Originality ancient Russian literature in the image of the hero, unlike the Russian classics familiar to us, also characterizes its features. It does not contain familiar images, as in the literature of the 19th and 20th centuries. The medieval writer had his own artistic vision of man and special ways of depicting him.

Reproduction of a person in ancient literature, as in the new one, depends on the style and genre of the work. But, unlike new literature, genres and styles in ancient literature are also unique. Without their understanding it is impossible to imagine artistic originality monuments Ancient Rus'.

Academician D.S. Likhachev defined the literary styles of Ancient Rus': the style of monumental historicism (XI-XIII centuries), the epic style in literature (XI-XIII centuries), the expressive-emotional style (late XIV-XV centuries), the style of psychological pacification (XV centuries). 1 He examined the artistic vision of man in ancient literature. In accordance with his judgments, we present the material.

In relation to styles and genres, the hero is reproduced in the monuments of ancient literature, ideals are formed and created. The monumental style of the 11th-13th centuries is presented in chronicles, military stories and stories about princely crimes. The image of the ideal hero was associated with the feudal structure and with the range of social concepts, with ideas about the honor, rights and duty of the feudal lord, with his duties to the state.

The prince was the ideal hero in the chronicles. It was created by the chronicler in “monumental grandeur”, as in the mosaics and frescoes of the 11th-13th centuries. The chronicler was interested in the official image of the prince, his significant actions as a historical figure, and human qualities remained out of attention.

The ideal image of a hero was created in accordance with certain canons 2: the dignity and virtues of the prince were listed, which were supposed to evoke worship (mighty, independent, handsome in face, brave, skilled in military affairs, courageous, destroyer of enemies, guardian of the state).

The pomp and solemnity characteristic of the monumental style distinguished the narrative of the ideal hero. D.S. Likhachev writes: “Both in literature and in painting we are undoubtedly facing monumental art. This is an art capable of embodying the heroism of the individual, the concepts of honor, glory, the power of the prince, class differences in the position of people” 3.

The prince is presented in an aura of power and glory. This statesman and warrior. Fearlessness in battle and contempt for death are one of the traits of an ideal hero. He is ahead of his army, fearlessly rushes into battle and goes out to duel with the enemy. The prince in the chronicle personifies the power and dignity of the country. The prince's ideal literature XI-XIII centuries expressed the patriotic feelings of the chronicler, embodied the love for the fatherland, for the Russian land. The prince serves Rus' and is ready to die for it. He is called upon to guard the Russian land, as the chronicles write, “to lay down his head for the peasants and for the Russian land, to work for his fatherland.” Patriotism was not only a duty, but also a conviction of the Russian princes; the characters were historical figures, and not a fruit fiction author.

In such works of ancient Russian literature as lives, asceticism, the feat of serving the fatherland, the holiness and “blessedness” of the lives of Russian saints are glorified. Their images combined an example of selflessness, passionate service to an idea, and expressed the folk ideals of the spiritual beauty of the Russian person (Theodosius of Pechersk, Sergius of Radonezh, etc.). In the stories about saints, their greatness, their ideality is conveyed against an expressive-emotional background, which creates the expressive-emotional style of literature of the late XIV-XV centuries. This is especially evident in hagiographic literature, elevating the life of a saint to a high feat, to an ideal. In ancient literature the saint is called a “soldier of Christ.” He is an ascetic, the main thing about him is his feat, which he performs as a warrior. For example, Epiphanius the Wise calls Stephen of Perm “courageous brave,” i.e. hero. The image of Sergius of Radonezh is sublime and heroic.

In the literature of the 11th-13th centuries, an epic style is also evident in the depiction of heroes. It is especially noticeable in those works that are associated with oral folk art. As in folklore, the characters in the chronicle and the story are characterized “by one major act” (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”). Both in the “Word” and in the “Tale” - a collective hero, folk hero- defender of the homeland. He is distinguished by strength and courage. The authors also transfer the exploits of his squad onto him (Bui-Tur Vsevolod, Svyatoslav, Evpatiy Kolovrat). The image of a hero unites with his squad and grows into a hero - this is collective image.

Ancient literature created heroic characters women. These are images of wives, mothers accompanying their loved ones on military campaigns and battles with enemies, widows mourning the dead. Vladimir Monomakh writes with love and warmth about the widow of his murdered son, like a dove on a dry tree. The image of the wife of the Ryazan prince Fyodor Eupraxia, who threw herself from the wall along with her infant (“The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”), is beautiful.

The ideal of a woman in Ancient Rus', expressed in service to loved ones, love for the homeland, contempt for the enemy, is embodied in chronicles, military stories, and “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” The image of Yaroslavna, a faithful, loving woman, was created in the song and folklore tradition.

Hymn of loyalty and love, moral ideal ancient literature are presented in the image of the wise maiden Fevronia (“The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom”). Here, “psychological tranquility” and emotional contemplation of the author are manifested, drawing the image of a Russian woman. The heroine is a high moral ideal, the life-giving power of her love cannot separate Fevronia from her chosen one even in death.

In a democratic literature XVII century (everyday, satirical stories) there is a discovery of the human personality. At this time, the hero and his image change dramatically. The literature of previous centuries did not know a fictional hero. All the characters in the works were historical (princes, priests, saints). They existed in Russian history. Now appears in literature a common person: a peasant, a peasant, a merchant's son, who broke with his family and set out in search of his place. This fictional characters, unknown, unremarkable, unrelated to the history of life in Russia, but close to the reader. The hero has become nameless, this especially applies to heroes from a democratic environment. In the works they are called: “poor”, “rich”, “ peasant son", "maiden", "certain merchant".

The hero of democratic literature differs from the ideal hero of the 11th-13th centuries. He does not occupy any official position: neither a prince nor an official church official. The artistic means of depicting him are different: the hero is reduced, everyday. He is deprived of everything that exalted characters in the literature of the XI-XIII centuries. This is a person suffering from cold, hunger, and social injustice. In contrast to the ceremonial clothes of the monumental images of the princes, he is dressed in a “tavern gunka”. He has lost contact with family and friends, lost in poverty, deprived of parental blessing - a degraded person, and yet, according to the author, in need of sympathy. “For the first time in Russian literature, the inner life man, the fate of fallen man was depicted with such drama” 4 . And in this address to the topic “ little man“The beginning of the beginnings of Russian literature, its humanistic character, is revealed. The portrayal of the common man in the literature of the 17th century meant the “death of the medieval normative ideal” and the gradual emergence of literature into new way images of a hero based on reality. 5

The halo of martyrdom, service to an idea, the image of a “martyr for the faith” again rises in the literature of the 17th century in “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum.” The literature of Ancient Rus' again rose to monumentalism, to universal human and world themes, but on a completely different basis. The power of the individual in itself, outside of official status, the power of a person deprived of everything, thrown into an earthen pit, a person whose tongue has been cut out, who is deprived of the opportunity to write and communicate with the outside world, whose body is rotting, who is eaten by lice, who faces the most terrible torture and death at the stake - this power appeared in the works of Avvakum with stunning force and completely eclipsed the external omnipotence of the official position of the feudal lords. 6

This is how the image of the hero of ancient literature undergoes changes and artistic methods his images.

"Small man" - literary character, characteristic of the era of realism. Such a hero in works of art could be a minor official, a tradesman, or even a poor nobleman. As a rule, its main feature is low social status. This image is found in the works of both domestic and foreign authors. The theme of the little man in Russian literature occupies special position. After all, this image received especially vivid expression in the works of such writers as Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Gogol.

The great Russian poet and writer showed readers a soul pure and unspoiled by wealth. The main character of one of the works included in the cycle “Belkin’s Tale” knows how to rejoice, sympathize and suffer. However, the life of Pushkin’s character is initially not easy.

The famous story begins with the words that everyone curses stationmasters, without analysis of which it is impossible to consider the topic “The Little Man in Russian Literature.” Pushkin depicted in his work a calm and happy character. Samson Vyrin remained a good-natured and good-natured man, despite many years of hard service. And only separation from his daughter deprived him peace of mind. Samson can survive a difficult life and thankless work, but he is not able to exist without the only person close to him in the world. The stationmaster dies of melancholy and loneliness. The theme of the little man in Russian literature is multifaceted. The hero of the story “The Station Agent,” perhaps like no other, is capable of arousing compassion in the reader.

Akaki Akakievich

A less attractive character is the hero of the story “The Overcoat”. Gogol's character is a collective image. There are many like Bashmachkin. They are everywhere, but people do not notice them, because they do not know how to appreciate the immortal soul in a person. The theme of the little man in Russian literature is discussed year after year in school literature lessons. Indeed, thanks to a careful reading of the story “The Overcoat,” the young reader can take a different look at the people who surround him. The development of the theme of the little man in Russian literature began precisely with this semi-fairy-tale work. Not in vain great classic Dostoevsky once said famous phrase: “We all left the Overcoat.”

Until the middle of the 20th century, the image of a little man was used by Russian and foreign writers. It is found not only in the works of Dostoevsky, but also in the books of Gerhart Hauptmann and Thomas Mann.

Maxim Maksimovich

The little man in Lermontov's works is extraordinary personality suffering from inactivity. The image of Maxim Maksimovich is first encountered in the story “Bela”. Thanks to Lermontov, the theme of the little man in Russian literature began to serve literary device For critical image such vices social society, like genuflection, careerism.

Maxim Maksimovich is a nobleman. However, he belongs to an impoverished family and does not have influential connections. And therefore, despite his age, he still holds the rank of staff captain. However, Lermontov portrayed the little man as not insulted and humiliated. His hero knows what honor is. Maxim Maksimovich - honest man and an old servant. In many ways he resembles Pushkin from the story “ Captain's daughter».

Marmeladov

The little man is pitiful and insignificant. Marmeladov realizes his uselessness and uselessness. Telling Raskolnikov the story of his moral fall, he is hardly able to arouse sympathy. He states: “Poverty is not a vice. Poverty is a vice." And these words seem to justify Marmeladov’s weakness and powerlessness.

In the novel “Crime and Punishment,” the theme of the little man in Russian literature receives special development. An essay based on Dostoevsky's work is a standard assignment in a literature lesson. But, regardless of what name this written task has, it is impossible to complete it without first writing a description of Marmeladov and his daughter. At the same time, it should be understood that Sonya, although she is also a typical little person, is significantly different from the other “humiliated and insulted.” She is unable to change anything in her life. However, this fragile girl has enormous spiritual wealth and inner beauty. Sonya is the personification of purity and mercy.

"Poor People"

This novel is also about “little people.” Devushkin and Varvara Alekseevna are heroes whom Dostoevsky created with an eye on Gogol’s “The Overcoat”. However, the image and theme of the little man in Russian literature began precisely with the works of Pushkin. And they have a lot in common with Dostoevsky’s novels. The story of the stationmaster is told by himself. The “little people” in Dostoevsky’s novels are also prone to confession. They not only realize their insignificance, but also strive to comprehend its cause and act as philosophers. It is enough just to remember Devushkin’s lengthy messages and Marmeladov’s long monologue.

Tushin

The system of images in the novel “War and Peace” is extremely complex. Tolstoy's characters are heroes from the highest aristocratic circle. There is little insignificant and pathetic in them. But why is the great epic novel remembered when the theme of the little man is discussed in Russian literature? An essay-reasoning is a task in which it is worth giving a description of such a hero as from the novel “War and Peace”. At first glance, he is funny and clumsy. However, this impression is deceptive. In battle, Tushin shows his masculinity and fearlessness.

IN huge work Tolstoy devotes only a few pages to this hero. However, the theme of the little man in Russian literature of the 19th century is impossible without considering the image of Tushin. The characteristics of this character are very important for understanding the views of the author himself.

Little people in Leskov's works

The theme of the little man in Russian literature of the 18th and 19th centuries is explored to the maximum. Leskov also did not ignore her in his work. However, his heroes differ significantly from the image of the little man that can be seen in the stories of Pushkin and the novels of Dostoevsky. Ivan Flyagin is a hero in appearance and soul. But this hero can be classified as “little people.” First of all, because he faces many trials, but he does not complain about fate and does not cry.

The image of a little man in Chekhov's stories

A similar hero is often found on the pages of this writer’s works. The image of a little man is depicted especially vividly in satirical stories. The petty official is a typical hero of Chekhov's works. In the story “The Death of an Official” there is an image of a little man. Chervyakov is driven by an inexplicable fear of his boss. Unlike the heroes of the story “The Overcoat,” the character from Chekhov’s story does not suffer from oppression and bullying from his colleagues and boss. Chervyakov is killed by fear of higher ranks and eternal admiration for his superiors.

"The Victory's Celebration"

Chekhov continued the theme of admiration for superiors in this story. However, the little people in “The Triumph of the Victor” are depicted in a much more satirical light. The father, in order to obtain a good position for his son, humiliates himself with ingratiation and rude flattery.

But it is not only the people who express them who are guilty of low thoughts and unworthy behavior. All this is the result of the orders prevailing in the social and political system. Chervyakov would not have asked for forgiveness so zealously if he had not known about the possible consequences of his mistake.

In the works of Maxim Gorky

The play “At the Lower Depths” tells the story of the inhabitants of the shelter. Each of the characters in this work is a little person, deprived of the most necessary things for life. normal life. He is unable to change anything. The only thing he has the right to is to believe in the fables of the wanderer Luke. Sympathy and warmth are what the heroes of the play “At the Bottom” need. The author calls on readers to be compassionate. And in this his views coincide with the point of view of Dostoevsky.

Zheltkov

“Garnet Bracelet” - a story about Great love little person. Zheltkov once falls in love with married woman, and he remains true to this feeling until last minutes own life. There is an abyss between them. And the hero of the work “Garnet Bracelet” does not hope for a reciprocal feeling.

Zheltkov has characteristic features a small person not only because he occupies a low social position. He, like Bashmachkin, and stationmaster, is left alone with his pain. Zheltkov’s feelings serve as the basis for jokes and ironic sketches of Prince Shein. Other heroes are able to assess the depth of the “little man’s” suffering only after his death.

Karandyshev

The image of a little man has common features with similar heroes in the works of Dostoevsky and Chekhov. However, the humiliated Karandyshev in the play “Dowry” evokes neither pity nor sympathy. He strives with all his might to get into a society in which he is not welcome. And for the insults that he has endured for many years, he is ready to take revenge.

Katerina Kabanova also belongs to the category of little people. But these heroines are complete individuals, and therefore do not know how to adapt and dodge. Death for them becomes the only way out of the situation in which they find themselves due to the inertia of the social system.

The image of the little man in literature developed in the nineteenth century. However, in modern literature he gave way to other heroes. As is known, many foreign authors were influenced by Russian literature. Proof of this is the works of XX writers, in which there are often characters reminiscent of Chekhov’s and Gogol’s heroes. An example is Thomas Mann's Little Mister Friedemann. The hero of this short story lives his short life unnoticed and dies the same way, from the indifference and cruelty of those around him.

Traditionally in literary criticism it is customary to distinguish the following functions of things in a literary text: cultural, characterological, plot-compositional. The thing may be a sign of the depicted era and environment. The cultural function of things is especially clear in travel novels, where they are presented in a synchronous section different worlds: national, class, geographical, etc. The cultural function of things in the historical novel is very important - a genre that was formed in the era of romanticism and strives to visually represent in its descriptions historical time and local color.

Things often become signs, symbols of a person’s experiences. Things also perform a symbolic function in everyday works. Gogol colorfully depicts the life of the Cossacks in “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka.”

An item can serve as a sign of wealth or poverty. According to a tradition originating in Russian epic epic, where heroes competed with each other in wealth, striking with an abundance of decorations, precious metals and the stones become this undeniable symbol.

The characterological function of things is no less important. In the works of N.V. Gogol shows the “intimate connection of things” with their owners. No wonder Chichikov loved to look at the home of the next victim of his speculation. “He thought to find in it the properties of the owner himself, just as one can judge from a shell what kind of oyster or snail was sitting in it” (“Dead Souls” - vol. 2, chapter 3, early ed.) Costume and interior, personal belongings help determine not only the era and social status, but also the character, tastes, and habits of the character. It is difficult to imagine Gogol’s heroes without their uniform tailcoats, and Oblomov without his usual robe.

IN literary work the thing acts as an element of the conventional, artistic world. And unlike reality The boundaries between things and humans, living and nonliving, can be fluid here. However, the writers sensitively grasped another facet in the relationship between a person and a thing: material value the latter can overshadow a person; he is assessed by society by how much expensive things possesses.

Things can line up in a sequential row. In “Dead Souls,” for example, every chair shouted: “And I, too, Sobakevich!” But one detail can characterize a character. For example, a jar labeled "laceberry", prepared with caring hands Baubles (“Fathers and Sons” by Turgenev). Interiors are often depicted according to a contrasting principle - let us recall the description of the rooms of two debtors of the moneylender Gobsek: the countess and the “fairy of purity” seamstress Fanny (“Gobsek” by O. Balzac). Against this background literary tradition The absence of things can also become significant (the so-called minus device): it emphasizes the complexity of the hero’s character.

One of the common functions of things in a literary work is plot-compositional. Let us recall the ominous role of the scarf in the tragedy “Othello” by W. Shakespeare, the necklace from Leskov’s story of the same name, and the “queen’s slippers” from “The Night Before Christmas” by N.V. Gogol.

In addition to the three main functions of things described above, there are also more specific (private) functions described by A.P. Chudakov. We tried to present them briefly:

1. Things often serve as an introduction to the atmosphere of the work.

2. Things become a source of impressions, experiences, thoughts, and correlate with personal experiences and memory.

3. The thing becomes the subject of reflection and evaluation

4. Things become indirect signs of the character's evolution.

5. The thing is capable of transmitting psychological condition character.

6. Things in many ways appeal to an understanding of the very personal completeness of the character.

7. Things can act as a leitmotif.

Thus, a thing in a work of art performs three functions: cultural, characterological, plot-compositional. However, these functions should not be considered exhaustive and the only possible ones.

During the classes

I. Organizational moment.

II. Checking homework.

1. Reading and reviewing essays (stories): “to akim I saw Pugachev in the novel by A. S. Pushkin.”

2.Working with cards.

Card 1.

What event in Russian history is it about? we're talking about V this passage? What is the name of this work and who is its author? From whose perspective is the story told?

“I will not describe our campaign and the end of the war. I will say briefly that the disaster reached the extreme. We passed through villages devastated by the rebels, and involuntarily took from the poor residents what they managed to save. The rule was stopped everywhere: the landowners took refuge in the forests. gangs of robbers were committing crimes everywhere; the commanders of individual detachments autocratically punished and pardoned; The condition of the entire vast region, where the fire was raging, was terrible... God forbid that we see a Russian rebellion, senseless and merciless!”

(We are talking about the peasant revolt of 1772–1774 led by Emelyan Pugachev, who proclaimed himself tsar Peter III. The excerpt is taken from the novel by A. S. Pushkin “The Captain's Daughter”. Talks about the events of his life main character– Pyotr Andreevich Grinev.)

Card 2.

Read Grinev's dream. When did the hero dream of him? Why is this dream interesting? Why did A.S. Pushkin include a dream in the story?

(Petrusha Grinev had this dream during a steppe snowstorm, when an unexpected counselor undertook to show the way to housing. It predicts future terrible events of a popular revolt, because the man from the dream is a counselor, and in the future Emelyan Pugachev is the leader Cossack army, self-proclaimed king. This is why it is important: it not only outstrips historical events, but also predicts the future nature of the relationship between the young officer and the people's leader.)

Card 3.

In connection with what and who is telling Kalmyk fairy tale? How do you understand her allegorical meaning? How does the attitude towards the idea of ​​a fairy tale characterize the narrator and his listener?

(The tale of the eagle and the raven is told by Pugachev on the way to the Belogorsk fortress during a conversation about his affairs and a bleak future. The tale has an allegorical meaning: it is about two possible elections life path– quiet, measured, not rich in external events and friend: bright, rich, but short. The heroes of the fairy tale also play a symbolic role: the eagle is a free bird, loving heights, space, a royal bird; The raven is a wise bird, but prosaic, earthly, and ugly.

Thanks to this story, Pugachev and Grinev express their attitude to life. For Pugachev, a short but bright path, reminiscent of the life of an eagle, is better. Grinev is disgusted by robbery and villainy; it is not for nothing that he calls the riot senseless and merciless; it was created for peaceful family life among dear people.)

Card 4.

Why does Grinev, calling Pugachev an impostor, a robber, a villain, still sympathize with his friend, does not want him to die, and comes to say goodbye on the day of his execution?

(Grinev cannot call Pugachev anything else, since the rebel and the officer of the imperial army are enemies, in addition, Grinev remembers the massacre of the commandant Belogorsk fortress, death of Vasilisa Egorovna and others tragic events. But human relations the two heroes stand outside their official relationship; Pugachev not only saves the life of his friend, but also ensures his happiness, while showing nobility and tolerance, respecting Grinev for his loyalty to his word and kindness. with sympathy young hero- not only gratitude for good deeds, but sincere human feeling, although at first (as in the dream) Grinev is slightly offended that his benefactor is a “man.”)

Card 5.

Read the description. What artistic means does the author use? What role does this passage play in the story?

“The driver galloped; but kept looking to the east. The horses ran together. Meanwhile, the wind became stronger hour by hour. The cloud turned into a white cloud, which rose heavily, grew and gradually covered the sky. It began to snow lightly and suddenly began to fall in flakes. The wind howled; there was a snowstorm. In an instant, the dark sky mixed with the snowy sea. Everything has disappeared. “Well, master,” the coachman shouted, “trouble: a snowstorm!”...

I looked out of the wagon: everything was darkness and whirlwind. The wind howled with such ferocious expressiveness that it seemed animated; the snow covered me and Savelich; the horses walked at a pace - and soon stopped. “Why aren’t you going?” – I asked the driver impatiently. “Why go? - he answered, getting off the bench, - God knows where we ended up: there is no road, and there is darkness all around.

(The main thing in this description is action, dynamics. The state of nature changes instantly: wind, snow, blizzard, blizzard, haze. Pushkin uses very modest epithets; only two contrasting colors: dark sky - snowy sea (previously - a white cloud). There are only two metaphors: the wind howled (an animal howls), the snowy sea (infinity of a snowy moving mass, similar to sea ​​element). Pushkin is a master of landscape. But his landscape is not static, frozen, but changing, moving, as in life. The description of the snowstorm in the novel has several meanings:

A) compositional– thanks to the snowstorm, the heroes (Pugachev and Grinev) not only meet, but also develop sympathy for each other;

b) allegorical- blizzard, rampant elements - symbolizes future events, rampant rebellion, which, like the blizzard, poses a threat to the hero’s life;

V) realistic– snowstorms are still found in the steppes, so the description of the snowstorm gives the story the authenticity of what is actually happening.)

Card 6.

What is an epigraph? What are epigraphs for? Which epigraph does Pushkin choose for his novel “The Captain's Daughter”?

(Epigraph is a short text (quote, saying, saying, etc.), prefaced by a work of art, placed before the text. An epigraph often expresses the author’s main thought, idea or mood of the work, contains the author’s assessment of the events presented. Pushkin’s “The Captain’s Daughter” is preceded with the epigraph “Take care of your honor from a young age.” This proverb not only defines the code of conduct of a young man, but also characterizes the hero and explains his moral choice in difficult moments of trial.)

3.Conversation on issues.

– We have already noted how confidently Pushkin introduced his novel with the epigraph “Take care of honor from a young age.” Remember the epigraphs that precede other chapters. What are they? Why?

(Epigraphs to other chapters of “The Captain’s Daughter” are the lines folk songs, proverbs and excerpts from the works of writers of the 18th century (Knyazhnin and Kheraskov). This selection of epigraphs is not accidental. It helps convey the flavor of the era (18th century), creates a special lyrical mood, adds lyricism to the narrative, creating the illusion of the author’s assessment of the hero’s story. There is another meaning in this selection of epigraphs: in works of oral folk art the centuries-old experience of the people, their ideas about the ideal are concentrated, therefore the epigraphs contain the people’s assessment of the heroes and events.)

– Why do you think the story about the Pugachev rebellion is called “The Captain’s Daughter”? Who is the main character?

(Indeed, the main characters in the novel are Pyotr Grinev and Emelyan Pugachev. Against the background of the formidable events of the Pugachev rebellion, the story of the relationship between Masha - Grinev - Shvabrin develops. Modest and shy Masha at the decisive moment shows extraordinary strength of character and courage. She does not want to get married without her parent's blessing , ready to die, but not become the wife of the unloved; finally, defending the honor and freedom of her fiancé, she decides to travel to the capital to see the queen herself. Purity and selflessness give her image a heroic aura.

Perhaps, by calling his work “The Captain's Daughter,” Pushkin wanted to emphasize that he was primarily interested in human relationships. Even a historical figure is presented from an unexpected and even more remarkable side: the organizer of the fate of the enemy, who is humanly closer than his companions.)

III. State the topic and purpose of the lesson.

– What are they, people of the “past century”? Is the epigraph of Chapter III of “The Captain’s Daughter” true: “ old people"? What does it mean?

We will try to answer these and many other questions in today's lesson.

IV. Studying a new topic.

1. The teacher's word.

So, “old people”! what does it mean? And why did Pushkin take this phrase from Fonvizin’s “Minor”? Is it possible that the author of “The Captain’s Daughter” remembers Prostakova and Skotinin? or maybe Starodum and Pravdin? Of course, the surnames are expressive, “talking,” and quite clearly “represent” the characters in Fonvizin’s comedy. “Pravdin” does not need any comments: the meaning of the surname is completely clear. But “Starodum”... It’s as if he is not from the age of the Prostakovs - from a long, “ancient” time, however, not very long ago. Just from the Peter the Great, from the Lomonosov era! Still the same 18th century! So is Pushkin's epigraph successful? What did he reveal to you?

2. What is your feeling of “Belogorsk”, “ancient” life? Let's reread these pages (p. 123).

“Nobody met me. I went into the hallway and opened the door to the hallway. An old invalid, sitting on a table, was sewing a blue patch onto the elbow of his green uniform. I told him to report me. “Come in, father,” answered the disabled man, “our houses.”

Isn't it hard to resist smiling? But this smile is sympathetic, full of tenderness. No respect either for the uniform, which could well be decorated with a patch of a different color (and that will do!), or for the army chain of command: what kind of “report” is that! “Our houses!” - and that’s it! But isn't there a contrast? Of course, Ivan Ignatich with his “interrogation” of Grinev, styled in the style of an old campaigner ( With. 124:“I dare to ask”, “why did you deign to move from the guard to the garrison”, “acts indecent for a guard officer”). But Vasilisa Egorovna immediately interrupts him: “It’s enough to lie about nonsense...” (p. 124, 1st paragraph). But where are the words that capture the “old times”, its kindness? “Vasilisa Egorovna received us easily and cordially and treated me as if she had known her forever.” (p. 126, 3rd paragraph).

That's how it is treated! But who is this “us”? It is clear, not only Grinev, but also Savelich. Whose voice, whose intonation do you hear? Undoubtedly, not only Grinev, but also the Author. After all, it was he who prompted Grinev to sit down with his memories. And to be completely precise, he wrote them for him! With his tongue! But also to yours! Did you feel the style? Pushkin's prose? Haven't you noticed Pushkin's attitude towards parts of speech?

Needless to say, he prefers nouns and verbs and is very reserved in the use of adjectives.

Pushkin the prose writer is clear and precise in word and phrase, simple in syntax, preferring a simple sentence, without much complexity. In which of the prose writers can we notice this same property of “Pushkin’s” prose?

Yes, from Chekhov! But this will happen much later. And not without the influence of Pushkin’s prose.

But let's return again to Pushkin's novel. Are there changes taking place in him, in his “world” itself, in his intonation?

Indeed, a calm, even narrative is replaced by rapidly bursting events, and with them intonations: anxiety, almost confusion and even “horror” (we have already talked to you about Pugachev’s siege of the fortress, its capture, the execution of its defenders). What do you think, could Captain Mironov, Ivan Ignatich and Vasilisa Egorovna have avoided death? Why did they suffer a different fate - “to perish from an escaped convict,” as Vasilisa Egorovna would say, having paid for these words with her life? What especially amazed you about them? How did Pushkin write the scene of the massacre of the officers of the Belogorsk fortress? Why is this terrible page so short?

But who unexpectedly intervened in this scene? Yes, Savelich! It turns out that the circle of “old people” in Pushkin’s novel is not limited to the inhabitants of the Belogorsk fortress: and Savelich among them is also one of the “old people”!

Are there still “old people”? Yes, and the Grinevs are of the same family and tribe: “old people”! Why? Doesn't our conversation require a comparison of old Grinev with the Belogorsk officers? Of course, not only Andrei Petrovich Grinev would certainly repeat the feat of Captain Mironov, but Petrusha Grinev also worthily represents her father, faithful to his order: “Serve faithfully to whom you swear allegiance...”

And again - an antithesis. Do you think Shvabrin is also one of the “old people”? oh nonsense: “the latest” in baseness and dexterity!

And now let’s return to Chapter III, to the epigraph, but different.

Why is there a juxtaposition of “soldier’s song” and “old people” here?

What does the “soldier’s song” bring to mind?

Suvorov’s pages of national history, which were carried out by “old people”, the artistic meaning of Pushkin’s novel overcomes the boundaries of the plot (“Pugachevism” and the fate of Petrusha Grinev) and absorbs the trials of Russia - trials of loyalty - and examples of its best fellow citizens, regardless of the class to which they belonged to: “old people”!

And who do you classify Masha Mironova as?

So, the 2nd part of our lesson will be devoted to the young heroine, after whom the novel is named.

3.The image of Masha Mironova.

What is she like, Masha Mironova?

If her portrait were transferred to a drawing, how would you paint her? (Examination and discussion of drawings-portraits of Masha Mironova.)

Let's remember what impression Masha made on Grinev (read, p. 126, 3rd paragraph).

“At first glance... I didn’t really like it.” And you? Is Grinev’s attitude towards Masha changing? Why?

How did you deal with Masha’s shyness, even to the point of “tearing” her?

Why do we need these details of the heroine’s character? Don't remember anyone? “Blush, she apologized, / because, supposedly, she came to visit them...” Pushkin princess! Do we need this parallel? Why are Pushkin’s heroines so similar, and in completely different works?

But in Pushkin’s novel, next to Masha, another heroine will appear, on whom the happiness of Masha and Grinev will depend, a charming court lady, in whom we recognize... the empress!

Before we turn again to the novel, to our beloved heroine, and re-read the brilliant lines, let’s take a look into the writer’s creative laboratory.

The following “Anecdote” was published in the magazine “Children’s Reading for the Heart and Mind” (Part VII, M., 1786):

“Joseph II, the current Roman emperor, was walking one evening as usual, saw a girl who was bursting into tears, asked her what she was crying about, and learned that she was the daughter of a captain who was killed in the war, and that she was left without food with his mother, who has been sick for a long time.

“Why don’t you ask the emperor for help?” - he asked.

The girl replied that they did not have a patron who would inform the sovereign about their poverty.

“I serve at court,” said the monarch, “and I can do this for you.” Just come to the palace tomorrow and ask Lieutenant B.

At the appointed time, the girl came to the palace. As soon as she pronounced B.’s name, they took her to a room where she saw the officer who spoke to her yesterday and recognized him as her sovereign. She was beside herself with surprise and fear. But the emperor, taking her hand, said to her very affectionately: “Here are three hundred ducats for your mother and another five hundred for your tenderness towards her and for your trust in me. In addition, I am assigning you an annual pension of 500 thalers.”

What scenes from The Captain's Daughter does this anecdote remind you of (in the old days, an anecdote was a short, condensed story about a remarkable, funny incident)? Some literary scholars believe that Pushkin used it when creating his story. If so, how did he transform the anecdote into vivid and impressive scenes?

By the way, the censor P. A. Korsakov was so captivated by the verisimilitude of the last scenes of the story that he even turned to Pushkin with the question: “... did the maiden Mironov exist and did the late empress really have one?”

If we skip a little of the text of “The Captain’s Daughter” and turn to Marya Ivanovna’s heroic trip to the court of Catherine II, we will see how closely these pages come into contact with the author’s unforgettable youth, with that “place of upbringing” about which a friendly conversation was to take place in the evening of the same day , when the white paper of the novel was completed.

Having arrived in Tsarskoe Selo the day before, “early the next morning Marya Ivanovna woke up, got dressed and quietly went into the garden. The morning was beautiful, the sun illuminated the tops of the linden trees, which had already turned yellow under the fresh breath of autumn. The wide lake shone motionless. The awakened swans swam importantly from under the bushes that shaded the shore. Marya Ivanovna walked near the beautiful meadow, where a monument had just been erected in honor of the recent victories of Count Pyotr Aleksandrovich Rumyantsev...” What a wonderful air of youth, even almost childhood, Pushkin apparently breathed, copying out these lines with his light pen in the fall of 1836 . What a smell of Tsarskoye Selo autumn coolness must have wafted upon him in stuffy St. Petersburg, sparingly measuring out the last breaths of air released to the suffocating poet. Precisely because the memories of Tsarskoe Selo came flooding back to him, he marked the white autograph of the novel on October 19, probably without thinking at all that his descendants would guess his mood from this mark.”

(“The last year of Pushkin’s life.

Correspondence. Memories. Diaries")

– Read excerpts from Pushkin’s poems and try to determine what impressions of the poet’s youth were reflected in the description of the Tsarskoye Selo garden in “The Captain’s Daughter.”

Memories in Tsarskoe Selo

The pall of gloomy night hangs over

On the vault of slumbering skies;

The valleys and groves rested in silent silence,

In the gray fog there is a distant forest;

You can barely hear a stream running into the shadow of the oak grove,

The breeze barely breathes, asleep on the sheets,

And the quiet moon, like a majestic swan,

Floating in silvery clouds.

Floats - and with pale rays

Objects were illuminated around.

The alleys of ancient linden trees opened before our eyes.

Both the hill and the meadow appeared;

Here, I see, a young willow intertwined with a poplar

And was reflected in the crystal of the shaky waters;

The lily is proud as a queen among the fields

Blooms in luxurious beauty...

In the shade of thick, gloomy pine trees

A simple monument was erected.

Oh, how vilified it is for you, the Cahul coast!

And glory to the homeland! 1 (See note.)

You are immortal forever, O Russian giants.

Brought up in battles in the midst of harsh weather!

About you, companions, friends of Catherine,

Word will spread from generation to generation...

1814

Tsarskoe Selo

Memory, draw before me

Magical places where my soul lives...

Lead, lead me under the linden canopy,

Always kind to my free laziness,

To the shore of the lake, to the quiet slope of the hills!..

May I see carpets of dense meadows again

And a decrepit bunch of trees, and a bright valley,

And a familiar picture of the lush shores,

And in a quiet lake among the shining swells

A proud village of calm swans.

1823

Memories in Tsarskoe Selo

Confused by memories,

Filled with sweet melancholy.

The gardens are beautiful, under the dusk your sacred

I enter with my head hanging...

In the heat of fleeting delights,

In a barren whirlwind of vanity,

Oh, I have squandered many treasures of my heart

For unattainable dreams.

And for a long time I wandered, and often, tired,

With repentance of grief, anticipating troubles,

I thought about you, blessed limit,

I imagined these gardens.

I imagine a happy day

When the lyceum arose among you,

And I hear our games again, the playful noise

And I see my family of friends again.

Once again a gentle youth, now ardent, now lazy,

Vague dreams melt in my chest,

Wandering through meadows, through silent groves,

So I forget myself.

And I see it before me

Proud traces of days gone by.

Still completed great wife 2 (see note)

Her favorite gardens

They are inhabited by palaces, gates,

Pillars, towers, idols of the gods

And marble glory, and copper praises

Catherine's Eagles.

The ghosts of heroes sit down

At the pillars dedicated to them.

Look: here is a hero, a constrainer of military formations,

Perun on the Kagul shores.

Behold, here is the mighty leader of the midnight flag,

Before whom the fire melted and flew the seas.

Here is his faithful brother, the hero of the Archipelago,

Here's Navarino's Hannibal 3 (see note)...

Expressive reading episode of Masha's meeting with the Empress (pp. 208–209).

Look at the illustrations for the novel (S. Gerasimov “Grinev and Masha Mironova”, 1951 (p. 142), P. Sokolov “The Captain’s Daughter” (p. 210). Describe the portraits of the characters.

Why do you think Masha Mironova and the Empress ended up next to each other on Pushkin’s pages?

V. Summing up the lesson.

The magic of the name: Masha! What does this name bring to mind? Of course, another Masha - Troekurova!

Is the name coincidence? Let's try to compare our favorite heroines. Who is closer to you?

I hope that Pushkin’s “old people” will remain with you forever.

Homework: prepare a performance of Pushkin’s favorite page from “The Captain’s Daughter” and explain your choice; draw up quotation plan for an essay on the topic “Grinev in the Belogorsk Fortress.”

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Material culture as a set of objects, created by man, enters the world of the work. However, to designate objects depicted in literature material culture there is no single term. Material culture is included not only in the interior, but also in the landscape and portrait.

Representation of objects of material culture in literature evolves , reflecting changes in the relationship between man and thing in real life.

10) At the dawn of civilization, a thing was the crown of human creation, evidence of wisdom and skill. Storytellers have always been attentive to the white stone chambers, their decoration, bright objects, fabrics, etc. The very process of creating a thing is often captured (Hermes forges Achilles’ armor in the Iliad)

11) the attitude towards objects of material culture as an achievement of the human mind is demonstrated especially clearly by the Age of Enlightenment. (Robinson Crusoe. Defoe. A carpenter's box with working tools found on a sunken ship is happiness)

12) in the literature of the 19th and 20th centuries, different trends in the depiction of things emerged. The human master is still revered, and objects made by skillful hands are valued. (Leskov. Left-handed.) However, the writers sensitively grasped another facet in the relationship between a person and a thing: material value can overshadow a person; he is assessed by society by what things he possesses. A person is often likened to a thing. (Ostrovsky. Dowry. In Chekhov’s artistic world, things often symbolize the vulgarity and monotony of provincial life: Literature teacher, Ionych)

4. in the 20th century, more than one creative spear was broken in the fight against materialism - the slavish dependence of people on the things around them. The intimate connection between a person and a thing, characteristic especially of the Middle Ages, where things often have proper names(Durandal sword, owned by the main character of the song about Roland). There are a lot of things, but they are standard and almost unnoticed. With the development of technology, the range of things depicted in literature expands. They began to write about giant factories, about a hellish punishing machine, about a computer system, about robots in human form. But at the same time, alarm about the downside of scientific and technical progress is sounding more and more loudly. The peasant way of life suffered greatly from the continuous industrialization of the country. Entire villages are dying out, destroyed (Rasputin. Farewell to his mother), Yesenin, Klyuev, Belov, Astafiev. Everything reflects the real processes occurring in a person’s relationship with things created by his hands, but often out of control.

In a literary work, a thing appears as an element of the conventional, artistic world. And unlike reality, the boundaries between things and people can be fluid. Russians folk tales give many examples of humanizing things. This tradition is continued by Russian and foreign literature.

Conventionally, we can highlight the most important functions things in literature.

1. cultural

a thing can be a sign of the depicted era and environment. This is especially typical for travel novels, where different worlds are presented: national, class, geographical. This function is also very important in historical novel-genre, which was formed in the era of romanticism and strives in its descriptions to clearly represent historical time and local color. (V. Hugo Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris.) Things also perform a sign function in everyday works. (Life of the Cossacks in Vechery on a farm near Dikanka, in Quiet Don) An item can serve as a sign of wealth/poverty.

2. characterological function

Gogol's works show the intimate connection between things and their owners; it is not for nothing that Chichikov examines homes in such detail dead souls. Things can line up in a sequential row. But one detail can characterize a character (a jar with the inscription “laceberry” prepared by Fenechka in Fathers and Sons); against the background of literary tradition, the absence of things can also become significant.

things often become signs, symbols of a person’s experiences (Block. About valor, about exploits...)

5) plot-compositional function

special place occupy things in detective literature, without details-evidence this genre is unthinkable. The material world of the work has its own composition. On one side, the details are lined up, forming together an interior-landscape-portrait, etc. (urban landscape in Crime and Punishment)

on the other hand, one thing highlighted in the work close-up, carries an increased semantic and ideological load, developing into symbol . (Woe from Wit: the sieve, Akhmatova’s scarlet flower in her buttonhole, the wardrobe in the Cherry Orchard.) symbolic things are included in the title work of art. (Garnet bracelet) symbolization of things is especially characteristic of lyrics due to its attraction to the semantic richness of the word.

Genre differences works affect the image of things, the actualization of certain functions. Things appear as signs of a particular way of life in historical novels and plays, everyday life works, in particular in physiological essays. Plot function mainly exploited detective genres. The level of detail depends on author's style . (Gogol - love for details, Pushkin - not so much)

Emphasize the uniqueness of a particular way of life, various ways of life lexical layers of language, the so-called passive language stock and words that have a limited scope of use: archaisms, neologisms, etc., the use of such vocabulary is both an expressive technique and a difficulty for the reader. Sometimes the authors themselves provide the texts with notes (Gogol evenings on the farm..) Commentators, editors and translators usually help the reader understand the text.