, this civilization developed in small political organisms.

Epoch VIII-VI centuries. BC e. - This is the time of the most intensive development of ancient Greek civilization. During this period, changes in all areas of life in ancient Greece - from economics to culture - were so large-scale and radical that their totality is often called archaic revolution. The entire face of Greek society is changing. If at the beginning of the archaic era it was a traditional, almost non-progressive, immobile, rather simple in structure society, then by the end of this era one can rightfully speak of a highly mobile, complex society that, in a short time by historical standards, has caught up with and in a number of respects even ahead of the country in its development Ancient East. The foundations of statehood are being formed again on Greek soil. But new state formations do not take the form of palace kingdoms, as in the Mycenaean era, but of apolis (states of the ancient type in the form of a civil community), which later determined the specifics of the entire ancient Greek civilization.

As a result of a number of reasons (not all of them are completely clear to scientists), the population in Greece increased sharply already in the first centuries of the Archaic era (this is recorded by archaeological data, in particular by quantitative analysis of burials). A real demographic explosion occurred: over the course of a century, the population of Hellas increased several times. There is no doubt that significant population growth was a consequence of processes that began in the previous, pre-polis era. Thanks to the absence of an external threat during this period, the gradual but steady increase in prosperity as a result of the introduction of iron products into all spheres of life, the Greek world was granted several centuries of stable life.

It should be noted that population growth was observed in a region poor in natural resources, including fertile soils. As a result, in some areas of Greece a phenomenon called stenochory arose (i.e., “agrarian” overpopulation, leading to “land famine”). Stenochory manifested itself most acutely on Isthmus (the isthmus connecting the Peloponnese with Central Greece) and in the adjacent areas, as well as on some islands of the Aegean Sea (especially Euboea), in Ionia Minor. In these densely populated areas, the size of the chora (i.e. agricultural land) was negligibly small. To a lesser extent, stenochory was felt in Attica. In Boeotia, Thessaly, and the southern Peloponnese, due to the large areas of cultivated land and high (by Greek standards) soil fertility, a demographic explosion did not lead to negative consequences. It is characteristic that in these areas the pace of economic and political transformations was, as a rule, lower: need is a powerful engine of progress.

Extremely important process, which largely determined the development of archaic Greece, was urbanization - town planning, the formation of an urban way of life. From now on until the end of the existence of ancient civilization, one of its most specific features was its urban character. The Greeks themselves were already aware of this to some extent, for whom the word “polis” (meaning “city”) became one of the key characteristics of their entire existence, and the small

states with a city as a center were called policies.

If at the beginning of the archaic era in the Greek world there were almost no centers of urban life, then by its end Greece had truly become a “country of cities”, many of which (Athens, Corinth, Thebes, Argos, Miletus, Ephesus, etc.) became the largest economic , political and cultural centers. Cities could be formed different ways. One of the most common was the so-called synoikism (literally “settlement”) - the merging into one political unit of several small rural-type settlements located close to each other, on the territory of one region. This process could be accompanied by the actual relocation of residents of several villages to one city. Thus, synoicism in Attica, which tradition attributes to the legendary Athenian king Theseus (although this process took place in the first half of the 1st millennium BC and continued for several centuries), did not at all lead to the relocation of the entire rural population to a single center. Even in the classical era, more than half of the Athenian citizens lived in the choir; in Athens itself there were only general government bodies.

The Greek city of the archaic period played a role administrative center for the territory surrounding it, or more precisely, for the administrative and religious center, since religion in antiquity was closely connected with state life. But at the same time, the city was also the most important economic center, the center of handicraft production and trade. Thus, it is necessary to note a certain duality of functions of the ancient Greek city (however, this is typical for a city of any historical era). It was expressed in the presence of two centers in almost every city. One of them was the kropolis (from akros – upper +polis – city), which was a fortress. It was usually located on a hill or on a more or less inaccessible rock and had a complex of defensive structures. The Acropolis was the heart of the city and the entire state; The main temples were located on it, and the main religious cults were performed. On the acropolis there were originally also buildings of the governing bodies of the policy. In addition, in the event of an enemy attack, the acropolis served as a citadel, the last stronghold of the defenders.

The second “center” of the city was the agora, which most often arose at the foot of the acropolis

- the main city square, where the market was located and where people gathered for gatherings. The agora, like the acropolis, was considered a sacred space. Around the agora were the actual city quarters, inhabited by artisans, traders (who, however, constituted a minority of the population), as well as peasants who went to work every day on their plots of land located near the city.

Once established, the city underwent a certain evolution throughout the archaic era. First of all, it is necessary to mention the gradual increase in the importance of the agora, the transfer to it of the main administrative functions from the acropolis, which ultimately becomes almost exclusively a place for religious rituals. In various Greek cities this process proceeded with to varying degrees intensity, correlating mainly with the pace of political development of a particular polis.

Bronze helmets (VI century BC)

The Acropolis was also losing its defensive function, which was a consequence of another process characteristic of that time - the increasing security of cities in general. The rapid development of military art urgently required the creation of a system of fortifications in cities that would cover not only the citadel of the acropolis, but the entire territory of the city. By the end of the archaic era, many cities, at least the largest and most prosperous ones, were surrounded by defensive walls along their entire perimeter.

However, not all regions of the Greek world achieved high levels of urbanization. In areas such as Elis, Aetolia, Acarnania, Achaia, life in cities remained at a rather primitive level for a long time. A special case was the largest center of the Southern Peloponnese - Sparta, which ancient authors called a non-Sinoikized polis. Not only in the archaic era, but also later (until the Hellenistic period) this policy did not have defensive walls at all. And in general, the appearance of Sparta was far from urban, since it was, in fact, a collection of several rural settlements.

Extremely important changes have occurred in military affairs. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The martial arts of aristocratic heroes described in Homer's poems became a thing of the past. From now on, the collective principle became the main thing in the art of war, and detachments of hoplites - heavily armed infantrymen - began to play the most important role on the battlefields. Hoplite armor consisted of a bronze helmet, a carapace (either entirely made of bronze or leather covered with bronze plates), bronze greaves that protected the warrior's shins, and a round shield made of several layers of oxhide on a wooden frame, usually covered with bronze plates. The hoplite was armed with a short (about 60 centimeters long) iron sword and a longer wooden spear with an iron tip. The hoplite had to purchase both armor and weapons at his own expense, therefore, in order to serve in this branch of the army, one had to be a wealthy person, a citizen-landowner (initially, full hoplite weapons - panoplia - were generally available only to aristocrats).

Panoplia (hoplite armor from Argos) (8th century BC)

In battle, hoplites acted in a special closed formation - a phalanx. The warriors stood shoulder to shoulder in several ranks in a rectangle very elongated along the front. The length of the Greek phalanx varied depending on the total number of the detachment and could reach one kilometer, the depth was usually 7-8 rows. Having lined up and prepared for battle, the hoplites covered themselves with shields, put their spears forward and moved towards the enemy, trying to deliver the most powerful blow possible. Like a living wall, sweeping away everything in its path, the phalanx remained for centuries the most perfect way to build troops. The most powerful aspect of the phalanx was, perhaps, its unstoppable onslaught; in addition, the heavy armor protected the hoplite well, which kept the number of casualties among the combatants to a minimum. This formation also had disadvantages: poor maneuverability, vulnerability from the flanks, and unsuitability for combat operations on rough terrain. Both hoplite weapons and the phalanx appeared at the turn of the 8th-7th centuries. BC e., most likely in Argos, one of the largest centers of the Peloponnese. In any case, it was in Argolis that archaeologists found the most ancient version of panoplia in one of the graves. Naturally, from Argos the new method of warfare very quickly spread throughout the Peloponnese, and then almost throughout the entire Greek world.

Trier. Drawing

The poorest citizens, unable to purchase hoplite armor and weapons, during the war constituted auxiliary units of lightly armed warriors - gymnets. Among them

there were archers, slingers, bludgeoners, and javelin (short spear) throwers. Gymnets, as a rule, began the battle, and then ran away to the sides, making room for the clash of the main forces - the hoplite phalanxes. Gymnets were considered the least valuable part of the army, and sometimes the policies even entered into agreements with each other prohibiting the use of bows, slings, etc. during military clashes.

The cavalry, staffed exclusively by representatives of the aristocracy, played a small role in battles: the cavalrymen mainly had to protect the phalanx on the left and right in order to avoid its encirclement. More active actions of the cavalry were hampered, in particular, by the fact that the saddle with stirrups had not yet been invented, and therefore the position of the rider on the horse was very unstable. Only in some Greek regions (especially in Thessaly) did cavalry units truly occupy significant place in the structure of the army.

Along with the art of war, maritime affairs developed. In the archaic era, the Greeks developed warships of a combined sailing and rowing type. The earliest type of such ship was the pentecontera, which was a very big boat with a sail and about fifty oars, each of which was driven by an oarsman. In the VI century. BC e. The pentekontere was replaced by a triera - a ship with three rows of oars (up to 170 oars in total) on each side. According to ancient authors, triremes were first built by masters from Corinth. The sailing rigging on a trireme was extremely simple and was rarely used; the ship mainly moved by oars, especially during sea battle. At the same time, the ability to reach speeds of up to 10 knots, combined with high maneuverability, made the trireme a very effective weapon. Throughout the Archaic and most of the Classical eras, it remained the most common type of warship.

The Greeks were considered the greatest sailors in the world at that time; already in the archaic era, the pronounced “maritime” orientation of their civilization was clearly defined. Along with ships intended for warfare, the Greeks had commercial and transport ships. Merchant ships were shorter and wider than

penteconters and triremes, which had an elongated shape. The movement of such a vessel was carried out primarily with the help of sails. However, the sailing equipment of ancient Greek ships was still very simple. Therefore, an excessive distance from the coast threatened such a vessel with almost inevitable death, as did sailing in winter, during the storm season. Nevertheless, progress in the development of maritime spaces was evident.

Of course, all innovations in the field of urban planning, military and naval affairs would have been impossible if they had not been accompanied by rapid economic development. True, in agriculture, which was the basis of the economic life of ancient Greece, these changes were felt less strongly. Agricultural production continued to be based on the cultivation of crops of the so-called “Mediterranean triad” (cereals, grapes, olives), as well as on cattle breeding, which played a mainly auxiliary role.

Significant changes took place in the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. in handicraft production, already separated from agriculture.

Corinthian pottery (c. 600 BC)

Technological progress has affected many manufacturing industries, such as shipbuilding, mining and metal processing. The Greeks began to build mines, discovered welding and soldering of iron, developed new technologies for bronze casting, etc. All this contributed to the development of weapons making. In the field of ceramic production, it is worth noting the expansion of the range of vessels. Elegant and stylish decoration with the help of painting turned these utilitarian items into real works of art. In the most developed Greek city-states, monumental stone buildings for religious and public purposes appeared: temples, altars, buildings for government work, port facilities, water supply, etc.

Economic achievements would not be possible without overcoming the characteristic Homeric period isolation of Greek communities. Trade, including foreign trade, contributed to the restoration of ties with the ancient civilizations of the East. For example, in Al-Mina (on the Syrian coast) there was a Greek merchant trading post. In other words, Greece has finally emerged from isolation. However, the level of trade development in

the archaic era should not be exaggerated. The marketability of the Greek economy, i.e. its market orientation, was low. Foreign trade exchange was aimed primarily not at selling the products of the ancient Greek policies, but, on the contrary, at obtaining from other places what was not available on its own territory: raw materials, handicrafts and food products, especially bread, which the Greeks always needed. The lack of sufficient natural resources in Greece led to the fact that the main component of foreign trade was imports.

Rhodian pottery (7th century BC)

Trade and economic contacts entailed interaction in the cultural sphere. The increasing eastern influence on the Greek world during the archaic era gives rise to some scientists even talking about an oriental (i.e., oriented towards the East) period of the development of civilization in Ancient Greece. Indeed, the alphabet came to the Greek city-states from Phenicia, and manufacturing technology from Egypt. monumental statues, from Asia Minor - coin. The Hellenes readily accepted all the useful innovations from their more experienced eastern neighbors. However, they followed a completely new path of development, unknown to Eastern civilizations.

A very important factor in the economic life of the Greek world was the emergence of money.

IN At the beginning of the archaic era in some areas of Hellas (especially in the Peloponnese), the role of money was played by iron and copper bars in the form of rods - obols. Six obols constituted a drachma (that is, a handful - so many of them could be grabbed with one hand).

IN VII century BC e. a minted coin appeared. It was invented in Lydia, a small, wealthy kingdom in western Asia Minor. The Greeks very quickly adopted the innovation. At first, the largest Greek cities in Asia Minor began to mint coins based on the Lydian model, and then the coins came into circulation in Balkan Greece (primarily in Aegina). Both the Lydian and the first Greek coins were minted from electra, a natural alloy of gold and silver, and therefore their denominations were quite high, and it is unlikely that these coins could be used in trade. Most likely, they served to make large payments to the state (for example, to pay for services mercenary warriors). However, over time, small denominations of the coin appeared and it entered active trade.

Athenian silver tetradrachm (5th century BC)

By the end of the Archaic era, silver became the main material for minting coins. It was only in the classical era that small change coins began to be made from copper. Gold coins were minted in extremely rare cases. It is characteristic that the new money retained the old names. The main monetary unit in most policies was the drachma (6 obols). The weight of the Athenian silver drachma was approximately 4.36 grams. Coins of intermediate denominations were also minted - between the drachma and the obol. There were also coins weighing more than the drachma: the didrachm (2 drachmas), the very widespread tetradrachm (4 drachmas) and the extremely rarely issued decadrachm (10 drachmas). The largest measures of value were mina (100 drachmas) italant (60 min, i.e. about 26 kilograms of silver); Naturally, there were no coins of this denomination.

Some ancient Greek cities had their own coin system, based on the currency unit stater (approximately 2 drachmas). Each policy, being an independent state, issued its own coin. The authorities certified its state status by placing a special image on the coin, which was a symbol, or emblem, of the policy. Thus, on the coins of Athens the head of Athena and an owl, considered the sacred bird of the goddess, were depicted, on the coins of Aegina - a turtle, on the coins of Boeotia - a shield, etc.

Sources The history of Ancient Greece in the archaic era is evidenced by various

sources, the value of which, however, is not the same. The central place is occupied by written data contained in the works of ancient authors. At the same time, the most valuable are the monuments that were created during the archaic era itself, for these are testimonies of contemporaries, and sometimes even eyewitnesses of the events described.

Historical works provide important information: after all, ancient historians set themselves the goal of telling about the events not only of their contemporary era, but also of an earlier time. As is known, historical literature first appeared in Greece precisely in the archaic era, in the second half of the 6th century. BC e. However, the works of the first logographers - writers who worked in the historical genre (Hecataeus of Miletus, Charon of Lampsacus, Akusilaus of Argos, etc.) - unfortunately, were preserved only in the form of a few and scattered fragments quoted by the “later” authors. Of course, some valuable information can be obtained from these fragments, but in general the information in them is rather meager and, in any case, does not allow us to recreate a complete picture of the development of Greece in the archaic era.

For any complete reconstruction of the history of this time, it is necessary to actively use written monuments of various genres, for example, the works of poets who were in Hellas in the 8th - 6th centuries. BC e. there were many. We find very important material in Hesiod, the largest representative of didactic

(instructive) epic. His poem “Works and Days” contains a description of the entire working life of a peasant with a unique poetic code of economic instructions, religious instructions and moral rules of life for a poor Greek of the early archaic era. The world of “rural Greece” emerges from the pages of the poem in all its fullness and color, and, it should be said, this world contrasts sharply with the world of Homer - with its warlike heroes and almost constant battles.

The source of information is numismatic evidence. The very first coins of the Greek city policies make it possible to judge the nature of money circulation, the routes of interstate trade, the systems of weights and measures, etc.