The concept of literary tradition.

General idea of ​​the literary process. Tradition and innovation

The final chapter of our book, devoted to the literary process, is perhaps the most difficult from a methodological point of view. The fact is that for an adequate understanding of the laws of the literary process it is necessary to at least general view imagine the body literary works different eras and cultures. Then the logic of the formation of genres, the projection of some cultures onto other eras, and the patterns of stylistic development begin to emerge. But a novice philologist, of course, almost never has such a historical and literary base, so there is always a danger of turning the conversation into pure scholasticism: a student can honestly “memorize” some information, but the real, living content of theoretical positions is not yet available to him. It is difficult, for example, to talk about the features of the Baroque style if most readers do not know a single poet of this era.

On the other hand, it is also unrealistic to clarify each position in detail with many examples, each time plunging into the history of literature - this would require the use of enormous material that goes beyond the scope of our manual and which the student physically cannot cope with. Therefore, finding a balance between what is necessary and what is sufficient is very difficult.

Understanding all these objective difficulties, we will be forced to greatly schematize the presentation, focusing only on the most important aspects. There is simply no other way, in any case, the author does not know of a single manual where different faces literary the process would be covered quite fully and accessible for a novice philologist. There are many excellent studies devoted to different aspects of the literary process, but to bring together together there is a huge and contradictory material, making it accessible to a junior student, and even within the confines of one chapter, is a completely unrealistic task.

Therefore, the proposed chapter is only an introduction to the problem, which briefly outlines the main issues related to the study of the literary process.

The literary process is a complex concept. The term itself appeared relatively recently, already in the 20th century, and gained popularity even later, only starting in the 50s and 60s. Before this, attention was paid to some individual aspects of literary relationships, but the literary process was not comprehended in its entirety. In the full sense of the word, it has not been comprehended even today; only the main components of the literary process have been identified, and possible research methodologies have been outlined. Summarizing various views, we can say that understanding the literary process involves solving several scientific problems:

1. It is necessary to establish connections between literature and the socio-historical process. Literature, of course, is connected with history, with the life of society, it reflects it to some extent, but it is neither a copy nor a mirror. At some moments, at the level of images and themes, there is a rapprochement with historical reality, at others, on the contrary, literature moves away from it. Understanding the logic of this “attraction-repulsion” and finding transitional links connecting historical and literary processes is an extremely complex task and hardly has a final solution. As such a transitional link “from life to literature,” either religious-symbolic forms or social stereotypes were considered (or, in the terminology of A. A. Shakhov, “ public types"), which are formed in society in a certain period and are embodied in art; then the socio-psychological atmosphere in society (in the terminology of Yu. B. Kuzmenko - “social emotions”); then the structure of the aesthetic ideal, reflecting both ideas about man and aesthetic traditions (for example, this approach is characteristic of the works of N. A. Yastrebova), etc. There were a lot of concepts, but the mechanism of transformation historical reality in works of art remains a mystery. At the same time, attempts to find this transition link stimulate the emergence of interesting research, unexpected and original concepts in both domestic and foreign aesthetics. Let's say, it is the search for these links, at the same time concrete historical and “transhistorical” (in the terminology P. Bourdieu), then are of the same type for any moment in history, gives rise to the concept of “new historicism” - one of the most popular methodologies in modern Western European science. According to the theory of Pierre Bourdieu, the author of this concept, it is useless to “impose” any general laws on history based on today’s coordinate system. You need to start from the “historicity of the object”, that is, every time you need to enter into the historical contextof this work. And only by comparing the set with such In the image of the data obtained, including the historicity of the researcher himself, we can notice elements of commonality and “overcome” history. P. Bourdieu’s concept is popular today, but all questions it, Of course it doesn't take off. The search for an adequate methodology continues, and definitive answers are hardly possible.

2. In addition to “external” connections, that is, connections with history, psychology, etc., literature also has a system of internal connections, that is, constantly relates itself to its own history. Not a single writer of any era ever begins to write “from scratch”; he always consciously or unconsciously takes into account the experience of his predecessors. He writes in a certain genre, in which centuries-old literary experience has been accumulated (it is no coincidence that M. M. Bakhtin called the genre “memory of literature”), he looks for the type of literature that is closest to himself (epic, lyric, drama) and inevitably takes into account the laws adopted for this type . Finally, he absorbs many of the author’s traditions, correlating his work with one of his predecessors. All this adds up internal laws development of the literary process, which do not directly correlate with the socio-historical situation. For example, the genre of an elegiac poem, permeated with sadness and sometimes tragedy, can manifest itself in different sociohistorical situations, but will always correlate itself with the genre of elegy - regardless of the desire and will of the author.

That's why the concept of “literary process” includes the formation of generic, genre and stylistic traditions.

3. Literary process can be viewed from another point of view: how process of formation, development and change artistic styles . This raises a number of questions: how and why styles arise, what impact they have on further development culture, how it is formed and how important it is for the development of the literary process individual style what are style dominants a certain era, etc.

It is clear that any comprehensive idea of literary process We will get it only if we take into account all these issues, if these issues themselves are understood systematically and interconnected. On early stages Having mastered the science of philology, these relationships are not yet felt, therefore, further conversation will be conducted more in an analytical than in a synthetic manner; first we need to understand the different components of the literary process, and only then, having more experience, establish connections between these components.

Tradition and innovation - the most important components of the literary process. There is not a single great work of literature that is not connected by thousands of threads with the context of world culture, but in the same way it is impossible to imagine a significant aesthetic phenomenon that has not enriched world literature something of your own. Therefore, tradition and innovation are flip sides of the same coin: true tradition always presupposes innovation, and innovation is possible only against the backdrop of tradition.

One of the most famous philologists of the 20th century, M. M. Bakhtin, who constantly returned to this issue, wrote this: “Every truly significant step forward is accompanied by a return to the beginning (“originality”), or more precisely, to a renewal of the beginning. Only memory can move forward, not oblivion. The memory returns to the beginning and updates it. Of course, the terms “forward” and “backward” themselves lose their closed absoluteness in this understanding; rather, through their interaction they reveal the living paradoxical nature of movement.”

In another work, Bakhtin creates a wonderful metaphor: “Great works of literature take centuries to prepare, but in the era of their creation only the ripe fruits of a long and complex ripening process are harvested. Trying to understand and explain a work only from the conditions of its era, only from the conditions of the immediate future, we will never penetrate into its semantic depths.” Developing this idea, the author continues: “The semantic treasures that Shakespeare put into his works were created and collected over centuries and even millennia: they were hidden in the language, and not only in the literary one, but also in such layers of the popular language that had not yet entered before Shakespeare in literature, in diverse genres and forms of speech communication, in the forms of powerful folk culture ».

Hence one of Bakhtin’s central ideas, which is directly related to the problem of tradition and innovation, is the idea of ​​world culture as dialogical space, in which different works and even different eras constantly echo, complement and reveal each other. Ancient authors predetermine modern culture, but also modern era allows you to open in brilliant creations antiquity those meanings that were not visible and not recognized in those days. Thus, any new work is dependent on tradition, but paradoxically, the works of bygone eras depend on modern culture. Modern reader“born” by Shakespeare, but Shakespeare also reveals to him such semantic depths that neither the contemporaries of the brilliant playwright, nor he himself could feel. Thus, time in the space of culture loses the “linearity” so familiar to us (from past to future), it turns into living movement in both directions.

V.V. Musatov considered the problem of tradition with slightly different emphases. In his opinion, any artist strives to create an “individual hypothesis of existence,” so every time he correlates the experience of his predecessors with his era and his destiny. Therefore, tradition is not just “copying” techniques, it is always a complex psychological act when someone else’s world is “tested” by one’s own experience.

So, “tradition” is a very comprehensive concept, fundamental for an adequate perception of the literary process.

So far we have talked about the philosophical, general aesthetic meaning of the term “tradition”. At a more specific level, several “problem points” can be identified related to tradition and innovation.

Firstly, it is not always easy to separate concepts “tradition”, “canon”, “imitation”, “stylization”,"imitation" etc. If today we associate with “epigonism” “empty imitation”, which does not enrich culture in any way (this word itself has negative connotation), then, for example, with imitation and canon everything is more complicated. Not all imitation is epigonism; an open orientation towards some model can lead to significant aesthetic results. For example, in Russian lyric poetry the word “imitation” is allowed as a kind of genre qualifier: “In imitation of the Koran,” “In imitation of Byron,” etc. We encounter the same thing in numerous poems beginning with “From ...”: “From Heine”, “From Goethe”, etc. Interesting cases are possible here. For example, the famous program poem by A. S. Pushkin “From Pindemonti,” at first glance, openly refers to the work of the Italian poet, but in reality this is a hoax; I. Pindemonti never had such a poem. The question arises: why does Pushkin refer us specifically to this name; Is this an accident, a “trick” to deceive censorship, or did the poet still feel some kind of internal resonance between his lines and the poetry of this author? There is no consensus among scientists on this issue. But in any case, it is in this poem that Pushkin formulates his poetic credo:

Other, better rights are dear to me;

I need a different, better freedom:

Depend on the king, depend on the people -

Do we care? God be with them.

No one

Don't give a report...

In other cases, a direct focus on famous text can lead to the creation of a genuine masterpiece. Thus, Pushkin’s “little tragedy” “A Feast in the Time of Plague” is, as you know, the author’s translation of one act from J. Wilson’s play “City of the Plague” (1816). In general, Pushkin follows Wilson’s text, but adds two songs “on his own”: Mary’s song and the famous “Hymn to the Plague”:

Everything, everything that threatens death,

Hides for the mortal heart

Inexplicable pleasures -

Immortality, perhaps, is a guarantee!

And happy is the one who is in the midst of excitement

I could acquire and know them.

So, praise be to you, Plague,

We are not afraid of the darkness of the grave,

We will not be confused by your calling!

We drink glasses together

And the rose maidens drink the breath, -

Perhaps... full of Plague!

These insertions radically change the whole picture; from John Wilson’s not-so-famous play, Pushkin gives birth to a masterpiece.

However, in many cases, a work written “in imitation” does not have much artistic value and indicates the author’s helplessness and insufficient talent. Ultimately, as always in creativity, it’s all about talent.

It is even more difficult to “separate” tradition and canon. The canon is the norms accepted in a given culture and strictly observed.. The canon imposes rather strict restrictions on the author's freedom of expression, thus being a “binding tradition.” Archaic forms of culture, for example, many genres of folklore, were so associated with the canon that they left almost no room for authorial “liberties.” In this sense, we can talk about the “authorship” of folklore texts only metaphorically; in folklore there is a “collective author”. Ancient consciousness did not draw a line between “what is known to me” and “born by me” (in other words, between what I I know some text and the fact that I created), therefore any text was easily assigned to those who knew it. Gradually, the boundaries of “us and foe” became stronger, and in many cultures, for example, in medieval eastern poetry or in Russian icon painting, the canon began to be perceived as an “external” condition obligatory for the author. But within the canon the author’s vision of the world was already evident. That is why, for example, the Russian icon is so diverse while strictly observing the Orthodox canon.

In modern secular culture the canon does not play such a role, although, naturally, any artist experiences some restrictions imposed by the established tradition. However, these restrictions are no longer rigid, and cultural traditions are so diverse that they provide the author with almost limitless possibilities.

SecondlyWhen talking about tradition, we must remember that it manifests itself at different levels. Let's look at this in a little more detail.

Tradition of the theme assumes that the author, when determining the thematic spectrum of his work, constantly correlates his decision with those that have already been found by culture. Let’s say, the theme of Christ’s truth, confirmed by his suffering and death, finds thousands artistic solutions, taking each other into account and polemicizing with each other. It is enough to recall M. Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita” to feel that the author simultaneously continues and violates (or develops) the established tradition. It is no coincidence that many supporters of the Orthodox canon do not accept Bulgakov’s novel, considering it “the gospel of Satan.”

Tradition of image (character). The tradition of the image or its variant, the tradition of character, involves taking into account decisions already accumulated by culture regarding a particular character. Sometimes it manifests itself directly, most often in this case some kind of famous image becomes emblematic and highlights the character of the hero. Thus, N. S. Leskov, defining his heroine Katerina Lvovna as “Lady Macbeth Mtsensk district", immediately creates a Shakespearean background, against which the heroine looks different: more tragic and larger-scale.

In other cases, echoes are visible at the level of the heroes’ psychology, their actions, and relationships. At one time, A.D. Sinyavsky, somewhat crudely, characterized the relationship between a man and a woman in classical Russian literature: “A woman was a touchstone for a man in literature. Through his relationship with her, he discovered his weakness and, compromised by her strength and beauty, climbed off the stage on which he was going to act out something heroic, and went, bent over, into oblivion with the shameful nickname of an unnecessary, worthless, superfluous person.”

Sinyavsky is too straightforward, but the structure of the relationship is captured quite accurately. And it is not difficult to see that this structure was proposed to Russian culture by A. S. Pushkin in “Eugene Onegin”, other authors (I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N.Tolstoy) one way or another already followed the Pushkin tradition.

Tradition of the genre – one of the most powerful in world culture. Genre represents forms of author’s self-expression found and adopted by literature. The genre fixes the features of the narrative, and - in many cases - the theme, and the types of pathos, and the features of conflicts, etc. Therefore, the chosen genre is always to some extent binding. Let's say, a poet writing an ode inevitably finds himself in the depths of the thousand-year-old tradition of this genre. Although between the odes of M.V. Lomonosov and, for example, “Ode to the Revolution” by V. Mayakovsky huge distance, many common features, dictated by the tradition of the genre, are striking.

National tradition associated with the system of values ​​​​accepted in a particular culture: ethical, aesthetic, historical, etc. As a rule, the artist absorbs world culture through the national, the way back is practically impossible. The Russian writer is open to world cultural experience, but this experience is refracted through the cultural experience of the nation. This was well reflected by M. Yu. Lermontov in his youthful poem:

No, I'm not Byron, I'm different

A still unknown chosen one,

How he is a wanderer persecuted by the world,

But only with a Russian soul.

The poet declares his openness to the world of Byron, his closeness to the brilliant English bard, but Byron is refracted through the “Russian soul.” As a result, we have not one of Byron's countless imitators, but a great Russian poet who has gained worldwide fame.

A poet who grows from the depths of national culture can become a world poet. But, if you imagine some abstract “world poet,” he will not be able to become a national poet. The now popular expression “man of the world” should not be absolutized. People of the world are not born, but become.

Tradition of artistic techniques combines lexical, syntactic, rhythmic, plot-compositional, etc. techniques for constructing a text. In many cases, the tradition of techniques catches the eye, for example, a poet who writes with a “ladder” will immediately be in line with Mayakovsky’s tradition. In other cases, it is less recognizable, but any work in one way or another uses already found artistic techniques. Like any tradition, the tradition of techniques is enriched by new finds, becoming more complex and multifaceted.

Style tradition in a sense, it synthesizes all the possibilities outlined above. Style consists precisely of figurative-thematic, genre, etc. unity. Here we can talk about author’s traditions (for example, Pushkin’s or Nekrasov’s) or about the tradition of certain movements or even eras (for example, about the traditions of antiquity in the culture of classicism, about the romantic tradition in modern poetry etc.).. 6, No. 16, Jun., 1927.

Sinyavsky A. (Abram Tertz) What is socialist realism// http://antology.igrunov.ru/authors/synyavsky/1059651903.html

The literary process is the historical existence, functioning and evolution of literature both in a certain era and throughout the history of a nation, country, region, world.

Shifts in the sphere of artistic consciousness occur, as a rule, with changes in socio-economic formations or during periods of revolutionary upheavals. History milestones European art– antiquity, the Middle Ages, Renaissance (Renaissance), Baroque, classicism, Enlightenment, romanticism, realism. The economic and social system influences the literary process through ideology.

Literary process in every historical era includes socially, ideologically and aesthetically heterogeneous (different quality) literary and artistic works - from high examples to epigone, boulevard or mass literature. In addition, it also includes the forms of social existence of works of verbal art: publications, editions, literary criticism, epistolary literature and memoirs.

The most important regularity of the literary process is the emergence of new aesthetic ideas, new criteria of artistry, which indicate the establishment in history of a new class with its own special aesthetic needs and ideals. However, art does not die along with the class that gave birth to it, because it contains something universal.

TRADITION (Latin tradere - to convey). This term is also used in the literature in relation to the successive connection that unites

a series of consistent literary phenomena, and in relation to the results of such a connection, to the stock of literary skills. In its meaning, tradition comes into contact with imitation, influence and borrowing (see these words), differing from them, however, in that traditional material, being generally recognized in a given literary culture. environment, forms part of its artistic use, sanctioned by custom, which has become common property - while imitation, influence and borrowing deal with material that lies outside the given environment, not yet assimilated by it.

Innovation in literature (from the Latin novator - innovator, initiator of the new) - innovation, the discovery of new paths that contribute to the transformation of literary traditions. But not everything new in literature is innovation. Innovation is significant change art, it requires great talent and a deep sense of the demands of the time. For example, the appeal of representatives of sentimentalism to privacy man, to the world of his feelings. The great writers of world literature, such as Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, Cervantes, Pushkin, Shevchenko, were innovators. They were able to take a fresh look at the surrounding reality, comprehend the processes taking place in it and open up new genres, themes, images, and media for the reader. artistic expression. The global significance that Russian literature acquired in the second half of the 19th century is associated primarily with the innovative activities of F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Maxim Gorky was an innovator in Russian literature.

56. Literary methods(directions). Problems artistic method and style. Literary methods (directions). Problems of artistic method and style.

Classicism - XVIII - early XIX centuries, A.D. Kantemir, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov, D.I. Fonvizin. 1) Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.

2) Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative.

3) The plot is based on a love triangle: heroine - hero-lover, second lover.

4) At the end classic comedy Vice is always punished, and goodness triumphs.

5) The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action.

Lit is a movement that originated in the 17th century in France. Classical writers chose as a role model antique art, interpreted it in their own way. Classicism is based on the principle of rationalism. Everything must be subject to reason, both in the state and in personal life. The theorist of classicism is the French poet Nicolas Boileau. In classicism, certain creative rules (norms) were established: 1) The main conflict of works is the struggle between egoistic feeling and civic duty, between passion and reason. Duty and reason always win.2) The characters were divided into positive and negative. The characters are one-line (cowardly, brave). 3) Genres were divided into high (ode, heroic poem, tragedy) and low (fable, satire, comedy).

In Russia, classicism developed from the 18th century. Russian writers took material from national history. In Russian classicism there is a sharper denunciation of vices, a greater interest in the folk language and folk art.

Sentimentalism - XVIII - early XIX centuries. Karamzin, Muravyov.

Particular attention is paid to the spiritual world of a person. The main thing is the feeling, the experience common man, not great ideas. Typical genres are elegy, epistle, novel in letters, diary, in which confessional motives predominate.

Works are often written in the first person. Full of lyricism and poetry. Greatest development sentimentalism received in England (J. Thomson, O. Goldsmith, J. Crabb, L. Stern). In Russia it has not received much development. The most famous Russian sentimental work is “ Poor Lisa» Karamzin.

Romanticism - late XVIII - XIX centuries. (K. F. Ryleev, V. A. Zhukovsky)

The greatest development is in England, Germany, France (J. Byron, W. Scott, V. Hugo, P. Merimee). In Russia, romanticism arose against the backdrop of national upsurge after the War of 1812. It has a pronounced social orientation. He is imbued with the idea of ​​civil service and love of freedom.

Heroes are bright, exceptional individuals in unusual circumstances. Romanticism is characterized by impulse, extraordinary complexity, and inner depth. human individuality. Denial of artistic authorities. There are no genre barriers or stylistic distinctions. Note: Victor Hugo “Notre Dame Cathedral”.

Realism - XIX - XX centuries. Goncharov, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky

Goal: truthful reproduction of reality. Signs: 1) Artistic depiction life in images, corresponding to the essence of the phenomena of life itself. 2) Reality is a means for a person to understand himself and the world around him. 3) Realism is characterized by the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect the development of new social, psychological and public relations.

Modernism

a) symbolism, late XIX V. – XX century; representatives: V.Ya.Bryusov, K.D. Balmont, A.A. Blok, A. Bely; features: consideration of art as a tool for comprehending the surreal essence of the world; interpretation of the symbol as a means of comprehending world unity; the dominance of the lyric and poetic principle; belief in the magical power of poetry; the musical element as the basis of life and art; updating lyric genres; b) Acmeism: 10th years of the twentieth century; representatives: N.S. Gumilev, A.A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, S.M. Gorodetsky, M.L. Lozinsky; features: opposition to the fragility of symbolic images; declaration of a concrete sensory perception of the world: the struggle for the pure and “simple” poetic language; c) futurism: 10th years of the twentieth century, representatives: V. Khlebnikov, V.V. Mayakovsky, A.E. Kruchenykh, I. Severyanin; features: declaration of a break with traditional culture; revision of the language of art; experiments; a grotesque mixture of styles and genres; new formations in vocabulary, syntax, onomatopoeia. d) Imagism, 1920s, Yesenin. 1) The victory of the image over the meaning and idea. 2) The saturation of verbal images. 3)

An imagist poem might have no content

literary novel realist writer

The concept of "literary tradition" in modern literary criticism lacks terminological precision. Often tradition is identified with such concepts as “artistic interactions”, “literary continuity”, “genesis of literary creativity”. These concepts should be distinguished.

Artistic interactions represent the influence of one artistic representation on another; these are “forms of cultural dialogue within the art of a given era or contemporary art with the past” [Apresyan 2001: 124].

Continuity, from the point of view of E.A. Baller, is “a connection between various stages or stages of development of both being and cognition” [Baller 1969: 93], preserving individual elements of the whole, or changing the whole as a system. Literary continuity- this is a natural connection between the “old” and the “new”, which is based on the universal principle of repetition. IN AND. Tyupa calls repeating elements “forms of development,” or typological correspondences that arise during the evolution of literature in the field of artistic form and content. The beginning of continuity in literary development is carried out by genres; they form a connecting link between writers of different eras. S.S. wrote about this. Averintsev: “any writer is a contemporary of his contemporaries, comrades in the era, but also a successor to his predecessors, comrades in the genre” [Tyupa 1981: 53]. The idea of ​​the leading role of the genre was also reflected in the works of M.M. Bakhtin: “Genre is a representative of creative memory in the process of literary development”, “genre lives in the present, but always remembers its past” [Bakhtin 1979: 32].

The term “genesis of literary creativity” is characterized as a set of stimuli for the writer’s activity, expressed by the author’s need to embody his biographical, psychological, socio-cultural experience in the work. In the judgments of M.M. Bakhtin's idea about the genesis of literary creativity becomes key. The scientist used the expression “small historical time"(the modernity of the writer) and "great historical time" (previous experience), thereby M. Bakhtin challenged the generally accepted attitudes in literary criticism [Bakhtin 1979: 33].

Despite the lack of clear boundaries in the use of the concept of “literary tradition,” most researchers use this term when identifying the forms and mechanisms of interaction between the artistic experience of some writers and others.

A.I. Batyuto connects traditions with the use or borrowing of techniques of portrait-psychological depiction of a character, composition and plot construction. G.V. Kurlyandskaya, speaking of tradition, implies “ideological and creative echoes” with predecessors. V. Gusev, touching on the traditions of Russian classics, writes about the similarity of problems and characters. Based on the scientific interpretation, tradition characterizes cultural memory, connects the values ​​of the historical past and present, transmits cultural heritage from generation to generation, acts as a mechanism for storing and transmitting techniques and skills of activity, cultural patterns. The past becomes a prototype of the present, a source of perfection for the future.

Tradition is a type of relationship between the stages of a developing object, in in this case literature expressing the transition of the “old” to the “new”. That is, literature cannot exist without relying on the experience of previous generations.

On methodological basis Marxist literary criticism began to isolate “immanent” and “causal” phenomena within the framework of the literary process. “Causal” phenomena are a combination of historical, cultural, social and economic factors. They are given a leading role. The appearance of “immanent” phenomena is due to the creative specifics of literature. They have a strong impact on the literary process, since the reflection of social reality is formed by the consciousness of the writer. Tradition is seen as an aspect of relationships that embraces patterns literary evolution depending on “immanent” and “causal” factors.

In the system of information received by a person, a group of sociocultural information, or biologically non-inheritable, is distinguished. The condition for its storage and transmission is a communication mechanism that ensures the stability of culture during its constant evolution. This mechanism is called tradition; its special function is to maintain stability. In new conditions, the content of accumulated experience is transformed, constant changes reflect the procedural nature of tradition. Since tradition is enshrined best achievements humanity, it correlates with the concept of cultural norms. The accumulated experience is rethought and transformed by the new generation. The bearer of tradition, whose work is perceived as a classic example, becomes a reference point.

But tradition includes not only the peculiarities of the work of one writer; it implies the history of numerous transformations of certain literary phenomena.

Tradition as a special mechanism of culture has its own patterns of functioning. If we talk about social tradition, which is a product of the activity of a collective, its bearer is the individual. With the exception of some written forms of tradition, it is discontinuous, expressed unidirectionally in time, and selective. Social tradition is acquired consciously and unconsciously. Concerning literary tradition, it is a product of the activities of individuals and its bearer is a person with talent. Since the literary tradition is realized in the work of writers, in specific works, it is always discontinuous. The selectivity of tradition in the field of literature is much higher. The writer uses components of the literature of the past that correspond to his own artistic goals. The choice and actualization of traditions in the field of artistic creativity depends on literary position writer, this is a question of his creative self-determination. Turning to a particular literary tradition is the result of a conscious choice of the writer.

Tradition is the cultural and artistic experience of past eras, which has become a creative guide for writers. Carrying out the connection of time, tradition marks the selective and proactive-creative mastery of the heritage of previous generations to solve modern artistic problems. As a tradition, writers adopt themes past literature, conditioned socially and historically; moral and philosophical problems and motives, features of genres, components of form.

Traditions manifest themselves as influences and borrowings. A form of universal memory that preserves universal human experience is traditional stories, images and motives, a system of value guidelines is formed. The overlap between the eternal and the modern in a literary work often arises due to the writer’s use of the technique of comparing his hero with other literary and historical characters.

In literary criticism, the concept of “tradition” is considered two-sided. R.G. Apresyan, A.A. Huseynov point to the absolutization of the past, immutability and conservatism. On the other hand, they consider tradition a necessary condition sustainability of being, “the beginning of the formation of the identity of a person, a social group and an entire society” [Apresyan 2001: 120].

Tradition can influence literary creativity spontaneously. The writer assimilates socially and historically determined themes, moral and philosophical problems and motives, and components of form. The past has always acted as a guide for solving modern artistic problems.

Valkyries fly, bows sing - 1 - 2 - 3 - 1 – The cumbersome opera is coming to an end. 1 - 2 - 3 - 1- Haiduks with heavy fur coats 1 - 2 - 2 - 1 - Gentlemen are waiting on the marble stairs 1 - 2 - 2 - 1 - O. Mandelstam, “Valkyries”

A dash is a stressed syllable, numbers are the number of unstressed syllables.

Literature in the cultural system. The concept of cultural and literary tradition. Literature in the cultural system.

Tradition (from Lat. (traditio - transfer), elements of social and cultural heritage transmitted from generation to generation and persisting in certain societies and social groups During a long time. Originally this word meant “tradition.” Tradition, like T., is always oral. T. is transmitted:
1) either through practical imitation (repetition of any actions),
2) either through folklore. Adequacy of transmission is achieved through multiple repetitions, systems of symbolic texts (mythology) and actions (ritual). In pre-industrial society, most of the features of culture were transmitted through tradition, which is why it is called traditional. In modern society it has been greatly replaced by radio, television, the press, libraries, schools, and universities. They act as the main channels for the transmission of past knowledge. T. acts as certain social institutions, norms of behavior, values, ideas, customs, rituals, social institutions, tastes, views, etc. In sociology, T. is understood precisely as a mechanism of reproduction social institutions and norms, when the need to preserve these norms is justified by the very fact of their existence in the past. T. performs a series cultural functions:
a) establishes the continuity of culture,
b) serves as a channel for storing and transmitting information and values ​​from generation to generation,
c) act as a mechanism for socialization and inculturation of people,
d) perform a selective function of selecting appropriate patterns of behavior and values.

In cultural studies, tradition is understood as a way of implementing continuity in which trends are integrated creative activity past that are important for modern development.

The concept of literary tradition

In its meaning, the concept of literary tradition is identical to the concept of borrowing, influence and imitation. The constituent elements of a literary tradition can be the following components of poetics: stylistics, composition, rhythm and theme. These components are often transmitted by literary tradition not separately, but in combination with each other.

The area of ​​literary tradition is also quite wide: it can be like international creativity, and the creativity of one people. For example, Gogol created a literary tradition in Russia, which over time spread far beyond its borders. The literary tradition is not distinguished by its intensity, so we see that Pushkin’s traditions in different times sometimes they intensify in literature, sometimes they disappear almost completely.

At first glance, an extinct tradition can not only be revived, but also take its place as dominant in the literary process, thanks to the influence of suitable historical conditions.

In the literary process there is the concept of parodying a literary tradition. A striking example of this is Dostoevsky’s work “The Village of Stepanchikovo”, in which the author parades Gogol’s style and his ideology.

Eternal themes in literature

Traditional problems. Literary works, in their absolute majority, have stable eternal themes, the peculiarity of which is that they are practically inexhaustible, since they will always be relevant in any society. No matter how many options there are for revealing them, there is still something left unsaid every time, as well as something that lends itself to a completely different interpretation in new historical conditions.

Getting acquainted with various literary works, we are amazed at how the same theme is seen to different writers. By and large, many literary works that have come down to us describe the same plot, but divided and corrected over the centuries.

The eternal themes of literature can be divided into the following categories:

1. Ontological– themes of unidentified eternal phenomena: space, light, darkness.

2. Anthropological topics:
- the concept of being - sin, involvement, pride, human life, death.
- epoch-making events - wars, revolutions, peace, civic activities.
- the sphere of social instincts - love, friendship, family, zeal for power, social transformation of a person.

Discussions about eternal problems are also very characteristic of the literary process. The main eternal problem that is discussed in literary works is the issues and problems of morality of man and society. Along with the description of this problem, the literature also indicates ways to solve it - for society it is a revolution or reform, for a person it is moral improvement.

Another traditional eternal problem is the question of society’s rejection of an individual, the so-called hero - a loner. Special place The literary process is focused on clarifying universal human problems - the search for the meaning of life, understanding of good and evil, internal torment, etc.

36. Functions of myth in culture. The concept of archetype.

Mythology goes back to those times about which almost no information has been preserved. Mythological works are usually legendary in nature. Often a myth is equated to a fairy tale. “A fairy tale is a lie” - the essence of myth. Fairy-tale consciousness - everything is perceived as obviously fantastic. Myth is something between science and the inexplicable. The myth arose as an explanation of what is happening in reality. A work of literature is based on ideas about how the world works and its phenomena. Mythology is reflected in art: art seems to be a product of mythology, based on mythological works, but at the same time is evidence of myth. Myths are characteristic of ancient times, partly ancient Russian literature. In mythology, the worldview and the literary feeling coincide and become very close. Heroic images myths have been used in art and literature of all eras. Although subject to rethinking, they nevertheless retain their meaning eternal symbols human heroism. Archetypes. Myths are considered a source of archetypes different nations. These are myths about what happened. the world, man, gods, about the change of seasons, about the end of the world. Contents of the collective and unconscious. An archetype is a separate element of the collective unconscious. The mythology created now is widespread. Unconscious myths are also widespread - the concept of collective unconsciousness. The layer based on mythological ideas is reflected in modern culture. The concept of A. as an instrument. research allowed see continuity in people's lives. kind, unbreakable connection times

37. Literary genera. Principles of classification of literary genres. (Aristotle, Hegel, modern science).

Literary genera. Principles of their classification.

Literature is difficult to divide into groups. Since ancient times, certain principles have already been developed, according to which literature was divided into several parts. The concept of literary gender arose in ancient aesthetics, in the writings of Plato and Aristotle. Further, with the increase in the number of literary works, the need arose to change the principles of division into literary genres. In the 18th century, Hegel gave the best principles for the division of literature: epic - the representation of objectivity in its objectivity, lyrics - the representation of subjectivity, inner world, drama is a presentation that connects both previous types into a new integrity in which we have the object of disclosure and inner life individual. Epic and lyric are opposed to each other, and drama is a synthesis of epic and lyric. This performance has become traditional to this day. In real life, drama takes a backseat. Literature is one of the ways to reveal the human spirit. Literature is not a spontaneous expression, but a representation in a form that has taken its form. Taking this into account, Hegel revised and clarified his formulation. From the point of view of action, Aristotle was right: - the author - an observer from the outside - epic - the internal experiences of the author - lyrics - the combination of direct demonstration of the action that takes place on stage (everything is determined by words) and the passage of the plot through the personality of the actor (objectivity of actions and subjectivity of experiences) - drama. It is impossible to clearly define what is subjective or objective. The author's position is always subjective, generated by art. imagination. “Objective” reality is not the reality of the world, but of a work of art. It can exist separately from the author - an illusion that forces us to imagine the world separately. The second illusion is that the world is depicted through the internal perception of the hero (lyrical). Options are possible when the author moves into the soul of the hero, portrays the hero as himself (S. Yesenin “About Moscow”). This is enough ordinary thing in lyric poetry of the 20th century. The problem of the relationship between the hero and the author exists constantly. In dramatic works everything

Tradition

Tradition

TRADITION (lat. tradere - to transfer). This term in literature is used both in relation to a successive connection that unites a number of successive literary phenomena, and in relation to the results of such a connection, to the stock of literary skills. In its meaning, tradition comes into contact with imitation, influence and borrowing (see these words), differing from them, however, in that traditional material, being generally recognized in a given literary culture. environment, forms part of its artistic use, sanctioned by custom, which has become common property - while imitation, influence and borrowing deal with material that lies outside the given environment, not yet assimilated by it. However, logically different, these concepts are difficult to distinguish in practice, since most literary phenomena are connected to each other not by one, but by several connections, and tradition is often intertwined with direct influence, imitation and borrowing: thus, Lermontov’s poetry reflects, on the one hand, the Byronic tradition that entered Russian literature through Pushkin, on the other hand, is revealed by a number of direct imitations of Byron.

All the elements of poetics can serve as the material of a literary tradition: theme, composition, style, rhythm... But for the most part, these elements are transmitted by tradition not separately, but in some combination with each other, in accordance with the constant connection that exists between them in art words in general. However, in relation to individual elements poetics, a certain gradation can be established in tradition: for example, within literature of a given people Language has the greatest stability, ideas the least.

Region literary tradition can be both the creativity of one people and international creativity: we can talk about the Gogol tradition in Russian literature, about classical tradition in world literature.

Intensity literary tradition is uneven: the tradition either weakens, then strengthens, such as the Pushkin tradition, then finally stops. An extinct tradition can be revived, consciously or unconsciously, under the influence of favorable historical conditions. But the material of an extinct tradition never completely dies out: even if they disappear General terms, maintaining the tradition, it remains as literary relics.

In any literary process there is a combination of two principles: traditions and personal creativity. Where personal creativity deepens tradition, we can talk about literary evolution; where personal creativity rebels against tradition, it creates a literary revolution; in practice, these two phenomena never occur separately: thus, Russian symbolism, revolutionary against the classical tradition that preceded it, unconsciously continued to participate in the general literary evolution that originated from Pushkin.

In the case when personal creativity rebels against tradition, it often creates in turn a new tradition: thus, romanticism, being an anti-traditional beginning in relation to classical art, itself laid the foundation for a new, romantic tradition.

Personal creativity can establish new traditions without breaking with old ones; this was the case with Pushkin, who absorbed both the classical and romantic traditions into his poetry. Various traditions can coexist, sometimes uniting into one whole, sometimes only in some parts touching each other.

Often a protest against an established tradition is expressed not by creating something new, but by reviving old tradition(cf. slogans “Back to Pushkin”, “Back to Ostrovsky”). However, often, the desire to revive tradition gives rise to only stylization, i.e. conscious imitation of techniques of this art. V. Bryusov’s work on Pushkin’s “Egyptian Nights” can be called such stylization. This example clearly shows that a stylist can never get rid of the influence of his literary school and that a literary tradition is not subject to the writer’s whim, but can develop only when it encounters favorable soil for this in the appropriate environment or personality: through Bryusov’s consciously forged Pushkin style the appearance of the symbolist poet shines through (see the book by R. M. Zhirmunsky “Valery Bryusov and the legacy of Pushkin”, St. Petersburg 1921).

Dostoevsky’s work clearly proves that belonging to a particular tradition does not exclude the possibility of parodying it: undoubtedly bound by tradition with Gogol, Dostoevsky in a number of works (“The Double”, “The Village of Stepanchikovo”) parodies Gogol’s style and Gogol’s ideology. (Yuri Tynyanov talks about this in detail. “Dostoevsky and Gogol”, published by “Opoyaz” 1921).

Evolution, the resurrection of tradition, parody - these are the forms that the attitude of the writer's individuality to the traditional heritage takes. In the absence of a creative attitude, tradition turns into a stencil (see this word).

Like fiction, literary criticism is subject to certain traditions: they are reflected both in the methods of work and in the conclusions. Again, just as it happens in fiction, tradition in literary criticism can become both an element of evolution and an element of inertia, depending on how much it causes in a given literary environment creative attitude towards it. The creative attitude in this area, as in the area of ​​any research, coincides with the critical attitude.

Valentina Dynnik. Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary literary terms: In 2 volumes / Edited by N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. - M.; L.: Publishing house L. D. Frenkel, 1925

Synonyms:

See what “Tradition” is in other dictionaries:

- (from the Latin traditio transfer) an anonymous, spontaneously formed system of samples, norms, rules, etc., which guides a fairly large and stable group of people in their behavior. T. can be so broad as to cover everything... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Tradition- TRADITION (lat. tradere to convey). This term in literature is used both in relation to a successive connection that unites a number of successive literary phenomena, and in relation to the results of such a connection, to the stock of literary skills. By … Dictionary of literary terms

- (lat. traditio). Tradition, the way in which various incidents, events and dogmas are transmitted from year to year. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. TRADITION of lat. traditio, from tra, trans, through, and dare,… … Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

tradition- and, f. tradition f. lat. traditio transmission, tradition. 1. Historically established and passed down from generation to generation experience, practice in what form. region public life, reality, etc. National traditions. Revolutionary... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

Custom, custom; heritage, accepted, establishment, value, custom, it was customary, unwritten law, so accepted, so established, norm, established Dictionary of Russian synonyms. tradition see custom Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language. Practical... ... Synonym dictionary

tradition- (from the Latin traditio transmission, narration) historically established knowledge, forms of activity and behavior transmitted from generation to generation, as well as accompanying customs, rules, values, ideas. T. warehouse... Great psychological encyclopedia

TRADITION, traditions, women. (Latin traditio, lit. transmission). 1. That which passes or has passed from one generation to another through tradition, oral or literary transmission (for example, ideas, knowledge, views, modes of action, tastes, etc.). Traditions… … Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

The dead rule the living. Auguste Comte Tradition is just nostalgia walking around in public in full full dress uniform. Andrew Marr Traditionalists are pessimists about the future and optimists about the past. Lewis Mumford Tradition cannot be... Consolidated encyclopedia of aphorisms

- (traditio, transfer) the establishment of actual dominion over things on the part of their previous owner in favor of a new one who acquires them into ownership or possession. Lawyers think that in order to acquire a property right, that is, to establish... ... Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron