INTRODUCTION

Subject diploma work “Features of the spatio-temporal organization of Botho Strauss’s plays.”

Relevance and novelty work is that the German playwright, novelist and essayist Botho Strauss, a representative of the new drama, is practically unknown in Russia. One book has been published with translations of 6 of his plays (“So big and so small”, “Time and Room”, “Ithaca”, “Hypochondriacs”, “Spectators”, “Park”) and an introduction by Vladimir Kolyazin. Also in the dissertation work of I.S. Roganova, Strauss is mentioned as the author with whom German postmodern drama begins. His plays have been staged in Russia only once - by Oleg Rybkin in 1995 in the Red Torch, the play “Time and Room”. Interest in this author began with a note about this performance in one of the Novosibirsk newspapers.

Target- identification and description of the features of the spatio-temporal organization of the author’s plays.

Tasks: analysis of the spatial and temporal organization of each play; identifying common features and patterns in the organization.

Object The following plays by Strauss are: “The Hypochondriacs”, “So Big and So Small”, “Park”, “Time and Room”.

Subject are the features of the spatio-temporal organization of plays.

This work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography.

The introduction indicates the topic, relevance, object, subject, goals and objectives of the work.

The first chapter consists of two paragraphs: the concept of artistic time and space, artistic time and artistic space in drama, changes in the reflection of these categories that arose in the twentieth century are considered, and part of the second paragraph is devoted to the influence of cinema on the composition and spatial-temporal organization of new drama .

The second chapter consists of two paragraphs: the organization of space in plays, the organization of time. The first paragraph identifies such features of the organization as the closedness of space, the relevance of indicators of the boundaries of this closedness, the shift in emphasis from external space to internal space - memory, associations, montage in the organization. The second paragraph reveals the following features of the organization of the category of time: montage, fragmentation associated with the relevance of the motive of recollection, retrospectiveness. Thus, montage becomes the main principle in the spatio-temporal organization of the plays under study.

During the study, we relied on the works of Yu.N. Tynyanova, O.V. Zhurcheva, V. Kolyazina, Yu.M. Lotman, M.M. Bakhtin, P. Pavy.

The volume of work is 60 pages. The list of sources used includes 54 titles.

CATEGORIES OF SPACE AND TIME IN DRAMA

SPACE AND TIME IN A WORK OF ART

Space and time are categories that include ideas, knowledge about the world order, place and human role in it, provide grounds for describing and analyzing the methods of their verbal expression and representation in the fabric of a work of art. Understood in this way, these categories can be considered as means of interpreting a literary text.

IN literary encyclopedia we will find the following definition for these categories, written by I. Rodnyanskaya: “artistic time and artistic space are the most important characteristics of the artistic image, organizing the composition of the work and ensuring its perception as a holistic and original artistic reality.<…>Its very content [of the literary and poetic image] necessarily reproduces the spatio-temporal picture of the world (transmitted by indirect means of storytelling) and, moreover, in its symbolic-ideological aspect” [Rodnyanskaya I. Artistic time and artistic space. http://feb-web.ru/feb/kle/Kle-abc/ke9/ke9-7721.htm].

In the spatio-temporal picture of the world, reproduced by art, including drama, there are images of biographical time (childhood, youth), historical, cosmic (the idea of ​​eternity and universal history), calendar, daily, as well as ideas about movement and immobility, about the relationship between past, present and future. Spatial paintings are represented by images of closed and open space, earthly and cosmic, actually visible and imaginary, ideas about objectivity close and distant. In this case, any, as a rule, indicator, marker of this picture of the world in a work of art acquires a symbolic, symbolic character. According to D.S. Likhachev, from era to era, as the understanding of the changeability of the world becomes wider and deeper, images of time acquire more and more significance in literature: writers become more and more clearly and intensely aware of the “diversity of forms of movement,” “mastering the world in its time dimensions.”

Artistic space can be point, linear, planar or volumetric. The second and third can also have a horizontal or vertical orientation. Linear space may or may not include the concept of directionality. In the presence of this feature (the image of a linear directed space, characterized by the relevance of the length attribute and the irrelevance of the width attribute, in art is often a road), linear space becomes a convenient artistic language for modeling temporal categories (“ life path", "road" as a means of character development in time). To describe point space we have to turn to the concept of delimitation. Art space in literary work is a continuum in which characters are placed and action takes place. Naive perception constantly pushes the reader to identify artistic and physical space.

However, the idea that artistic space is always a model of some natural space is not always justified. Space in a work of art models various connections in the picture of the world: temporal, social, ethical, etc. This may happen because in one or another model of the world the category of space is complexly merged with certain concepts that exist in our picture of the world as separate or opposite. However, the reason may be different: in an artistic model of the world, “space” sometimes metaphorically takes on the expression of completely non-spatial relations in the modeling structure of the world.

Thus, artistic space is a model of the world of a given author, expressed in the language of his spatial ideas. At the same time, as often happens in other matters, this language, taken by itself, is much less individual and in to a greater extent belongs to time, era, social and artistic groups, than what the artist speaks in this language, than his individual model of the world.

In particular, artistic space can be the basis for the interpretation of the artistic world, since spatial relationships:

They can determine the nature of the “resistance of the environment of the inner world” (D.S. Likhachev);

They are one of the main ways to realize the worldview of characters, their relationships, degrees of freedom/non-freedom;

They serve as one of the main ways to embody the author’s point of view.

Space and its properties are inseparable from the things that fill it. Therefore, the analysis of artistic space and the artistic world is closely related to the analysis of the features of the material world that fills it.

Time is introduced into the work using a cinematic technique, that is, by dividing it into separate moments of peace. This general reception fine arts, and none of them can do without it. The reflection of time in the work is fragmentary due to the fact that continuously flowing homogeneous time is not capable of giving rhythm. The latter involves pulsation, condensation and rarefaction, deceleration and acceleration, steps and stops. Hence, visual arts, giving rhythm, must have in themselves some dismemberment, with some of their elements delaying attention and the eye, while with others, intermediate ones, promoting both from element to another. In other words, the lines that form the basic scheme of a pictorial work must penetrate or subdue the alternating elements of rest and jump.

But it is not enough to decompose time into moments at rest: it is necessary to connect them into a single series, and this presupposes some internal unity individual moments, giving the opportunity and even the need to move from element to element and during this transition to recognize in the new element something from the element just left. Dismemberment is a condition for facilitated analysis; but a condition for facilitated synthesis is also required.

We can say it another way: the organization of time is always and inevitably achieved by dismemberment, that is, by discontinuity. With the activity and synthetic nature of the mind, this discontinuity is given clearly and decisively. Then the synthesis itself, if only it is within the capabilities of the viewer, will be extremely complete and sublime, it will be able to cover great times and be filled with movement.

The simplest and at the same time the most open method of cinematic analysis is achieved by a simple sequence of images, the spaces of which physically have nothing in common, are not coordinated with each other, and are not even connected. In essence, this is the same cinematic tape, but not cut in many places and therefore in no way condoning the passive connection of images with each other.

An important characteristic of any artistic world is statics/dynamics. In its implementation, space plays the most important role. Statics implies time stopped, frozen, not unfolding forward, but statically oriented towards the past, that is, there cannot be real life in a closed space. Movement in a static world has the character of “moving immobility.” Dynamics is living, absorbing the present time into the future. Continuation of life is possible only outside of isolation. And the character is perceived and evaluated in unity with his location; he seems to merge with space into an indivisible whole, becoming a part of it. The dynamics of a character depend on whether he has his own individual space, his path relative to the world around him or does he remain, according to Lotman, the same type of environment around him. Kruglikov V.A. It even seems possible “to use the designations of individuality and personality as an analogue of human space and time.” “Then it is appropriate to present individuality as a semantic image of the unfolding of the “I” in human space. At the same time, individuality denotes and indicates the location of personality in a person. In turn, personality can be represented as a semantic image of the unfolding of the “I” in a person’s time, as that subjective time in which movements, displacements and changes of individuality occur.<…>The absolute fullness of individuality is tragic for a person, just like the absolute fullness of the personality” [Kruglikov V.A. Space and time of the “man of culture” // Culture, man and picture of the world. Ed. Arnoldov A.I., Kruglikov V.A. M., 1987].

V. Rudnev identifies three key parameters for the characteristics of artistic space: closedness/openness, straightness/curvature, largeness/smallness. They are explained in the psychoanalytic terms of Otto Rank's theory of birth trauma: at birth, a painful transition occurs from the closed, small, crooked space of the mother's womb into the huge straight and open space of the outside world. In the pragmatics of space the most important role The concepts of “here” and “there” play: they model the position of the speaker and the listener in relation to each other and in relation to the outside world. Rudnev suggests distinguishing here, there, nowhere with capital and small letters:

“The word “here” with a small letter means a space that is in relation to sensory reachability on the part of the speaker, that is, objects located “here” can be seen, heard or touched.

The word “there” with a small letter means a space “located beyond or on the border of sensory reach on the part of the speaker. A boundary can be considered a state of affairs when an object can be perceived by only one sense organ, for example, it can be seen but not heard (it is there, at the other end of the room) or, conversely, heard but not seen (it is there, beyond partition).

The word "Here" with a capital letter means the space that unites the speaker with the object in question. It could be really very far away. “He is here in America” (the speaker may be in California, and the one in question may be in Florida or Wisconsin).

There is an extremely interesting paradox associated with the pragmatics of space. It is natural to assume that if an object is here, then it is not somewhere there (or nowhere). But if we make this logic modal, that is, assign the “possible” operator to both parts of the statement, then we get the following.

It is possible that the object is here, but it is also possible that it is not here. All plots related to space are built on this paradox. For example, Hamlet in Shakespeare's tragedy kills Polonius by mistake. This error is hidden in the structure of the pragmatic space. Hamlet thinks that there, behind the curtain, is the king, whom he was going to kill. The space there is a place of uncertainty. But even here there can be a place of uncertainty, for example, when a double of the one you are waiting for appears to you, and you think that someone is here, but in fact he is somewhere there or he was completely killed (Nowhere)” [ Rudnev V.P. Dictionary of 20th century culture. - M.: Agraf, 1997. - 384 p.].

The idea of ​​the unity of time and space arose in connection with the advent of Einstein's theory of relativity. This idea is also confirmed by the fact that quite often words with a spatial meaning acquire temporal semantics, or have syncretic semantics, denoting both time and space. No object reality does not exist only in space outside of time or only in time outside of space. Time is understood as the fourth dimension, the main difference of which from the first three (space) is that time is irreversible (anisotropic). This is how twentieth-century philosophy of time researcher Hans Reichenbach puts it:

1. The past does not return;

2. The past cannot be changed, but the future can;

3. It is impossible to have a reliable protocol about the future [ibid.].

The term chronotope, introduced by Einstein in his theory of relativity, was used by M.M. Bakhtin when studying the novel [Bakhtin M.M. Epic and novel. St. Petersburg, 2000]. Chronotope (literally - time-space) is a significant interrelation of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature; continuity of space and time, when time acts as the fourth dimension of space. Time becomes denser, becomes artistically visible; space is drawn into the movement of time and plot. Signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time. This intersection of rows and merging of signs characterizes the artistic chronotope.

The chronotope determines the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality. All time-spatial definitions in art and literature are inseparable from each other and are always emotionally and value-laden.

The chronotope is the most important characteristic of an artistic image and at the same time a way of creating artistic reality. MM. Bakhtin writes that “any entry into the sphere of meaning occurs only through the gates of chronotopes.” The chronotope, on the one hand, reflects the worldview of its era, on the other, the measure of development of the author's self-awareness, the process of the emergence of points of view on space and time. As the most general, universal category of culture, artistic space-time is capable of embodying “the worldview of an era, the behavior of people, their consciousness, the rhythm of life, their attitude towards things” (Gurevich). The chronotopic beginning of literary works, writes Khalizev, is capable of giving them a philosophical character, “bringing” the verbal fabric to the image of being as a whole, to the picture of the world [Khalizev V.E. Theory of literature. M., 2005].

In the spatio-temporal organization of works of the twentieth century, as well as modern literature Various, sometimes extreme, tendencies coexist (and struggle) - extreme expansion or, on the contrary, concentrated compression of the boundaries of artistic reality, a tendency towards increasing conventionality or, conversely, towards emphasizing the documentation of chronological and topographical landmarks, closedness and openness, expansion and illegality. Among these trends, the following, the most obvious, can be noted:

The desire for a nameless or fictitious topography: the City, instead of Kyiv, in Bulgakov (this casts a certain legendary light on historically specific events); the unmistakable, but never named Cologne in the prose of G. Böll; the story of Macondo in García Márquez's carnivalized national epic, One Hundred Years of Solitude. It is significant, however, that artistic time-space here requires real historical-geographical identification or at least rapprochement, without which the work cannot be understood at all; The closed artistic time of a fairy tale or parable, excluded from the historical account, is widely used - “The Trial” by F. Kafka, “The Plague” by A. Camus, “Watt” by S. Beckett. The fairy-tale and parable “once upon a time”, “once upon a time”, equal to “always” and “whenever” corresponds to the eternal “conditions of human existence”, and is also used with the goal that the familiar modern color does not distract the reader in search of historical correlations, does not excite “ naive" question: "when did this happen?"; topography eludes identification, localization in the real world.

The presence of two different unmerged spaces in one artistic world: the real, that is, physical, surrounding the heroes, and the “romantic”, created by the imagination of the hero himself, caused by the clash of the romantic ideal with the coming era of mercenary, put forward by bourgeois development. Moreover, the emphasis moves from the space of the external world to the internal space of human consciousness. The internal space of events unfolding refers to the character’s memory; the intermittent, backward and forward progression of plot time is motivated not by the author’s initiative, but by the psychology of recollection. Time is “stratified”; in extreme cases (for example, in M. Proust), the narrative “here and now” is left to play the role of a frame or a material reason for stimulating memory, freely flying through space and time in pursuit of the desired moment of experience. In connection with the discovery of the compositional possibilities of “remembering,” the original ratio of importance between moving and “attached to place” characters often changes: if previously the leading characters going through a serious spiritual path, were, as a rule, mobile, and the extras merged with the everyday background into a motionless whole, now, on the contrary, the “remembering” hero who belongs to the central characters often turns out to be motionless, being endowed with his own subjective sphere, the right to demonstrate his inner world ( position “at the window” of the heroine of the novel by W. Wolfe “A Trip to the Lighthouse”). This position allows you to compress own time actions up to a few days and hours, while the time and space of an entire human life can be projected onto the screen of recollection. The contents of the character's memory here play the same role as the collective knowledge of legend in relation to the ancient epic - it frees one from exposition, epilogue and, in general, any explanatory moments provided by the proactive intervention of the author-narrator.

The character also begins to be thought of as a kind of space. G. Gachev writes that “Space and Time are not objective categories of existence, but subjective forms of the human mind: a priori forms of our sensuality, that is, orientation outward, outward (Space) and inward (Time)” [Gachev G.D. European images of Space and Time//Culture, man and picture of the world. Ed. Arnoldov A.I., Kruglikov V.A. M., 1987]. Yampolsky writes that “the body forms its own space,” which for clarity he calls “place.” This gathering of spaces into a whole, according to Heidegger, is a property of a thing. A thing embodies a certain collective nature, a collective energy, and it creates a place. Collecting space introduces boundaries into it, boundaries give existence to space. The place becomes a cast of a person, his mask, the boundary in which he himself finds being, moves and changes. “The human body is also a thing. It also deforms the space around it, giving it the identity of the place. The human body needs a localization, a place in which it can place itself and find a refuge in which it can abide. As Edward Cayce noted, “the body as such is an intermediary between my consciousness of place and the place itself, moving me between places and introducing me into the intimate crevices of each given place [Yampolsky M. The Demon and the Labyrinth].

Thanks to the elimination of the author as a narrating person ample opportunities opened before editing, a kind of spatio-temporal mosaic, when different “action theaters”, panoramic and close-ups are juxtaposed without motivation or commentary as a “documentary” face of reality itself.

In the twentieth century there were concepts of multidimensional time. They originated in the mainstream of absolute idealism, British philosophy of the early twentieth century. Twentieth-century culture was influenced by W. John Wilm Dunne's serial concept (The Experiment with Time). Dunn analyzed the well-known phenomenon of prophetic dreams, when on one end of the planet a person dreams of an event that a year later happens in reality on the other end of the planet. Explaining this mysterious phenomenon, Dunn concluded that time has at least two dimensions for one person. A person lives in one dimension, and in another he observes. And this second dimension is space-like, along it you can move into the past and into the future. This dimension manifests itself in altered states of consciousness, when the intellect does not put pressure on a person, that is, first of all, in a dream.

The phenomenon of neo-mythological consciousness at the beginning of the twentieth century updated the mythological cyclical model time in which not a single Reichenbach postulate works. This cyclical time of the agrarian cult is familiar to everyone. After winter comes spring, nature comes to life, and the cycle repeats. In the literature and philosophy of the twentieth century, the archaic myth of eternal recurrence becomes popular.

In contrast to this, the consciousness of man at the end of the twentieth century, based on the idea of ​​linear time, which presupposes the presence of a certain end, precisely postulates the beginning of this end. And it turns out that time no longer moves in the usual direction; To understand what is happening, a person turns to the past. Baudrillard writes about it this way: “We use the concepts of past, present and future, which are very conventional, when talking about the initial and the final. However, today we find ourselves drawn into a kind of open-ended process that no longer has any ending.

The end is also the final goal, the goal that makes this or that movement purposeful. Our history now has neither purpose nor direction: it has lost them, lost them irrevocably. Being on the other side of truth and error, on the other side of good and evil, we are no longer able to go back. Apparently, for every process there is a specific point of no return, after passing which it forever loses its finitude. If there is no completion, then everything exists only by being dissolved in an endless history, an endless crisis, an endless series of processes.

Having lost sight of the end, we desperately try to capture the beginning, this is our desire to find the origins. But these efforts are in vain: both anthropologists and paleontologists discover that all origins disappear in the depths of time, they are lost in the past, as endless as the future.

We have already passed the point of no return and are completely involved in a non-stop process in which everything is immersed in an endless vacuum and has lost its human dimension and which deprives us of the memory of the past, and the focus on the future, and the ability to integrate this future into the present. From now on, our world is a universe of abstract, ethereal things that continue to live by inertia, becoming simulacra of themselves, but not those who know death: endless existence is guaranteed to them because they are only artificial formations.

And yet we are still in captivity of the illusion that certain processes will necessarily reveal their finitude, and with it their direction, will allow us to retrospectively establish their origins, and as a result we will be able to comprehend the movement that interests us with the help of concepts of cause and consequences.

The absence of an end creates a situation in which it is difficult to escape the impression that all the information we receive contains nothing new, that everything we are told about has already happened. Since there is now no completion or final goal, since humanity has gained immortality, the subject ceases to understand what he is. And this newfound immortality is the last phantasm born of our technologies” [Baudrillard Jean Passwords from fragment to fragment Yekaterinburg, 2006].

It should be added that the past is accessible only in the form of memories and dreams. This is a continuous attempt to embody once again what has already happened, what has already happened once and should not happen again. In the center is the fate of a man who finds himself “at the end of times.” The motif of expectation is often used in works of art: hope for a miracle, or longing for better life, or expectation of trouble, premonition of disaster.

In Deja Loer's play "Olga's Room" there is a phrase that well illustrates this tendency to turn to the past: "Only if I manage to reproduce the past with absolute accuracy can I see the future."

The concept of time running backwards is related to the same idea. “Time introduces quite understandable metaphysical confusion: it appears with man, but precedes eternity. Another ambiguity, no less important and no less expressive, prevents us from determining the direction of time. They say that it flows from the past to the future: but the opposite is no less logical, as the Spanish poet Miguel de Unamuno wrote about” (Borges). Unamuno does not mean a simple countdown; time here is a metaphor for man. Dying, a person begins to consistently lose what he managed to do and experience, all his experience, he unwinds like a ball to a state of non-existence.

Any literary work in one way or another reproduces the real world - both material and ideal: nature, things, events, people in their external and internal existence, etc. The natural forms of existence of this world are time and space. However art world, or the world of a work of art, is always conditional to one degree or another: it is an image of reality. Time and space in literature are thus also conditional.

Compared to other arts, literature deals most freely with time and space (in this area, perhaps, it can only compete with the synthetic art of cinema).

“The immateriality of... images” gives literature the ability to instantly move from one space to another. In particular, events occurring simultaneously in different places can be depicted; To do this, it is enough for the narrator to say: “Meanwhile, such and such was happening there.” Equally simple are transitions from one time plane to another (especially from the present to the past and back).

Most early forms There were memories of such temporary switching in the stories of the characters. With the development of literary self-awareness, these forms of mastering time and space will become more sophisticated, but the important thing is that they have always taken place in literature, and, therefore, constituted an essential moment artistic imagery.

Another property of literary time and space is their discontinuity. In relation to time, this is especially important, since literature is capable of not reproducing the entire flow of time, but selecting the most significant fragments from it, indicating gaps with formulas like: “several days have passed,” etc. Such temporal discreteness (has long been characteristic of literature) served as a powerful means of dynamization, first in the development of the plot, and then in psychologism.

Fragmentation of space partly connected with the properties of artistic time, partly has an independent character. Thus, an instant change in space-time coordinates (for example, in I.A. Goncharov’s novel “The Break” - the transfer of action from St. Petersburg to Malinovka, to the Volga) makes the description of the intermediate space unnecessary (in in this case– roads).

The discrete nature of space itself is manifested primarily in the fact that it is usually not described in detail, but is only indicated with the help of individual details that are most significant for the author. The rest (usually a large part) is “completed” in the reader’s imagination.

Thus, the scene of action in M. Yu. Lermontov’s poem “Borodino” is indicated by a few details: “large field”, “blue-topped forests”. True, this work is lyrical-epic, but in the purely epic genre similar laws apply. For example, in A.I. Solzhenitsyn’s story “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich,” of the entire “interior” of the office, only the red-hot stove is described: it is this that attracts the frozen Ivan Denisovich.

The nature of the conventions of time and space greatly depends on the type of literature. Lyrics, which present an actual experience, and drama, which plays out before the eyes of the audience, showing an incident at the moment of its occurrence, usually use the present tense, while the epic (basically a story about what has passed) uses the past tense.

Conventionality is maximum in the lyrics; the image of space may even be completely absent in it - for example, in the poem by A.S. Pushkin “I loved you; love still, perhaps...” Space in lyric poetry is often allegorical: the desert in Pushkin’s “Prophet”, the sea in Lermontov’s “Sail”. At the same time, lyrics are capable of reproducing objective world in its spatial realities. Thus, in Lermontov’s poem “Motherland” a typically Russian landscape is recreated. In his poem “How often, surrounded by a motley crowd...” the mental transference of the lyrical hero from the ballroom to the “wonderful kingdom” embodies extremely significant oppositions for the romantic: civilization and nature, artificial and natural man, “I” and “the crowd” . And not only spaces are opposed, but also times.

With the predominance of the grammatical present in the lyrics (“I remember a wonderful moment...” by Pushkin, “I enter dark temples...” by A. Blok), it is characterized by the interaction of time plans: present and past (memories are the basis of the elegy genre) ; past, present and future. The category of time itself can be a subject of reflection, a philosophical leitmotif of a poem: mortal human time is contrasted with eternity (“Am I wandering along the noisy streets...” by Pushkin); what is depicted is thought of as always existing or as something instantaneous. In all cases, lyrical time, being mediated by the inner world of the lyrical subject, has a very high degree of conventionality, often abstraction.

The conventions of time and space in drama are mainly due to its orientation towards the theater. With all the diversity in the organization of time and space in drama, some general properties: no matter how significant the role narrative fragments play in dramatic works, no matter how fragmented the depicted action is, drama is committed to pictures that are closed in space and time.

Much wider possibilities epic kind, where the fragmentation of time and space, transitions from one time to another, spatial movements are carried out easily and freely thanks to the figure of the narrator - an intermediary between the depicted life and the reader. The narrator can “compress” and, on the contrary, “stretch” time, or even stop it (in descriptions, reasoning).

According to the peculiarities of artistic convention, time and space in literature (in all its types) can be divided into abstract and concrete; this distinction is especially important for space.

Abstract is a space that can be perceived as universal (“everywhere” or “nowhere”). It does not have a pronounced characteristic and therefore, even when specifically designated, does not have a significant impact on the characters and behavior of the characters, on the essence of the conflict, does not set an emotional tone, is not subject to active authorial comprehension, etc.

On the contrary, concrete space does not simply “tie” the depicted world to certain topographical realities, but actively influences the essence of what is depicted. For example, in “Woe from Wit” by A. Griboedov they constantly talk about Moscow and its topographical realities (Kuznetsky Most, English Club, etc.), and these realities are a kind of metonymy for a certain way of life. The comedy paints a psychological portrait of the Moscow nobility: Famusov, Khlestova, Repetilov are possible only in Moscow (but not in the Europeanized, business-oriented Petersburg of that time). Pushkin’s genre definition of “The Bronze Horseman” is a “St. Petersburg story,” and it is St. Petersburg not only in toponymy and plot, but in its internal, problematic essence. The symbolization of space can be emphasized by a fictitious toponym (for example, the city of Glupov in “The History of a City” by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin).

Abstract space is used as a method of global generalization, a symbol, as a form of expression of universal content (applied to the entire “human race”). Of course, there is no impassable boundary between concrete and abstract spaces: the degree of generalization and symbolization of concrete space varies in different works; one work can combine different types of space (for example, in “The Master and Margarita” by M. Bulgakov); abstract space, being an artistic image, draws details from real reality, involuntarily conveying the national-historical specificity of not only the landscape, the material world, but also human characters (for example, in Pushkin’s poem “Gypsies”, with its antithesis of “captivity of stuffy cities” and “ wild will,” the features of a certain patriarchal way of life emerge through the abstract exotic space, not to mention the local flavor of the poem).

The type of space is usually associated with the corresponding properties of time. Thus, the abstract space of the fable is combined with the timeless essence of the conflict - for all times: “For the strong, the powerless is always to blame,” “...And the flatterer will always find a corner in the heart.” And vice versa: spatial specificity is usually complemented by temporal specificity.

Time is a constructive category in a literary work, an essential structural element verbal art. It is necessary to distinguish, first of all, narrative time as the duration of the story and event (narrated) time as the duration of the process about which there's a story going on. It is known that the sense of time for a person in different periods its life is subjective: it can stretch or shrink. This subjectivity of sensations is used in different ways by authors of literary texts: a moment can last a long time or stop altogether, and large periods of time can flash by overnight. Artistic time is a sequence in the description of events that are subjectively perceived. This perception of time becomes one of the forms of depicting reality when, at the will of the author, the time perspective changes. Moreover, the time perspective can shift, the past can be thought of as the present, and the future can appear as the past, etc. Temporary shifts are quite natural. Events that are distant in time can be depicted as immediately occurring, for example, in a character's retelling. Temporary doubling is a common storytelling technique in which the stories of different people, including the author of the text, intersect.

The time depicted in a work may be more or less definite (e.g. cover a day, a year, several years, centuries) and may or may not be indicated in relation to historical time (e.g. fantastic works the chronological aspect of the image may be completely indifferent or the action takes place in the future). Forms of concretization of artistic time are most often the “linking” of action to historical landmarks, dates, realities and the designation of cyclical time: time of year, day. But the measure of concreteness in each special case will be different in varying degrees emphasized by the author.

Emotional and symbolic meanings arose a long time ago and form a stable system: day is a time of work, night is a time of peace or pleasure, evening is calm and relaxation, morning is awakening and the beginning of a new day (often the beginning of a new life). The seasons were associated mainly with the agricultural cycle: autumn is the time of dying, spring is the time of rebirth. This mythological scheme has passed into literature, and its traces can be found in a variety of works up to the present day: “It’s not for nothing that Winter is angry...” by F. Tyutchev, “The Winter of Our Anxiety” by J. Steinbeck. Along with traditional symbolism, developing it or contrasting with it, individual images of the seasons appear, filled with psychological meaning. Here there are already complex and implicit connections between the time of year and state of mind: Wed “...I don’t like spring...” (Pushkin) and “I love spring most of all /” (Yesenin); Spring is almost always joyful in Chekhov, but it is ominous in Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita.”

Both in life and in literature, space and time are not given to us in their pure form. We judge space by the objects that fill it (in in a broad sense), and about time - by the processes occurring in it. To analyze a work, it is important to determine the fullness and saturation of space and time, since this indicator in many cases characterizes the style of the work, the writer, the direction. For example, in Gogol, space is usually filled as much as possible with some objects, especially things. Here is one of the interiors in “Dead Souls”: “<...>the room was hung with old striped wallpaper; paintings with some birds; between the windows there are old small mirrors with dark frames in the shape of curled leaves; Behind every mirror there was either a letter, or an old deck of cards, or a stocking; wall clock with painted flowers on the dial...” (Chapter III). And in Lermontov’s style system, the space is practically empty: it contains only what is necessary for the plot and depiction of the inner world of the heroes; even in “A Hero of Our Time” (not to mention romantic poems) there is not a single detailed interior.

^ The intensity of artistic time is expressed in its saturation with events. Dostoevsky, Bulgakov, Mayakovsky had an extremely busy time. Chekhov managed to sharply reduce the intensity of time even in dramatic works, which in principle tend to concentrate action.

Increased saturation of artistic space, as a rule, is combined with a reduced intensity of time, and vice versa: weak saturation of space - with time, rich in events.

Real (plot) and artistic time rarely coincide, especially in epic works, where playing with time can be a very expressive technique. In most cases, artistic time is shorter than “real” time: this is where the law of “poetic economy” manifests itself. However, there is an important exception associated with the depiction of psychological processes and the subjective time of a character or lyrical hero. Experiences and thoughts, unlike other processes, proceed faster than the flow of speech, which forms the basis of literary imagery. Therefore, the image time is almost always longer than the subjective time. In some cases this is less noticeable (for example, in Lermontov’s “Hero of Our Time”, Goncharov’s novels, in Chekhov’s stories), in others it constitutes a conscious artistic device designed to emphasize richness and intensity mental life. This is typical of many psychological writers: Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Faulkner, Hemingway, Proust.

The depiction of what the hero experienced in just a second of “real” time can take up a large amount of the narrative.

Artistic space and time are an integral property of any work of art, including music, literature, theater, etc. Literary chronotopes have primarily plot significance and are the organizational centers of the main events described by the author. There is also no doubt about the pictorial significance of chronotopes, since story events they are concretized, and time and space acquire a sensually visual character. Genre and genre varieties are determined by chronotope. All temporal-spatial definitions in literature are inseparable from each other and are emotionally charged.

Artistic time is time that is reproduced and depicted in a literary work. Artistic time, unlike objectively given time, uses the diversity of subjective perception of time. A person's sense of time is subjective. It can “stretch”, “run”, “fly”, “stop”. Artistic time makes this subjective perception of time one of the forms of depicting reality. However, objective time is also used at the same time. Time in fiction is perceived through the connection of events - cause-and-effect or associative. Events in a plot precede and follow each other, are arranged in a complex series, and thanks to this, the reader is able to notice time in a work of art, even if nothing is said about time. Artistic time can be characterized as follows: static or dynamic; real - unreal; speed of time; prospective – retrospective – cyclical; past – present – ​​future (in what time are the characters and action concentrated). In literature, the leading principle is time.

Artistic space is one of the most important components of a work. Its role in the text is not limited to determining the place where the event occurs, they are associated storylines, the characters move. Artistic space, like time, is a special language for the moral assessment of characters. The behavior of the characters is related to the space in which they are located. The space can be closed (limited) - open; real (recognizable, similar to reality) – unreal; his own (the hero was born and raised here, feels comfortable in it, adequate to the space) - strangers (the hero is an outside observer, abandoned in a foreign land, cannot find himself); empty (minimum objects) – filled. It can be dynamic, full of varied movement, and static, “motionless,” filled with things. When movement in space becomes directed, one of the most important spatial forms appears - the road, which can become a spatial dominant that organizes the entire text. The motive of the road is semantically ambiguous: the road can be a concrete reality of the depicted space, it can symbolize the path of the character’s internal development, his fate; through the motif of the road the idea of ​​the path of the people can be expressed or the whole country. Space can be built horizontally or vertically (emphasis on objects stretching upward or objects spreading outwards). In addition, you should look at what is located in the center of this space, and what is on the periphery, what geographical features listed in the story, what they are called (real names, fictitious names, proper names or common nouns as proper names).

Each writer interprets time and space in his own way, endowing them with his own characteristics that reflect the author’s worldview. As a result, the artistic space created by the writer is unlike any other artistic space and time, much less the real one.

Thus, in the works of I. A. Bunin (the “Dark Alleys” cycle), the lives of the heroes take place in two non-overlapping chronotopes. On the one hand, a space of everyday life, rain, corroding melancholy, in which time moves unbearably slowly, unfolds before the reader. Only a tiny part of the hero’s biography (one day, one night, a week, a month) takes place in a different space, bright, saturated with emotions, meaning, sun, light and, most importantly, love. In this case, the action takes place in the Caucasus or in a noble estate, under the romantic arches of “dark alleys”.

An important property of literary time and space is their discreteness, that is, discontinuity. In relation to time, this is especially important, since literature is capable of not reproducing the entire flow of time, but selecting the most significant fragments from it, indicating gaps. Such temporal discreteness served as a powerful means of dynamization.

The nature of the conventions of time and space greatly depends on the type of literature. Conventionality is maximum in lyric poetry, since it is closer to the expressive arts. There may be no space here. At the same time, lyrics can reproduce the objective world in its spatial realities. With the predominance of the grammatical present in the lyrics, it is characterized by the interaction of the present and the past (elegy), past, present and future (to Chaadaev). The category of time itself can be the leitmotif of a poem. In drama, the conventions of time and space are established mainly on the theater. That is, all actions, speeches, and inner speech of the actors are closed in time and space. Against the backdrop of drama, the epic has broader possibilities. Transitions from one time to another, spatial movements occur thanks to the narrator. The narrator can compress or stretch time.

According to the peculiarities of artistic convention, time and space in literature can be divided into abstract and concrete. Abstract is a space that can be perceived as universal. The concrete not only ties the depicted world to certain topographical realities, but also actively influences the essence of what is depicted. There is no impassable border between concrete and abstract spaces. Abstract space draws details from reality. The concepts of abstract and concrete spaces can serve as guidelines for typology. The type of space is usually associated with the corresponding properties of time. Form of specification art. time are most often the linking of action to historical realities and the designation of cyclical time6 time of year, day. In most cases, the bad time is shorter than the real one. This reveals the law of “poetic economy.” However, there is an important exception associated with the depiction of psychological processes and subjective time of a character or lyrical hero. Experiences and thoughts flow faster than the flow of speech, which forms the basis of literary imagery. In literature, complex relationships arise between the real and the thin. time. Real time In general it can be equal to zero, for example in descriptions. Such time is eventless. But event time is also heterogeneous. In one case, literature records events and actions that significantly change a person. This is plot or plot time. In another case, literature paints a picture of a stable existence that repeats itself day after day. This type of time is called chronicle-domestic time. The ratio of eventless, eventful and chronicle-everyday time creates a tempo organization of art. time of the work. Completeness and incompleteness are important for analysis. It is also worth saying about the types of organization of artistic time: chronicle, adventure, biographical, etc.

Bakhtin identified chronotopes in his heresy:

Meetings.

Roads. On the road (“high road”), the spatial and temporal paths of the most diverse people intersect at one temporal and spatial point - representatives of all classes, conditions, religions, nationalities, ages. This is the starting point and the place where events take place. The road is especially useful for depicting an event governed by chance (but not only for this). (remember Pugachev’s meeting with Grinev in “Kap. Daughter”). General features of the chronotope in different types novels: the road passes through their native country, and not in an exotic foreign world; the socio-historical diversity of this home country(therefore, if we can talk about exoticism here, then only about “social exoticism” - “slums”, “scum”, thieves’ worlds). In the latter function, “road” was also used in journalistic travel of the 18th century (“Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by Radishchev). This feature of the “road” distinguishes the listed types of novels from the other line of the wandering novel, represented by the ancient travel novel, the Greek sophistic novel, and the baroque novel of the 17th century. A “foreign world”, separated from its own country by sea and distance, has a similar function to the road in these novels.

Castle. By the end of the 18th century in England there was a new territory for the fulfillment of novel events - the “castle”. The castle is full of time from the historical past. The castle is the place of life of the rulers of the feudal era (and therefore historical figures of the past); traces of centuries and generations in the past have been deposited in it in visible form. various parts its structure, in the environment, in weapons, in specific human relations dynastic succession. This creates a specific plot of the castle, developed in Gothic novels.

Living room-salon. From the point of view of plot and composition, meetings take place here (not random), intrigues are created, denouements are often made, dialogues take place that acquire exceptional significance in the novel, the characters, “ideas” and “passions” of the heroes are revealed. Here is the interweaving of the historical and social-public with the private and even the purely private, alcove, the interweaving of private everyday intrigue with political and financial, state secrets with alcove secrets, the historical series with the everyday and biographical. Here the visually visible signs of both historical time and biographical and everyday time are condensed, condensed, and at the same time they are closely intertwined with each other, fused into single signs of the era. The era becomes visually visible and plot-visible.

Provincial town. It has several varieties, including a very important one - idyllic. Flaubert's version of the town is a place of cyclical domestic time. There are no events here, but only repeating “occurrences.” The same everyday actions, the same topics of conversation, the same words, etc. are repeated day after day. Time here is eventless and therefore seems almost stopped.

Threshold. This is a chronotope of crisis and life turning point. In Dostoevsky, for example, the threshold and the adjacent chronotopes of the staircase, hallway and corridor, as well as the chronotopes of the street and square that continue them, are the main places of action in his works, places where events of crises, falls, resurrections, renewals, insights, decisions take place that determine a person’s entire life. Time in this chronotope is, in essence, an instant, seemingly without duration and falling out of the normal flow of biographical time. These decisive moments are included in Dostoevsky’s large, comprehensive chronotopes of mystery and carnival time. These times coexist in a peculiar way, intersect and intertwine in Dostoevsky’s work, just as they throughout long centuries coexisted in the public squares of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (essentially the same, but in slightly different forms - and in the ancient squares of Greece and Rome). In Dostoevsky, on the streets and in crowd scenes inside houses (mainly in living rooms), the ancient carnival-mystery square seems to come to life and shine through. This, of course, does not exhaust Dostoevsky’s chronotopes: they are complex and diverse, as are the traditions renewed in them.

Unlike Dostoevsky, in the works of L. N. Tolstoy the main chronotope is biographical time, flowing in internal spaces noble houses and estates. The renewal of Pierre Bezukhov was also long-term and gradual, quite biographical. The word “suddenly” is rare in Tolstoy and never introduces any significant event. After biographical time and space, the chronotope of nature, the family-idyllic chronotope, and even the chronotope of the labor idyll (when depicting peasant labor) are of significant importance in Tolstoy.

The chronotope, as the primary materialization of time in space, is the center of pictorial concretization, embodiment for the entire novel. All abstract elements of the novel - philosophical and social generalizations, ideas, analyzes of causes and consequences, etc. - gravitate towards the chronotope and through it are filled with flesh and blood, and are attached to artistic imagery. This is the pictorial meaning of the chronotope.

The chronotopes we have considered are of a genre-typical nature; they underlie certain varieties of the novel genre, which has developed and developed over the centuries.

The principle of chronotopicity of an artistic and literary image was first clearly revealed by Lessing in his Laocoon. It establishes the temporary nature of the artistic and literary image. Everything statically-spatial should not be statically described, but should be involved in the time series of events depicted and the story-image itself. Thus, in the famous example of Lessing, the beauty of Helen is not described by Homer, but her effect on the Trojan elders is shown, and this effect is revealed in a number of movements and actions of the elders. Beauty is involved in the chain of events depicted and at the same time is not the subject of a static description, but the subject of a dynamic story.

There is a sharp and fundamental boundary between the real world depicted and the world depicted in the work. It is impossible to confuse, as was done and is still sometimes done, the depicted world with the depicting world (naive realism), the author - the creator of the work with the human author (naive biographism), recreating and updating the listener-reader of different (and many) eras with a passive listener-reader of his time (dogmatism of understanding and evaluation).

We can also say this: before us are two events - the event that is told in the work, and the event of the telling itself (in this latter we ourselves participate as listeners-readers); these events occur at different times (different in duration) and in different places, and at the same time they are inextricably united in a single, but complex event, which we can designate as a work in its eventful completeness, including here its external material given, and its text, and the world depicted in it, and the author-creator, and the listener-reader. At the same time, we perceive this completeness in its integrity and inseparability, but at the same time we understand all the differences in its constituent moments. The author-creator moves freely in his time; he can begin his story from the end, from the middle and from any moment of the events depicted, without destroying the objective passage of time in the depicted event. Here the difference between depicted and depicted time is clearly manifested.

10. Simple and detailed comparison (short and not essential).
COMPARISON A comparison is a figurative allegory that establishes similarities between two life phenomena. Comparison is an important figurative and expressive means of language. There are two images: the main one, which contains the main meaning of the statement and the auxiliary one, attached to the union “how” and others. Comparison is widely used in artistic speech. Reveals similarities, parallels, and correspondences between initial phenomena. Comparison reinforces various associations that arise in the writer. Comparison performs figurative and expressive functions or combines both. A form of comparison is the connection of its two members using the conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “like”, “as if”, etc. There is also a non-union comparison (“The samovar in iron armor // Makes noise like a household general...” N.A. Zabolotsky).

11. The concept of the literary process (I have some kind of heresy, but in response to this question you can blab out everything: from the origin of literature from mythology to trends and modern genres)
The literary process is the totality of all works appearing at that time.

Factors that limit it:

The presentation of literature within the literary process is influenced by the time when a particular book is published.

The literary process does not exist outside of magazines, newspapers, and other printed publications. ("Young guard", " New world" etc.)

The literary process is associated with criticism of published works. Oral criticism also has a significant impact on LP.

“Liberal terror” was the name given to criticism in the early 18th century. Literary associations are writers who consider themselves close on certain issues. They act as a certain group that conquers part of the literary process. Literature is, as it were, “divided” between them. They issue manifestos expressing the general sentiments of a particular group. Manifestos appear at the moment of formation literary group. For literature of the early 20th century. manifestos are uncharacteristic (the symbolists first created and then wrote manifestos). The manifesto allows you to look at the future activities of the group and immediately determine what makes it stand out. As a rule, the manifesto (in the classical version, anticipating the activities of the group) turns out to be paler than literary movement which he represents.

Literary process.

With the help of artistic speech in literary works, the speech activity of people is widely and specifically reproduced. A person in a verbal image acts as a “speaker”. This applies primarily to lyrical heroes, acting persons dramatic works and storytellers of epic works. Speech in fiction acts as the most important subject of depiction. Literature not only denotes life phenomena in words, but also reproduces speech activity. Using speech as the subject of the image, the writer overcomes the schematic nature of verbal pictures that are associated with their “immateriality.” Without speech, people's thinking cannot be fully realized. Therefore, literature is the only art that freely and widely masters human thought. Thinking processes are the focus of people's mental life, a form of intense action. In the ways and means of comprehending the emotional world, literature differs qualitatively from other forms of art. Literature uses a direct depiction of mental processes with the help of the author's characteristics and statements of the characters themselves. Literature as an art form has a kind of universality. With the help of speech, you can reproduce any aspect of reality; The visual possibilities of the verbal truly have no boundaries. Literature most fully embodies the cognitive beginning of artistic activity. Hegel called literature “universal art.” But the visual and educational possibilities of literature were realized especially widely in the 19th century, when the realistic method became leading in the art of Russia and Western European countries. Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy artistically reflected the life of their country and era with a degree of completeness that is inaccessible to any other form of art. Unique quality fiction is also its pronounced, open problematic nature. It is not surprising that it is in the sphere literary creativity, the most intellectual and problematic, directions in art are formed: classicism, sentimentalism, etc.

Time and space (chronotope) serve as constructive principles for organizing a literary work. Since the artistic world in a work is conditional, time and space in it are also conditional . In literature, the immateriality of images, discovered by Lessing, gives them, i.e. images, the right to move instantly from one space and time to another. In a work, the author can depict events occurring simultaneously in different places and at different times, with one caveat: “Meanwhile...” or “And on the other end of the city...”.

In Russia, the problems of formal “spatiality” in art, artistic time and artistic space and their monolithic nature in literature, as well as the forms of time, chronotope in the novel, individual images of space, the influence of rhythm on space and time, etc. were consistently dealt with by P.A. Florensky, M.M. Bakhtin, Yu.M. Lotman, V.N. Toporov, groups of scientists from Leningrad, Novosibirsk, etc.

Time in a work of art - the duration, sequence and correlation of its events, based on their cause-and-effect, linear or associative relationship. Time in the text has clearly defined or rather blurred boundaries, which may or, on the contrary, not be indicated in the work in relation to historical time or time conventionally established by the author.

A comparison of real time and artistic time reveals their differences. The topological properties of real time in the macroworld are one-dimensionality, continuity, irreversibility, orderliness. In artistic time, all these properties are transformed. It may be multidimensional. Two axes can appear in a text - the axis of storytelling and the axis of described events. This makes time shifts possible. Unidirectionality and irreversibility are also not characteristic of artistic time: the real sequence of events is often disrupted in the text. Therefore artistic time multidirectional And reversible . One of the techniques is retrospection, turning to events of the past. In relation to the time depicted in a literary work, researchers use the term discreteness , since literature turns out to be capable of not reproducing the entire flow of time, but selecting the most significant fragments from it, indicating gaps with verbal formulas, such as “Spring has come again...”, or as is done in one of the works of I.S. Turgenev: “Lavretsky spent the winter in Moscow, and in the spring of the next year the news reached him that Liza had cut her hair<…>" The selection of episodes is determined by the aesthetic intentions of the author, hence the possibility of compressing or expanding plot time.

The nature of the conventions of time and space depends from the type of literature. Their maximum manifestation is found in the lyrics , where the image of space can be completely absent (A.A. Akhmatova “You are my letter, dear, don’t crumple ...”), manifest allegorically through other images (A.S. Pushkin “Prophet”,
M.Yu. Lermontov’s “Sail”), opens up in specific spaces, realities surrounding the hero (for example, a typically Russian landscape in S.A. Yesenin’s poem “White Birch”), or is built in a certain way through oppositions that are significant not only for the romantic: civilization and nature, “crowd” and “I” (I.A. Brodsky “March is coming. I’m serving again...”). With the predominance of the grammatical present in the lyrics, which actively interacts with the future and past (A.A. Akhmatova “The Devil did not give it away. I succeeded in everything...”), the category of time can become philosophical leitmotif poems (F.I. Tyutchev “Rolling down the mountain, the stone lay in the valley ...”), is thought of as always existing (F.I. Tyutchev “Wave and Thought”) or momentary and instantaneous (I.F. Annensky “The Longing of Transience” ) – to possess abstractness .

Conventional forms of existence of the real world - time and space - tend to preserve some common properties in drama . Explaining the functioning of these forms in this type of literature, V.E. Khalizev, in a monograph on drama, comes to the conclusion: “No matter how significant the role narrative fragments acquire in dramatic works, no matter how fragmented the depicted action is, no matter how the characters’ spoken statements are subordinated to the logic of their inner speech, drama is committed to being closed in space and time paintings" (Khalizev, V.E. Drama as a kind of literature / V.E. Khalizev. - M., 1986. - P. 46.). IN epic In this type of literature, the fragmentation of time and space, their transitions from one state to another become possible thanks to the narrator - an intermediary between the life depicted and the readers. The narrator and storytellers can “compress”, “stretch” and “stop” time in numerous descriptions and discussions. Something similar happens in the works of I. Goncharov, N. Gogol,
G. Fielding.

In a work of art there are correlations different aspects artistic time: plot time and plot time, author’s time and subjective time of characters. It presents different manifestations (forms) of time - everyday and historical time, personal time and social time. The focus of the writer’s attention may be the image of time itself, associated with the motive of movement, development, formation, with the opposition of the passing and the eternal.

Literary works are permeated with temporal and spatial ideas, infinitely diverse and deeply significant. There are images of time here biographical (childhood, youth, maturity, old age), historical (major events in the life of society), space (idea of ​​eternity and universal history), calendar (change of seasons, everyday life and holidays), daily allowance (day and night, morning and evening), as well as the idea of ​​movement and stillness, the relationship between past, present and future.

In a literary text, time is not only event-based, but also conceptual: the flow of time as a whole and its individual segments are divided, evaluated, and comprehended by the author, narrator, or characters.

The conceptualization of time is manifested:

1) in the assessments and comments of the narrator or character;

2) in the use of tropes that characterize different signs of time;

3) in the subjective perception and division of the time flow in accordance with the starting point adopted in the narrative;

4) in the contrast of different time plans and aspects of time in the structure of the text.

Art space a text is a spatial organization of its events, a system of spatial images inextricably linked with the temporal organization of the work.

The space modeled in the text can be open And closed . For example, the contrast between these two types of space in the poem by A.S. Pushkin's "Prisoner". Space can be represented in text as expanding or tapering in relation to the character.

According to the degree of generalization of spatial characteristics, there are specific space and space abstract (not related to specific local indicators). Abstract is an artistic space that can be perceived as universal, without any pronounced specificity. This form of recreation of universal content, extended to the entire “human race”, manifests itself in the genres of parables, fables, fairy tales, as well as in works of utopian or fantastic perception of the world and special genre modifications– dystopias. Thus, it does not have a significant impact on the characters and behavior of the characters, on the essence of the conflict; the space in the ballads of V. Zhukovsky, F. Schiller, the short stories of E. Poe, and the literature of modernism is not subject to the author’s comprehension.

The specific artistic space in a work actively influences the essence of what is depicted. In particular, Moscow in the comedy by A.S. Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”, Zamoskvorechye in dramas by A.N. Ostrovsky and novels by I.S. Shmeleva, Paris in the works of O. de Balzac are artistic images, since they are not only toponyms and urban realities depicted in the works. Here they are a specific artistic space that develops a common psychological picture Moscow nobility; recreating Christian world order; revealing different sides life inhabitants of European cities; definite way of life existence - a way of being. Sensibly perceived (A.A. Potebnya) space acts as “noble nests” style sign novels by I. Turgenev, generalized ideas about a provincial Russian city are developed in the prose of A. Chekhov. Symbolization space, emphasized by a fictitious toponym, preserved the national and historical component in prose
M. Saltykova-Shchedrin (“The History of a City”), A. Platonova (“City of Grads”).

Analysis of spatial relationships in a work of art assumes:

2) identifying the nature of these positions (dynamic - static) in their connection from a time point of view;

3) determination of the main spatial characteristics of the work (location and its changes, movement of the character, type of space, etc.);

4) consideration of the main spatial images of the work;

5) characteristic speech means, expressing spatial relationships.

Awareness of the relationship between space and time made it possible to identify the category of chronotope (M. Bakhtin), reflecting their unity. In the monograph “Questions of Literature and Aesthetics,” M. Bakhtin wrote the following about the synthesis of space and time: “In the literary and artistic chronotope, there is a merging of spatial and temporal signs into a meaningful and concrete whole. Time here thickens, becomes denser, becomes artistically visible; space is intensified, drawn into the movement of time, plot, history. Examples of time are revealed in space, and space is conceptualized and measured by time. This intersection of rows and fusions of signs characterizes the artistic chronotope.<…>Chronotope as a formal and meaningful category determines (to a large extent) the image of a person in literature; this image is always essentially chronotopic.”

Let us consider the ways of expressing spatial relationships in I. Bunin’s story “Easy Breathing” (the experience of consideration by N.A. Nikolina).

In the structure of the narrative, three main spatial points of view are distinguished - the narrator, Olya Meshcherskaya and the class lady. All points of view in the text are brought closer to each other by repetition of lexemes cold, fresh and derivatives from them. Their correlation creates an oxymoronic image of life and death. The alternation of heterogeneous time periods is reflected in changes in spatial characteristics and a change in the scene of action.

Cemetery – gymnasium garden – cathedral street– boss’s office – station – garden – glass veranda – Cathedral Street – Cemetery – Gymnasium Garden . Repetitions organize the beginning and end of the work and form a circular composition of the plot. At the same time, the elements of this series enter into antonymic relationships. First of all, open space and closed space are contrasted. Spatial images are also contrasted with each other: a grave, a cross on it, a cemetery (they develop the motive of death) - the spring wind (an image traditionally associated with the motives of will, life, open space).

Bunin uses the technique of comparing narrowing and expanding spaces. Tragic events in the life of the heroine are connected with the space narrowing around her (see, for example: ... a Cossack officer, ugly and plebeian in appearance... shot her on the station platform, among a large crowd of people...). The cross-cutting images of the story that dominate the text - images of wind and light breathing - are associated with an expanding (in the finale to infinity) space ( now this easy breath scattered again in the world, in this cloudy world, in this cold spring wind).

Artistic image

Artistic image- this is the main one in artistic creativity way perception and reflection of reality, a form of knowledge of life and expression of this knowledge specific to art.

Artistic image is not only an image of a person (the image of Tatyana Larina, Andrei Bolkonsky, Raskolnikov, etc.) - it is a picture of human life, in the center of which stands special person, but which includes everything that surrounds him in life. Thus, in a work of art a person is depicted in relationships with other people. Therefore, here we can talk not about one image, but about many images.

Any image is an inner world that has come into the focus of consciousness. Outside of images there is no reflection of reality, no imagination, no knowledge, no creativity. The image can take sensual and rational forms. The image can be based on a person’s fiction, or it can be factual. Artistic image objectified in the form of both the whole and its individual parts.

Artistic image can expressively influence feelings and mind.

It provides the maximum capacity of content, is capable of expressing the infinite through the finite, it is reproduced and evaluated as a kind of whole, even if created with the help of several details. The image may be sketchy, unspoken.

Imaging Tools

1. Epigraph to a literary work may indicate the main character trait of the hero.

3. Hero's Speech. Inner monologues, dialogues with other characters in the work characterize the character, reveal his inclinations and preferences.

4. Actions, the actions of the hero.

5. Psychological analysis of the character: detailed, detailed recreation of feelings, thoughts, motives - the inner world of the character; here the depiction of the “dialectics of the soul” (the movement of the hero’s inner life) is of particular importance.

6. The character's relationships with other characters in the work.

7. Portrait of a hero. Image appearance hero: his face, figure, clothes, behavior.

Portrait types:

• naturalistic (portrait copied from a real person);
• psychological (through the hero’s appearance, the hero’s inner world and character are revealed);
• idealizing or grotesque (spectacular and bright, replete with metaphors, comparisons, epithets).

8. Social environment, society.

9. Scenery helps to better understand the thoughts and feelings of the character.

10. Artistic detail: description of objects and phenomena of the reality surrounding the character (details that reflect a broad generalization can act as symbolic details).

11. The background of the hero's life.

Art space

Image of space

“House” is an image of a closed space.

“Space” is an image of open space, “peace”.

“Threshold” is the boundary between “home” and “space”.

Space - a constructive category in the literary reflection of reality, serves to depict the background of events. May appear in a variety of ways, be stated or undesignated, detailed or implied, limited to a single location or presented over a wide range of scope and relationships between the identified parts.

Art space (real, conditional, compressed, volumetric, limited, boundless, closed, open,

Artistic time

These are the most important characteristics of an artistic image, providing a holistic perception of reality and organizing the composition of the work. An artistic image, formally unfolding in time (like a sequence of text), with its content and development reproduces the spatio-temporal picture of the world.

Time in a literary work. A constructive category in a literary work that can be discussed from different points of view and appear with varying degrees of importance. The category of time is associated with literary kind. Lyrics, which supposedly present an actual experience, and drama, which plays out before the eyes of the audience, showing the incident at the moment of its occurrence, usually use the present tense, while the epic is mainly a story about what has passed, and therefore in the past tense. The time depicted in a work has boundaries of extension, which can be more or less defined (cover a day, a year, several years, centuries) and designated or not designated in relation to historical time (in fantastic works, the chronological aspect of the image may be completely indifferent or the action takes place in the future). In epic works, there is a distinction between the time of the narration, associated with the situation and the personality of the narrator, as well as the time of the plot, i.e., the period closed between the earliest and the latest incident, generally related to the time of reality shown in literary reflection.

Artistic time: correlated with the historical, not correlated with the historical, mythological, utopian, historical, “idyllic” (time in the father’s house, “good” times, time “before” (events) and, sometimes, “after”); “adventurous” (trials outside one’s home and in a foreign land, a time of active actions and fateful events, tense and eventful / N. Leskov “The Enchanted Wanderer”); “mysterious” (the time of dramatic experiences and the most important decisions in human life / the time spent by the Master in the hospital - Bulgakov’s “The Master and Margarita”).

Poetics of artistic time

(excerpt from an article by D.S. Likhachev)

X artistic time is ... time that is reproduced and depicted in a work of art. It is the study of this artistic time that has highest value to understand the aesthetic nature of verbal art.

Artistic time is a phenomenon of the very artistic fabric of a work, subordinating both grammatical time and its philosophical understanding by the writer to its artistic tasks.

Artistic time, unlike objectively given time, uses the diversity of subjective perception of time. A person’s sense of time is known to be extremely subjective. It can “stretch” and it can “run”. A moment can “stand still”, and a long period “flash by”. A work of art makes this subjective perception of time one of the forms of depicting reality. However, objective time is also used at the same time.

(...) Time in fiction is perceived through the connection of events - cause-and-effect or psychological, associative. Time in a work of art is not so much calendar references as the correlation of events. Events in a plot precede and follow each other, are arranged in a complex series, and thanks to this, the reader is able to notice time in a work of art, even if nothing is specifically said about time. Where there are no events, there is no time.

1) “fail to keep up” with rapidly changing events;

2) calmly contemplate them.

The author can even stop it for a while, “turn it off” from the work (philosophical digressions in “War and Peace”). These reflections take the reader into another world, from where the reader looks at events from the heights of philosophical thoughts (in Tolstoy) or from the heights eternal nature(from Turgenev). The events in these digressions seem small to the reader, the people seem like pygmies. But now the action continues, and people and their affairs again acquire normal size, and time picks up its normal pace.

The entire work can have several forms of time, develop at a pace, be thrown from one flow of time to another, forward and backward. The grammatical tense and the tense of a verbal work can diverge significantly. All details of the narrative have the function of time.