Artistic time represents unity private And general.“As a manifestation of the private, it has the features of individual time and is characterized by a beginning and an end. As a reflection of the limitless world, it is characterized by infinity; temporary flow". As a unity of discrete and continuous, finite and infinite, and can act. a separate temporary situation in a literary text: “There are seconds, five or six of them pass at a time, and you suddenly feel the presence eternal harmony, completely achieved... It’s as if you suddenly feel all of nature and suddenly say: yes, this is true.” The plan is timeless in literary text is created through the use of repetitions, maxims and aphorisms, various kinds reminiscences, symbols and other tropes. In this regard, artistic time can be considered as a complementary phenomenon, to the analysis of which N. Bohr’s principle of complementarity is applicable (opposite means cannot be combined synchronously; to obtain a holistic view, two “experiences” separated in time are needed). The antinomy “finite - infinite” is resolved in a literary text as a result of the use of conjugate, but spaced apart in time and therefore ambiguous means, for example, symbols.

Fundamentally significant for the organization of a work of art are such characteristics of artistic time as duration / brevity the event depicted, homogeneity / heterogeneity situations, the connection of time with subject-event content (its full/unfilled,"emptiness"). According to these parameters, both works and fragments of text in them, forming certain time blocks, can be contrasted.

Artistic time is based on a certain system of linguistic means. This is, first of all, a system of tense forms of the verb, their sequence and opposition, transposition (figurative use) of tense forms, lexical units with temporal semantics, case forms with the meaning of time, chronological marks, syntactic constructions that create a certain time plan (for example, nominative sentences represent in the text there is a plan of the present), names of historical figures, mythological heroes, nominations historical events.

Of particular importance for artistic time is the functioning of verb forms; the predominance of statics or dynamics in the text, the acceleration or slowdown of time, their sequence determines the transition from one situation to another, and, consequently, the movement of time. Compare, for example, the following fragments of E. Zamyatin’s story “Mamai”: Mamai wandered lostly through the unfamiliar Zagorodny. The penguin wings were in the way; his head hung like the faucet of a broken samovar...

And suddenly his head jerked up, his legs began to prance like a twenty-five-year-old...

Forms of time act as signals of various subjective spheres in the structure of the narrative, cf., for example:

Gleb lying on the sand, resting my head in my hands, it was a quiet, sunny morning. He wasn't working on his mezzanine today. It's all over. Tomorrow are leaving, Ellie fits, everything is re-drilled. Helsingfors again...

(B. Zaitsev. Gleb’s Journey )

The functions of types of tense forms in a literary text are largely typified. As noted by V.V. Vinogradov, narrative (“event”) time is determined primarily by the relationship between the dynamic forms of the past tense of the perfect form and the forms of the past imperfect, acting in a procedural-long-term or qualitative-characterizing meaning. The latter forms are correspondingly assigned to the descriptions.

The time of the text as a whole is determined by the interaction of three temporal “axes”:

1) calendar time, displayed predominantly by lexical units with the seme “time” and dates;

2) event-based time, organized by the connection of all predicates of the text (primarily verbal forms);

3) perceptual time, expressing the position of the narrator and the character (in this case, different lexical and grammatical means and temporal shifts are used).

Artistic and grammatical tenses are closely related, but they should not be equated. “Grammatical tense and the tense of a verbal work can diverge significantly. The time of action and the author's and reader's time are created by a combination of many factors: among them, grammatical time is only partly... ".

Artistic time is created by all elements of the text, while the means expressing temporal relations interact with the means expressing spatial relations. Let's limit ourselves to one example: for example, change of designs C; predicates of motion (we left the city, drove into the forest, arrived in Nizhneye Gorodishche, drove up to the river etc.) in the story of A.P. Chekhov ) “On the way,” on the one hand, determines the time sequence of situations and forms story time text, on the other hand, reflects the character’s movement in space and participates in the creation of artistic space. To create an image of time, spatial metaphors are regularly used in literary texts.

The oldest works are characterized mythological time a sign of which is the idea of ​​cyclical reincarnations, “world periods”. Mythological time, not in the opinion of K. Levi-Strauss, can be defined as the unity of such characteristics as reversibility-irreversibility, synchronicity-diachronicity. The present and the future in mythological time appear only as different temporal hypostases of the past, which is an invariant structure. The cyclical structure of mythological time turned out to be significantly significant for the development of art in different eras. “The exceptionally powerful orientation of mythological thinking towards establishing homo- and isomorphisms, on the one hand, made it scientifically fruitful, and on the other, determined its periodic revival in various historical eras.” The idea of ​​time as a change of cycles, “eternal repetition”, is present in a number of neo-mythological works of the 20th century. So, according to V.V. Ivanov, this concept is close to the image of time in the poetry of V. Khlebnikov, “who deeply felt the ways of science of his time.”

In medieval culture, time was viewed primarily as a reflection of eternity, while the idea of ​​it was predominantly of an eschatological nature: time begins with the act of creation and ends with the “second coming.” The main direction of time becomes orientation towards the future - the future exodus from time into eternity, while the metrization of time itself changes and the role of the present, the dimension of which is connected with the spiritual life of a person, significantly increases: “... for the present of past objects we have memory or memories; for the present of real objects we have a look, an outlook, an intuition; for the present of future objects we have aspiration, hope, hope,” wrote Augustine. Thus, in ancient Russian literature, time, as D.S. notes. Likhachev, not as egocentric as in the literature of modern times. It is characterized by isolation, one-pointedness, strict adherence to the real sequence of events, and a constant appeal to the eternal: “Medieval literature strives for the timeless, for overcoming time in the depiction of the highest manifestations of existence - the divine establishment of the universe.” The achievements of ancient Russian literature in recreating events “from the perspective of eternity” in a transformed form were used by writers subsequent generations, in particular F.M. Dostoevsky, for whom “the temporary was... a form of realization of the eternal.” Let us limit ourselves to one example - the dialogue between Stavrogin and Kirillov in the novel “Demons”:

There are minutes, you get to minutes, and time suddenly stops and will be forever.

Are you hoping to get to that point?

“This is hardly possible in our time,” Nikolai Vsevolodovich responded, also without any irony, slowly and as if thoughtfully. - In the Apocalypse, the angel swears that there will be no more time.

I know. This is very true there; clearly and accurately. When the whole person achieves happiness, there will be no more time, because there is no need.

Since the Renaissance, the evolutionary theory of time has been affirmed in culture and science: spatial events become the basis for the movement of time. Time, thus, is understood as eternity, not opposed to time, but moving and being realized in every instantaneous situation. This is reflected in the literature of modern times, which boldly violates the principle of irreversibility of real time. Finally, the 20th century is a period of particularly bold experimentation with artistic time. The ironic judgment of Zh.P. is indicative. Sartre: “...most of the largest modern writers - Proust, Joyce... Faulkner, Gide, W. Wolf - each in their own way tried to cripple time. Some of them deprived him of his past and future in order to reduce him to the pure intuition of the moment... Proust and Faulkner simply simply “decapitated” him, depriving him of the future, that is, the dimension of action and freedom.”

Consideration of artistic time in its development shows that its evolution (reversibility > irreversibility > reversibility) is a forward movement in which each higher stage negates, removes its lower (preceding) one, contains its richness and again removes itself in the next , third, stage.

Features of modeling artistic time are taken into account when determining the constitutive characteristics of the genus, genre, and movement in literature. So, according to A.A. Potebni, "lyrics" - praesens","epic - perfectum" ; the principle of recreating times - can distinguish between genres: aphorisms and maxims, for example, are characterized by a constant present; Reversible artistic time is inherent in memoirs and autobiographical works. The literary direction is also associated with a specific concept of the development of time and the principles of its transmission, while, for example, the measure of adequacy of real time is different. Thus, symbolism is characterized by the implementation of the idea of ​​​​eternal movement-becoming: the world develops according to the laws of the “triad (the unity of the world spirit with the Soul of the world - the rejection of the Soul of the world from unity - the defeat of Chaos).

At the same time, the principles of mastering artistic time are individual, this is a feature of the artist’s idiostyle (thus, artistic time in the novels of L.N. Tolstoy, for example, differs significantly from the model of time in the works of F.M. Dostoevsky).

Taking into account the peculiarities of the embodiment of time in a literary text, considering the concept of time in it and, more broadly, in the writer’s work is necessary component analysis of the work; underestimation of this aspect, absolutization of one of the particular manifestations of artistic time, identification of its properties without taking into account both objective real time and subjective time can lead to erroneous interpretations of the artistic text, making the analysis incomplete and schematic.

The analysis of artistic time includes the following main points:

1) determination of the features of artistic time in the work in question:

Unidimensionality or multidimensionality;

Reversibility or irreversibility;

Linearity or violation of time sequence;

2) highlighting the temporal plans (planes) presented in the work in the temporal structure of the text and considering their interaction;

4) identifying signals that highlight these forms of time;

5) consideration of the entire system of time indicators in the text, identifying not only their direct ones, but also figurative meanings;

6) determining the relationship between historical and everyday time, biographical and historical;

7) establishing a connection between artistic time and space.

Let us turn to the consideration of individual aspects of the artistic time of the text based on the material of specific works (“The Past and Thoughts” by A. I. Herzen and the story of I. A. Bunin “ Cold autumn»).

“The Past and Thoughts” by A. I. Herzen: features of temporary organization

In a literary text, a moving, often changeable and multidimensional time perspective arises; the sequence of events in it may not correspond to their real chronology. The author of the work, in accordance with his aesthetic intentions, sometimes expands, sometimes “thickens” time, sometimes slows it down; it speeds up.

A work of art correlates different aspect of artistic time: plot time (the temporal extent of the depicted actions and their reflection in the composition of the work) and plot time (their real sequence), author's time and subjective time of the characters. It presents different manifestations(forms) of time (everyday historical time, personal time and social time). The center of attention of a writer or poet can be himself image of time, associated with the motive of movement, development, formation, with the opposition of the transitory and the eternal.

Of particular interest is the analysis of the temporal organization of works in which different time plans are consistently correlated, a broad panorama of the era is given, and a certain philosophy of history is embodied. Such works include the memoir-autobiographical epic “The Past and Thoughts” (1852 - 1868). This is not only the pinnacle of A.I.’s creativity. Herzen, but also a work of “new form” (as defined by L.N. Tolstoy) It combines elements of different genres (autobiography, confession, notes, historical chronicles), combines different forms of presentation and compositional and semantic types of speech, “gravestone and confession, past and thoughts, biography, speculation, events and thoughts, heard and seen, memories and... more memories” (A.I. Herzen). “The best... of the books devoted to a review of one’s own life” (Yu.K. Olesha), “The Past and Thoughts” is the history of the formation of a Russian revolutionary and at the same time the history of social thought of the 30-60s of the 19th century. “There is hardly another work of memoirs so imbued with conscious historicism.”

This is a work characterized by a complex and dynamic temporal organization, involving the interaction of various time plans. Its principles are defined by the author himself, who noted that his work is “and a confession around which, about which, here and there, captured memories from the past, here and there, stopped thoughts and other m" (highlighted by A.I. Herzen. - N.N.). This author’s characteristic, which opens the work, contains an indication of the basic principles of the temporal organization of the text: this is an orientation towards the subjective segmentation of one’s past, the free juxtaposition of different time plans, the constant switching of time registers; The author’s “thoughts” are combined with a retrospective, but devoid of strict chronological sequence, story about the events of the past, and include characteristics of persons, events and facts from different historical eras. The narration of the past is supplemented by stage reproduction of individual situations; the story about the “past” is interrupted by fragments of text that reflect the immediate position of the narrator at the moment of speech or the reconstructed period of time.

This construction of the work “clearly reflected the methodological principle of “The Past and Thoughts”: the constant interaction of the general and the particular, the transitions from the author’s direct reflections to their substantive illustration and back.”

Artistic time in “Bygone...” reversible(the author resurrects past events), multidimensional(the action unfolds in different time planes) and nonlinear(the story about past events is disrupted by self-interruptions, reasoning, comments, assessments). The starting point that determines the change of time plans in the text is mobile and constantly moving.

The plot time of the work is time first of all biographical, The “past”, reconstructed inconsistently, reflects the main stages in the development of the author’s personality.

At the heart of biographical time is the end-to-end image of a path (road), in symbolic form embodying the life path of the narrator, seeking true knowledge and going through a series of tests. This traditional spatial image is realized in a system of expanded metaphors and comparisons, regularly repeated in the text and forming a cross-cutting motif of movement, overcoming oneself, and passing through a series of steps: The path we chose was not easy, we never left it; wounded, broken, we walked, and no one overtook us. I reached... not to the goal, but to the place where the road goes downhill...; ...the June of coming of age, with its painful work, with its rubble on the road, takes a person by surprise.; Like lost knights in fairy tales, we waited at a crossroads. You'll go right- you will lose your horse, but you yourself will be safe; if you go to the left, the horse will be intact, but you yourself will die; if you go forward, everyone will leave you; If you go back, this is no longer possible, the road there is overgrown with grass for us.

These tropical series developing in the text act as a constructive component of the biographical time of the work and form its figurative basis.

Reproducing past events, evaluating them ("Past- not a proof sheet... Not everything can be corrected. It remains as if cast in metal, detailed, unchanging, dark as bronze. People generally forget only what is not worth remembering or what they do not understand") and refracting through his subsequent experience, A.I. Herzen makes maximum use of the expressive capabilities of the tense forms of the verb.

The situations and facts depicted in the past are assessed by the author in different ways: some of them are described extremely briefly, while others (the most important for the author in an emotional, aesthetic or ideological sense), on the contrary, are highlighted “ close-up“, time “stops” or slows down. To achieve this aesthetic effect, imperfective past tense forms or present tense forms are used. If the forms of the past perfect express a chain of successively changing actions, then the forms of the imperfect form convey not the dynamics of the event, but the dynamics of the action itself, presenting it as an unfolding process. Performing in a literary text not only a “reproducing”, but also a “visually pictorial”, “descriptive” function, the forms of the past imperfect stop time. In the text of “Past and Thoughts” they are used as a means of highlighting in “close-up” situations or events that are especially significant for the author (the oath on Vorobyovy Mountain, the death of his father, a meeting with Natalie, leaving Russia, a meeting in Turin, the death of his wife). The choice of forms of the past imperfect as a sign of a certain author’s attitude towards the depicted performs in this case an emotional and expressive function. Wed, for example: The nurse in a sundress and a shower jacket is still watched follow us and cried; Sonnenberg, that funny figure from childhood, waved foulard- All around is an endless steppe of snow.

This function of the forms of the past imperfect is typical of artistic speech; it is associated with the special meaning of the imperfect form, which presupposes the obligatory presence of a moment of observation, a retrospective point of reference. A.I. Herzen also uses the expressive possibilities of the past imperfect form with the meaning of multiple or habitually repeated action: they serve for typification, generalization of empirical details and situations. Thus, to characterize life in his father’s house, Herzen uses the technique of describing one day - a description based on the consistent use of imperfective forms. “Past and Thoughts” is thus characterized by a constant change in the perspective of the image: isolated facts and situations, highlighted in close-up, are combined with the reproduction of long-term processes, periodically repeating phenomena. Interesting in this regard is the portrait of the Chaadaevs, built on the transition from the author’s specific personal observations to a typical characteristic:

I loved to look at him in the midst of this tinsel nobility, flighty senators, gray-haired rakes and honorable nonentities. No matter how dense the crowd, the eye found him immediately; summer did not distort his slender figure, he dressed very carefully, his pale, tender face was completely motionless, when he was silent, as if made of wax or marble, “a forehead like a naked skull”... For ten years he stood with folded arms , somewhere near a column, near a tree on the boulevard, in halls and theaters, in a club and - the embodiment of veto, he looked with lively protest at the whirlwind of faces spinning meaninglessly around him...

The forms of the present tense against the background of the forms of the past can also perform the function of slowing down time, the function of highlighting events and phenomena of the past in close-up, but they, unlike the forms of the past imperfect in the “picturesque” function, recreate, first of all, the immediate time of the author’s experience associated with the moment of lyrical concentrations, or (less often) convey predominantly typical situations, repeatedly repeated in the past and now reconstructed by memory as imaginary:

The peace of the oak forest and the noise of the oak forest, the continuous buzzing of flies, bees, bumblebees... and the smell... this grass-forest smell... which I so greedily sought in Italy, and in England, and in the spring, and in the hot summer, and almost never found it. Sometimes it seems to smell like him, after mown hay, in broad daylight, before a thunderstorm... and I remember a small place in front of the house... on the grass, a three-year-old boy, lying in clover and dandelions, between grasshoppers, all sorts of beetles and ladybugs, and ourselves, and youth, and friends! The sun has set, it’s still very warm, we don’t want to go home, we’re sitting on the grass. The catcher picks mushrooms and scolds me for no reason. What is this, like a bell? to us, or what? Today is Saturday - maybe... The troika rolls through the village, knocking on the bridge.

The forms of the present tense in “The Past...” are associated primarily with the subjective psychological time the author, his emotional sphere, their use complicates the image of time. The reconstruction of events and facts of the past, again directly experienced by the author, is associated with the use of nominative sentences, and in some cases with the use of forms of the past perfect in the perfect meaning. The chain of forms of the historical present and nominatives not only brings the events of the past as close as possible, but also conveys a subjective sense of time and recreates its rhythm:

My heart was beating strongly when I again saw familiar, dear streets, places, houses that I had not seen for about four years... Kuznetsky Most, Tverskoy Boulevard... here is Ogarev’s house, they stuck some kind of huge coat of arms on him, it’s someone else’s already... here Povarskaya - the spirit is busy: on the mezzanine, in the corner window, a candle is burning, this is her room, she writes to me, she is thinking about me, the candle burns so cheerfully, so to me burns .

Thus, the biographical plot time of the work is uneven and discontinuous, it is characterized by a deep but moving perspective; recreation of real biographical facts combined with transmission various aspects subjective awareness and measurement of time by the author.

Artistic and grammatical time, as already noted, are closely related, however, “grammar appears as a piece of smalt in the overall mosaic picture of a verbal work.” Artistic time is created by all elements of the text.

Lyrical expression and attention to the “moment” are combined in the prose of A.I. Herzen with constant typification, with a social-analytical approach to what is depicted. Considering that “it is more necessary here than anywhere else to take off masks and portraits,” since “we are terribly falling apart from what has just passed,” the author combines; “thoughts” in the present and a story about the “past” with portraits of contemporaries, while restoring the missing links in the image of the era: “the universal without personality is an empty distraction; but a person only has full reality to the extent that he is in society.”

Portraits of contemporaries in “The Past and Thoughts” are conditionally possible; divided into static and dynamic. Thus, in Chapter III of the first volume a portrait of Nicholas I is presented, it is static and emphatically evaluative, speech means, participating in its creation, contain a common semantic feature “cold”: a cropped and shaggy jellyfish with a mustache; His beauty filled him with cold... But the main thing was his eyes, without any warmth, without any mercy, winter eyes.

Otherwise it will be built portrait characteristic Ogarev in Chapter IV of the same volume. A description of his appearance is followed by an introduction; elements of prospection related to the hero’s future. “If a pictorial portrait is always a moment stopped in time, then a verbal portrait characterizes a person in his “actions and deeds” relating to different “moments” of his biography.” Creating a portrait of N. Ogarev in adolescence, A.I. Herzen, at the same time, names the traits of the hero in maturity: Early on one could see in him that anointing that not many people receive,- for bad luck or for good luck... but probably so as not to be in the crowd... unaccountable sadness and extreme meekness shone through the large gray eyes, hinting at the future growth of the great spirit; That's how he grew up.

The combination of different time points of view in portraits when describing and characterizing the characters deepens the moving time perspective of the work.

The multiplicity of time points of view presented in the structure of the text is increased by the inclusion of fragments of the diary, letters of other characters, excerpts from literary works, in particular from the poems of N. Ogarev. These elements of the text are correlated with the author's narrative or author's descriptions and are often contrasted with them as genuine, objective - subjective, transformed by time. See for example: The truth of that time, as it was then understood, without the artificial perspective that distance gives, without the cooling of time, without the corrected illumination by rays passing through a series of other events, was preserved in the notebook of that time.

The biographical time of the author is supplemented in the work with elements of the biographical time of other heroes, while A.I. Herzen resorts to extensive comparisons and metaphors that recreate the passage of time: The years of her life abroad passed luxuriantly and noisily, but they went and plucked flower after flower... Like a tree in the middle of winter, she retained the linear outline of her branches, the leaves flew around, the bare branches chilled bonyly, but the majestic growth and bold dimensions were seen all the more clearly. The image of a clock is repeatedly used in “The Past...”, embodying the inexorable power of time: The large English table clock, with its measured*, loud spondee - tick-tock - tick-tock - tick-tock... seemed to be measuring out the last quarter of an hour of her life...; And the spondee of the English clock continued to measure days, hours, minutes... and finally reached the fateful second.

The image of fleeting time in “The Past and Thoughts,” as we see, is associated with an orientation towards the traditional, often general linguistic type of comparisons and metaphors, which, repeated in the text, undergo transformations and affect the surrounding elements of the context; as a result, the stability of tropical characteristics is combined with their constant update.

Thus, biographical time in “Past and Thoughts” consists of plot time, based on the sequence of events of the author’s past, and elements of the biographical time of other characters, while the subjective perception of time by the narrator, his evaluative attitude to the reconstructed facts are constantly emphasized. “The author is like an editor in cinematography”: he either speeds up the time of the work, then stops it, does not always correlate the events of his life with chronology, emphasizes, on the one hand, the fluidity of time, on the other hand, the duration of individual episodes resurrected by memory.

Biographical time, despite the complex perspective inherent in it, is interpreted in the work of A. Herzen as private time, presupposing subjectivity of measurement, closed, having a beginning and an end (“Everything personal quickly crumbles away... Let “The Past and Thoughts” settle accounts with personal life and be its table of contents”). It is included in the broad flow of time associated with the historical era reflected in the work. Thus, closed biographical time contrasted open historical time. This opposition is reflected in the features of the composition of “The Past and Thoughts”: “in the sixth and seventh parts there is no longer lyrical hero; In general, the personal, “private” fate of the author remains outside the boundaries of what is depicted,” and “thoughts” appearing in a monologue or dialogized form become the dominant element of the author’s speech. One of the leading grammatical forms organizing these contexts is the present tense. If the plot biographical time of “The Past and Thoughts” is characterized by the use of the actual present (“the author’s current ... the result of moving the “observation point” to one of the moments of the past, the plot action”) or the historical present, then for “thoughts” and the author’s digressions, constituting the main layer of historical time, characterized by the present in an expanded or constant meaning, acting in interaction with the forms of the past tense, as well as the present of direct author’s speech: The nationality, like a banner, like a battle cry, is only surrounded by a revolutionary aura when the people fight for independence, when they overthrow the foreign yoke... The War of 1812 greatly developed a sense of popular consciousness and love for the homeland, but the patriotism of 1812 did not have the Old Believer-Slavic character. We see him in Karamzin and Pushkin...

““The past and thoughts,” wrote A.I. Herzen, is not a historical monograph, but a reflection of history in a person, accidentally caught on her way."

The life of an individual in “Bydrm and Thoughts” is perceived in connection with a certain historical situation and is motivated by it. A metaphorical image of the background appears in the text, which is then concretized, acquiring perspective and dynamics: A thousand times I wanted to convey a series of unique figures, sharp portraits taken from life... There is nothing gregarious in them... one common connection between them, or, better, one general unhappiness; Peering into the dark gray background, you can see soldiers under sticks, serfs under rods... wagons rushing to Siberia, convicts trudged there, shaved foreheads, branded faces, helmets, epaulettes, sultans... in a word, St. Petersburg Russia.. They want to run from the canvas and cannot.

If the biographical time of a work is characterized by a spatial image of a road, then to represent historical time, in addition to the image of the background, images of the sea (ocean) and elements are regularly used:

Impressive, sincerely young, we were easily caught up in a powerful wave... and early we swam across that line at which whole rows of people stop, fold their arms, walk back or look around for a ford - across the sea!

In history, it is easier for him [man] to be passionately carried away by the flow of events... than to peer into the ebb and flow of the waves that carry him. A man... grows by understanding his position into a helmsman who proudly cuts through the waves with his boat, forcing the bottomless abyss to serve him through communication.

Characterizing the role of the individual in the historical process, A.I. Herzen resorts to a number of metaphorical correspondences that are inextricably linked with each other: a person in history is “at once a boat, a wave and a helmsman,” while everything that exists is connected by “ends and beginnings, causes and actions.” A person’s aspirations “are clothed in words, embodied in images, remain in tradition and are passed on from century to century.” This understanding of the place of man in the historical process led to the author’s appeal to the universal language of culture, the search for certain “formulas” to explain the problems of history and, more broadly, of existence, to classify particular phenomena and situations. Such “formulas” in the text of “Past and Thoughts” are a special type of tropes, characteristic of the style of A.I. Herzen. These are metaphors, comparisons, periphrases, which include the names of historical figures, literary heroes, mythological characters, names of historical events, words denoting historical and cultural concepts. These “point quotes” appear in the text as metonymic replacements for entire situations and plots. The paths of which they are included serve to figuratively characterize phenomena of which Herzen was a contemporary, persons and events of other historical eras. See for example: Student young ladies- Jacobins, Saint-Just in the Amazon - everything is sharp, pure, merciless...;[Moscow] with murmuring and contempt she received into her walls a woman stained with the blood of her husband[Catherine II], this Lady Macbeth without repentance, this Lucretia Borgia without Italian blood...

Phenomena of history and modernity, empirical facts and myths, real persons and literary images are compared, as a result the situations described in the work receive a second plan: through the particular the general appears, through the individual - the repeating, through the transitory - the eternal.

The relationship in the structure of the work of two time layers: private time, biographical time and historical time - leads to a complication of the subjective organization of the text. Copyright I alternates sequentially with We, which in different contexts acquires different meaning: it points either to the author, or to persons close to him, and then, with the increasing role of historical time, it serves as a means of pointing to the entire generation, a national collective, or even, more broadly, to the human race as a whole:

Our historical vocation, our deed lies in this: through our disappointment, through our suffering, we reach the point of humility and submission before the truth and deliver the next generations from these sorrows...

Unity is established in the connection between generations human race, the history of which seems to the author to be a tireless striving forward, a path that has no end, but presupposes, however, the repetition of certain motives. The same repetitions of A.I. Herzen also finds in human life, the course of which, from his point of view, has a peculiar rhythm:

Yes, in life there is an addiction to the returning rhythm, to the repetition of the motive; who doesn’t know how close old age is to childhood? Take a closer look and you will see that on both sides of the full height of life, with its wreaths of flowers and thorns, with its cradles and coffins, eras are often repeated, similar in the main features.

It is historical time that is especially important for the narrative: the formation of the hero of “Past and Thoughts” reflects the formation of the era; biographical time is not only contrasted with historical time, but also acts as one of its manifestations.

Dominant images that characterize both biographical time (the image of the path) and historical time (the image of the sea, the elements) in the text interact, their connection gives rise to the movement of particular end-to-end images associated with the deployment of the dominant: I'm not coming from London. There is nowhere and no reason... It was washed here and thrown by the waves, which so mercilessly broke and twisted me and everything close to me.

Interaction in the text of different time plans, correlation in the work of biographical time and historical time, “reflection of history in man” - distinctive features memoir-autobiographical epic by A.I. Herzen. These principles of temporal organization determine the figurative structure of the text and are reflected in the language of the work.

Questions and tasks

1. Read A. P. Chekhov’s story “Student”.

2. What time plans are compared in this text?

3. Consider the verbal means of expressing temporary relations. What role do they play in creating the artistic time of a text?

4. What manifestations (forms) of time are presented in the text of the story “Student”?

5. How are time and space connected in this text? What chronotope, from your point of view, underlies the story?

Story by I.A. Bunin “Cold Autumn”: conceptualization of time

In a literary text, time is not only eventful, but also conceptually: the time flow as a whole and its individual segments are divided, evaluated, and comprehended by the author, narrator, or characters of the work. Conceptualization of time - a special representation of it in an individual or folk picture of the world, interpretation of the meaning of its forms, phenomena and signs - is manifested:

1) in the assessments and comments of the narrator or character included in the text: And much, much has been experienced during these two years, which seem so long when you think about them carefully, you go through in your memory all that magical, incomprehensible, incomprehensible neither with your mind nor with your heart, which is called the past(I. Bunin. Cold Autumn);

2) in the use of tropes characterizing different signs time: Time, the timid chrysalis, the cabbage sprinkled with flour, the young Jewish woman clinging to the watchmaker’s window - it would be better if you didn’t look!(O. Mandelstam. Egyptian stamp);

3) in the subjective perception and division of the time flow in accordance with the starting point adopted in the narrative;

4) in the contrast of different time plans and aspects of time in the structure of the text.

For the temporal (time) organization of a work and its composition, it is usually significant, firstly, the comparison or opposition of past and present, present and future, past and future, past, present and future, and secondly, the opposition of such aspects of artistic time as duration - once(instantaneity), transience - duration, repeatability - singularity separate moment, temporality - eternity, cyclicality - irreversibility time. In both lyrical and prose works, the passage of time and its subjective perception can serve as the theme of the text; in this case, its temporal organization, as a rule, correlates with its composition, and the concept of time reflected in the text and embodied in its temporal images and the nature of division time series serves as the key to its interpretation.

Let us consider in this aspect the story by I.A. Bunin “Cold Autumn” (1944), part of the “Dark Alleys” cycle. The text is structured as a first-person narrative and is characterized by a retrospective composition: it is based on the heroine’s memories. “The plot of the story turns out to be embedded in a situation of speech-mental action of memory(highlighted by M.Ya. Dymarsky. - N.N.).. The situation of memory becomes the only main plot of the work.” Before us, therefore, is the subjective time of the heroine of the story.

Compositionally, the text consists of three parts unequal in volume: the first, which forms the basis of the narrative, is structured as a description of the heroine’s engagement and her farewell to her groom on a cold September evening in 1914; the second contains generalized information about the thirty years of the heroine’s subsequent life; in the third, extremely brief, part, the relationship between “one evening” - a moment of farewell - and the entire life lived is assessed: But, remembering everything that I have experienced since then, I always ask myself: what really happened in my life? And I answer myself: only that cold autumn evening. Was he really there once? Still, it was. AND that's all there was in my life- the rest is an unnecessary dream .

The unevenness of the compositional parts of the text is a way of organizing its artistic time: it serves as a means of subjective segmentation of the time flow and reflects the peculiarities of its perception by the heroine of the story, expresses her temporal assessments. The unevenness of the parts determines the special temporal rhythm of the work, which is based on the predominance of statics over dynamics.

A close-up of the text highlights the scene of the characters’ last meeting, in which each of their remarks or remarks turn out to be significant, cf.:

Left alone, we stayed a little longer in the dining room - I decided to play solitaire - he silently walked from corner to corner, then demand]

Do you want to go for a little walk? My soul became increasingly heavier, I responded indifferently:

Okay... While getting dressed in the hallway, he continued to think about something, with a sweet smile he remembered Fet’s poems: What a cold autumn! Put on your shawl and hood...

The movement of objective time in the text slows down and then stops: the “moment” in the heroine’s memories acquires duration, and “physical space turns out to be only a symbol, a sign of a certain element of experience that captures the heroes and takes possession of them”:

At first it was so dark that I held on to his sleeve. Then black branches, showered with mineral-shining stars, began to appear in the brightening sky. He paused and turned towards the house:

Look how the windows of the house shine in a very special, autumn-like way...

At the same time, the description of the “farewell evening” includes figurative means that clearly have prospectivity: associated with the depicted realities, they associatively indicate future (in relation to what is being described) tragic upheavals. So, epithets cold, icy, black (cold autumn, icy stars, black sky) associated with the image of death, and in the epithet autumn The semes “departing” and “farewell” are updated (see, for example: Somehow the windows of the house shine especially like autumn. Or: There is some kind of rustic autumn charm in these poems). The cold autumn of 1914 is depicted as the eve of the fateful “winter” (The air is completely winter) with its cold, darkness and cruelty. The metaphor is from A. Fet’s poem: ...As if a fire is rising - in the context of the whole, it expands its meaning and serves as a sign of future cataclysms, which the heroine is not aware of and which her fiancé foresees:

What fire?

Moonrise, of course... Oh, my God, my God!

Nothing, dear friend. Still sad. Sad and good.

The duration of the “farewell evening” is contrasted in the second part of the story with the summary characteristics of the next thirty years of the narrator’s life, and the concreteness and “homeliness” of the spatial images of the first part (estate, house, office, dining room, garden) are replaced by a list of names of foreign cities and countries: In winter, during a hurricane, we sailed with a countless crowd of other refugees from Novorossiysk to Turkey... Bulgaria, Serbia, Czech Republic, Belgium, Paris, Nice...

The compared time periods are associated, as we see, with different spatial images: a farewell evening - primarily with the image of a house, life expectancy - with many loci, the names of which form a disordered, open chain. The chronotope of the idyll is transformed into the chronotope of the threshold, and then replaced by the chronotope of the road.

The uneven division of the time flow corresponds to the compositional and syntactic division of the text - its paragraph structure, which also serves as a way of conceptualizing time.

The first compositional part of the story is characterized by fragmented paragraph division: in the description of the “farewell evening”, various micro-themes replace each other - designations of individual events that are of particular importance for the heroine and stand out, as already noted, in close-up.

The second part of the story is one paragraph, although it tells about events that would seem to be more significant both for the heroine’s personal biographical time and for historical time (the death of parents, trading at the market in 1918, marriage, flight to the south , Civil War, emigration, death of husband). “The separateness of these events is removed by the fact that the significance of each of them turns out to be no different for the narrator from the significance of the previous or subsequent one. In a certain sense, they are all so identical that they merge in the narrator’s mind into one continuous stream: the narrative about it is devoid of internal pulsation of assessments (monotony of rhythmic organization), devoid of a pronounced compositional division into micro-episodes (micro-events) and is therefore contained in one “solid” paragraph ". It is characteristic that within its framework, many events in the heroine’s life are either not highlighted at all, or are not motivated, and the facts preceding them are not restored, cf.: In the spring of 1918, when neither my father nor my mother was alive, I lived in Moscow, in the basement of a merchant at the Smolensk market...

Thus, the “farewell evening” - the plot of the first part of the story - and the thirty years of the heroine’s subsequent life are contrasted not only on the basis of “moment / duration”, but also on the basis of “significance / insignificance”. Omissions of time periods add tragic tension to the narrative and emphasize man’s powerlessness before fate.

The heroine’s value attitude towards various events and, accordingly, time periods of the past is manifested in their direct assessments in the text of the story: the main biographical time is defined by the heroine as a “dream”, and the dream is “unnecessary”; it is contrasted with only one “cold autumn evening”, which has become the only content of the life lived and its justification. It is characteristic that the heroine’s present (I lived and still live in Nice whatever God sends...) is interpreted by her as an integral part of a “dream” and thereby acquires a sign of unreality. “Dream”-life and one evening opposed to it differ, therefore, in modal characteristics: only one “moment” of life, resurrected by the heroine in her memories, is assessed by her as real, As a result, the traditional contrast between the past and the present in artistic speech is removed. In the text of the story “Cold Autumn,” the described September evening loses its temporal localization in the past, moreover, it opposes it as the only real point in the course of life - the heroine’s present merges with the past and acquires signs of illusoryness and illusoryness. In the last compositional part of the story, the temporal is already correlated with the eternal: And I believe, fervently believe: somewhere there he is waiting for me - with the same love and youth as that evening. “You live, enjoy the world, then come to me...” I lived, rejoiced, and now I’ll come soon.

Participating in eternity turns out to be, as we see, memory personality, establishing a connection between a single evening in the past and timelessness. Memory lives with love, which allows “to emerge from individuality into the All-Unity and from earthly existence into metaphysical true existence.”

In this regard, it is interesting to turn to the plan for the future in the story. Against the background of the forms of the past tense that predominate in the text, a few forms of the future stand out - forms of “volition” and “openness” (V.N. Toporov), which, as a rule, lack evaluative neutrality. All of them are united semantically: these are either verbs with the semantics of memory / oblivion, or verbs that develop the motive of expectation and future meeting in another world, cf.: I will be alive, I will always remember this day; If they kill me, you still won’t forget me right away?.. - Will I really forget him in some short time?.. Well, if they kill me, I’ll be waiting for you there. Live, enjoy the world, then come to me. “I’ve lived, I’m happy, and now I’ll be back soon.”

It is characteristic that statements containing forms of the future tense, located distantly in the text, correlate with each other as replicas of a lyrical dialogue. This dialogue continues thirty years after it began and overcomes the power of real time. The future for Bunin's heroes turns out to be connected not with earthly existence, not with objective time with its linearity and irreversibility, but with memory and eternity. It is the duration and strength of the heroine’s memories that serve as the answer to her youthful question-reasoning: And will I really forget him in some short time - because everything is forgotten in the end? In the memories the heroine continues to live and turns out to be more real than her present, and the deceased father and mother, and the groom who died in Galicia, and the clear stars over the autumn garden, and the samovar after the farewell dinner, and Fet’s lines read by the groom and, in turn, , also preserving the memory of the departed (There is some rustic autumn charm in these verses: “Put on your shawl and hood...” The times of our grandparents...).

The energy and creative power of memory frees individual moments of existence from fluidity, fragmentation, insignificance, enlarges them, reveals in them the “secret patterns” of fate or the highest meaning, as a result, true time is established - the time of consciousness of the narrator or hero, which contrasts the “unnecessary sleep” of existence unique moments, imprinted forever in memory. The measure of human life thereby recognizes the presence in it of moments involved in eternity and freed from the power of irreversible physical time.

Questions and tasks

1. 1. Re-read I. A. Bunin’s story “In a Familiar Street.”

2. What compositional parts are the repeated quotes from the poem by Ya. P. Polonsky divided into?

3. What time periods are shown in the text? How do they relate to each other?

4. What aspects of time are particularly significant to the structure of this text? Name the speech means that highlight them.

5. How do the plans of the past, present and future correlate in the text of the story?

6. What is unique about the ending of the story and how unexpected it is for the reader? Compare the endings of the stories “Cold Autumn” and “In One Familiar Street.” What are their similarities and differences?

7. What concept of time is reflected in the story “On a Familiar Street”?

II. Analyze the temporal organization of V. Nabokov’s story “Spring in Fialta”. Prepare a message “The artistic time of V. Nabokov’s story “Spring in Fialta”.

Art space

The text is spatial, i.e. elements of the text have a certain spatial configuration. Hence the theoretical and practical possibility of spatial interpretation of tropes and figures, the structure of the narrative. Thus, Ts. Todorov notes: “The most systematic study of spatial organization in fiction was carried out by Roman Jacobson. In his analyzes of poetry, he showed that all layers of utterance... form an established structure based on symmetries, build-ups, oppositions, parallelisms, etc., which together form a real spatial structure.” A similar spatial structure also occurs in prose texts; see, for example, repetitions of various types and the system of oppositions in the novel by A.M. Remizov "Pond". Repetitions in it are elements of the spatial organization of chapters, parts and the text as a whole. Thus, in the chapter “One hundred mustaches - one hundred noses” the phrase is repeated three times The walls are white-white, they shine from the lamp, as if strewn with grated glass, and the leitmotif of the entire novel is the repetition of the sentence Stone frog(highlighted by A.M. Remizov. - N.N.) moved her ugly webbed paws, which is usually included in a complex syntactic structure with varying lexical composition.

The study of a text as a certain spatial organization thus presupposes consideration of its volume, configuration, system of repetitions and oppositions, analysis of such topological properties of space, transformed in the text, as symmetry and coherence. It is also important to take into account the graphic form of the text (see, for example, palindromes, figured verses, the use of brackets, paragraphs, spaces, the special nature of the distribution of words in a verse, line, sentence), etc. “They often indicate,” notes I. Klyukanov, “ that poetic texts are printed differently than other texts. However, to a certain extent, all texts are printed differently than others: at the same time, the graphic appearance of the text “signals” its genre affiliation, its assignment to one or another type speech activity and forces one to a certain way of perception... Thus, the “spatial architectonics” of the text acquires a kind of normative status. This norm may be violated by the unusual structural placement of graphic signs, which causes a stylistic effect."

In a narrow sense, space in relation to a literary text is the spatial organization of its events, inextricably linked with the temporal organization of the work and the system of spatial images of the text. According to Kästner’s definition, “space in this case functions in the text as an operative secondary illusion, something through which spatial properties are realized in temporal art.”

Thus, there is a distinction between broad and narrow understandings of space. This is due to the distinction between an external point of view on the text as a certain spatial organization that is perceived by the reader, and an internal point of view that considers the spatial characteristics of the text itself as a relatively closed internal world that is self-sufficient. These points of view do not exclude, but complement each other. When analyzing a literary text, it is important to take into account both of these aspects of space: the first is the “spatial architectonics” of the text, the second is the “artistic space”. In what follows, the main object of consideration is the artistic space of the work.

The writer reflects real space-time connections in the work he creates, building his own perceptual series parallel to the real one, and creates a new - conceptual - space, which becomes a form of implementation of the author's idea. To the artist, wrote M.M. Bakhtin, is characterized by “the ability to see time, to read time in the spatial whole of the world and... to perceive the filling of space not as not; a moving background... but as a becoming whole, as an event.”

Artistic space is one of the forms of aesthetic reality created by the author. This is a dialectical unity of contradictions: based on objective connections between spatial characteristics (real or possible), it subjectively, it endlessly and at the same time Certainly.

The text, when displayed, is transformed and has a special character are common properties of real space: extension, continuity - discontinuity, three-dimensionality - and private its properties: shape, location, distance, boundaries between different systems. In a particular work, one of the properties of space can come to the fore and be specially played out, see, for example, the geometrization of urban space in A. Bely’s novel “Petersburg” and the use in it of images associated with the designation of discrete geometric objects (cube, square, parallelepiped, line, etc.): There the houses merged into cubes into a systematic, multi-story row...

Inspiration took possession of the senator’s soul when a lacquered cube cut the Nevskog line: the house numbering was visible there...

The spatial characteristics of the events recreated in the text are refracted through the prism of the author’s perception (the story of the warrior, the character), see, for example:

The feeling of the city never corresponded to the place where my life took place. The emotional pressure always threw him into the depths of the described perspective. There, puffing, the clouds trampled, and, pushing aside their crowd, the floating smoke of countless furnaces hung across the sky. There, in lines, exactly along the embankments, crumbling houses plunged into the snow with their entrances...

(B. Pasternak. Safe-conduct)

In a literary text, there is a corresponding distinction between the space of the narrator (storyteller) and the space of the characters. Their interaction makes the artistic space of the entire work multidimensional, voluminous and devoid of homogeneity, while at the same time, the dominant space in terms of creating the integrity of the text and its internal unity remains the space of the narrator, whose mobility of point of view makes it possible to unite different angles descriptions and images. Language means serve as means of expressing spatial relationships in the text and indicating various spatial characteristics: syntactic constructions with the meaning of location, existential sentences, prepositional-case forms with local meaning, verbs of motion, verbs with the meaning of detecting a feature in space, adverbs of place, toponyms, etc. ., see, for example: Crossing the Irtysh. The steamer stopped the ferry... On the other side there is a steppe: yurts that look like kerosene tanks, a house, cattle... On the other side the Kyrgyz are coming...(M. Prishvin); A minute later they passed the sleepy office, came out onto sand deep as deep as the hub, and silently sat down in a dusty cab. The gentle uphill climb among rare crooked streetlights... seemed endless...(I.A. Bunin).

“The reproduction (image) of space and indication of it are included in the work like pieces of a mosaic. By associating, they form a general panorama of space, the image of which can develop into an image of space.” The image of an artistic space can be different character depending on what model of the world (time and space) the writer or poet has (whether space is understood, for example, “in Newtonian” or mythopoetic).

In the archaic model of the world, space is not opposed to time; time condenses and becomes a form of space, which is “drawn” into the movement of time. “Mythopoetic space is always filled and always material; in addition to space, there is also a non-space, the embodiment of which is Chaos...” Mythopoetic ideas about space, so important for writers, are embodied in a number of mythologemes that are consistently used in literature in a number of stable images. This is, first of all, an image of a path (road), which can involve movement both horizontally and vertically (see works of folklore) and is characterized by the identification of a number of equally significant spatial: points, topographical objects - threshold, door, staircase, bridge, etc. These images, associated with the division of both time and space, metaphorically represent a person’s life, its certain moments of crisis, his quest on the edge of “his” and “alien” worlds, embody movement, point to its limit and symbolize the possibility of choice; they are widely used in poetry and prose, see for example: Not joy The news is knocking on the grave... / Oh! Wait to cross this step. While you're here- nothing died / Step over- and the cute one is gone(V.A. Zhukovsky); I pretended to be mortal in winter / And the eternal doors closed forever, / But they still recognize my voice, / And yet they will believe me again(A. Akhmatova).

The space modeled in the text can be open And closed (closed), see, for example, the contrast between these two types of space in Notes from House of the Dead» F.M. Dostoevsky: Our fort stood on the edge of the fortress, right next to the ramparts. It happened that you looked through the cracks of the fence into the light of day: wouldn’t you see anything? - and all you will see is the edge of the sky and a high earthen rampart, overgrown with weeds, and sentries walking back and forth along the rampart, day and night... In one of the sides of the fence there is a strong gate, always locked, always guarded day and night by sentries ; they were unlocked upon request to be released to work. Behind these gates there was a bright, free world...

The image of a wall serves as a stable image associated with a closed, limited space in prose and poetry, see, for example, L. Andreev’s story “The Wall” or the recurring images of a stone wall (stone hole) in the autobiographical story of A.M. Remizov’s “In Captivity”, contrasted with the reversible in the text and multidimensional image of a bird as a symbol of will.

Space can be represented in text as expanding or tapering in relation to a character or a specific object being described. So, in the story of F.M. Dostoevsky’s “The Dream of a Funny Man”, the transition from reality to the hero’s dream, and then back to reality, is based on the technique of changing spatial characteristics: the closed space of the hero’s “small room” is replaced by the even narrower space of the grave, and then the narrator finds himself in a different, ever-expanding space, at the end of the story the space narrows again, cf.: We rushed through darkness and unknown spaces. I have long ceased to see the constellations familiar to the eye. It was already morning... I woke up in the same chairs, my candle had all burned out, they were sleeping by the chestnut tree, and all around there was a silence rare in our apartment.

The expansion of space can be motivated by the gradual expansion of the hero’s experience, his knowledge outside world, see, for example, the novel by I.A. Bunin “The Life of Arsenyev”: And then... we recognized the barnyard, stables, carriage house, threshing floor, Proval, Vyselki. The world kept expanding before us... The garden is cheerful, green, but already known to us... And here is the barnyard, the stable, the carriage house, the barn on the threshing floor, the Proval...

The degree of generalization of spatial characteristics varies specific space and space abstract(not related to specific local indicators), cf.: It smelled of coal, burnt oil and that smell of anxious and mysterious space that always happens at train stations.(A. Platonov). - Despite the endless space, the world was comfortable at this early hour(A. Platonov).

Really visible space is complemented by a character or narrator imaginary. The space given in the character’s perception can be characterized deformation, associated with the reversibility of its elements and a special point of view on it: The shadows from the trees and bushes, like comets, fell with sharp clicks onto the sloping plain... He lowered his head down and saw that the grass... seemed to grow deep and far away and that on top of it there was water as clear as a mountain spring, and the grass seemed like the bottom of some light, transparent sea to the very depths...(N.V. Gogol. Viy).

The degree of filling of space is also significant for the figurative system of the work. So, in the story by A.M. Gorky’s “Childhood” with the help of repeated lexical means (primarily the words close and its derivatives) the “crowdedness” of the space surrounding the hero is emphasized. The sign of crowding extends both to the external world and to the internal world of the character and interacts with the end-to-end repetition of the text - the repetition of words melancholy, boredom: Boring, somehow especially boring, almost unbearable; the chest fills with liquid, warm lead, it presses from the inside, bursts the chest, ribs; It seems to me that I am swelling up like a bubble, and I am cramped in a small room under a mushroom-shaped ceiling.

The image of cramped space is correlated in the story with the end-to-end image of “the cramped, stuffy circle of terrible impressions in which a simple Russian man lived - and still lives to this day.”

Elements of the transformed artistic space can be associated in a work with the theme of historical memory, thereby historical time interacts with certain spatial images, which are usually intertextual in nature, see, for example, the novel by I.A. Bunin "The Life of Arsenyev": And soon I started wandering again. I was on the very banks of the Donets, where the prince once threw himself from captivity “as an ermine into the reeds, a white nog into the water”... And from Kyiv I went to Kursk, to Putivl. “Saddle up, brother, your greyhounds, and my ti are ready, saddle up at Kursk in front...”

Artistic space is inextricably linked with artistic time.

The relationship between time and space in a literary text is expressed in the following main aspects:

1) two simultaneous situations are depicted in the work as spatially separated, juxtaposed (see, for example, “Hadji Murat” by L.N. Tolstoy, “The White Guard” by M. Bulgakov);

2) spatial point of view of the observer (character or I narrator) is also his temporary point of view, while the optical point of view can be either static or moving (dynamic): ...So we were completely free, crossed the bridge, went up to the barrier - and looked into the eyes of a stone, deserted road, vaguely whitening and running away into an endless distance... (I.A. Bunin. Sukhodol);

3) a temporal shift usually corresponds to a spatial shift (for example, the transition to the present of the narrator in “The Life of Arsenyev” by I.A. Bunin is accompanied by a sharp shift in spatial position: A whole life has passed since then. Russia, Orel, spring... And now, France, the South, Mediterranean winter days. We... have been in a foreign country for a long time);

4) the acceleration of time is accompanied by a compression of space (see, for example, the novels of F.M. Dostoevsky);

5) on the contrary, time dilation can be accompanied by an expansion of space, hence, for example, detailed descriptions spatial coordinates, scene, interior, etc.;

6) the passage of time is conveyed through changes in spatial characteristics: “Signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time.” So, in the story by A.M. Gorky’s “Childhood”, in the text of which there are almost no specific temporal indicators (dates, exact timing, signs of historical time), the movement of time is reflected in the spatial movement of the hero, his milestones are the move from Astrakhan to Nizhny, and then moves from one house to another , cf.: By spring, the uncles separated... and the grandfather bought himself a large, interesting house on Polevaya; Grandfather unexpectedly sold the house to the tavern owner, buying another one on Kanatnaya Street;

7) the same means of speech can express both temporal and spatial characteristics, see, for example: ...they promised to write, they never wrote, everything ended forever, Russia began, exiles, the water froze in the bucket by morning, the children grew up healthy, the ship sailed along the Yenisei on a bright June day, and then there was St. Petersburg, an apartment on Ligovka, crowds of people in the Tavrichesky yard, then there was a front for three years, carriages, rallies, bread rations, Moscow, “Alpine Goat”, then Gnezdnikovsky, famine, theaters, work on a book expedition...(Yu. Trifonov. It was a summer afternoon).

To embody the motif of the movement of time, metaphors and comparisons containing spatial images are regularly used, see, for example: A long staircase of days grew, going down, about which it was impossible to say: “lived.” They passed close, barely touching the shoulders, and at night... it was clearly visible: all the same, flat steps were going in a zigzag(S.N. Sergeev-Tsensky. Babaev).

Awareness of the relationship between space and time allowed us to identify the category chronotope, reflecting their unity. “We will call the essential interconnection of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature,” wrote M. M. Bakhtin, “a chronotope (which literally means “time-space”).” From the point of view of M.M. Bakhtin, chronotope is a formal-substantive category that has “significant genre significance... Chronotope as a formal-substantive category determines (to a large extent) the image of a person in literature. The chronotope has a certain structure: on its basis, plot-forming motifs are identified - meeting, separation, etc. Turning to the category of chronotope allows us to construct a certain typology of spatio-temporal characteristics inherent in thematic genres: they differ, for example, in the idyllic chronotope, which is characterized by the unity of place, the rhythmic cyclicity of time, the attachment of life to place - home etc., and an adventurous chronotope, which is characterized by a wide spatial background and the time of “accident”. On the basis of the chronotope, “localities” are also distinguished (in the terminology of M.M. Bakhtin) - stable images based on the intersection of temporal and spatial “series” (castle, living room, salon, provincial town etc.).

Artistic space, like artistic time, is historically changeable, which is reflected in the change of chronotopes and is associated with a change in the concept of space-time. As an example, let us dwell on the features of the artistic space in the Middle Ages, Renaissance and Modern times.

“The space of the medieval world is a closed system with sacred centers and secular periphery. The cosmos of Neoplatonic Christianity is graded and hierarchized. The experience of space is colored by religious and moral tones." The perception of space in the Middle Ages usually does not imply an individual point of view on the subject or; a series of objects. As noted by D.S. Likhachev, “events in the chronicle, in the lives of saints, in historical stories are mainly movements in space: campaigns and crossings, covering vast geographical spaces... Life is; manifestation of oneself in space. This is a journey on a ship among the sea of ​​life." Spatial characteristics are consistently symbolic (top - bottom, west - east, circle, etc.). “The symbolic approach provides that rapture of thought, that pre-rationalistic vagueness of the boundaries of identification, that content of rational thinking, which elevate the understanding of life to its highest level.” At the same time, medieval man still recognizes himself in many ways as an organic part of nature, so looking at nature from the outside is alien to him. A characteristic feature of medieval folk culture is the awareness of an inextricable connection with nature, the absence of rigid boundaries between the body and the world.

During the Renaissance, the concept of perspective (“looking through”, as defined by A. Dürer) was established. The Renaissance managed to completely rationalize space. It was during this period that the concept of a closed cosmos was replaced by the concept of infinity, existing not only as a divine prototype, but also empirically as a natural reality. The image of the Universe is detheologized. The theocentric time of medieval culture is replaced by three-dimensional space with a fourth dimension - time. This is connected, on the one hand, with the development of an objectifying attitude towards reality in the individual; on the other hand, with the expansion of the sphere of “I” and the subjective principle in art. In works of literature, spatial characteristics are consistently associated with the point of view of the narrator or character (compare with direct perspective in pictorial painting), and the importance of the latter’s position gradually increases in literature. A certain system of speech means is emerging, reflecting both the static and dynamic point of view of the character.

In the 20th century a relatively stable subject-spatial concept is replaced by an unstable one (see, for example, the impressionistic fluidity of space in time). Bold experimentation with time is complemented by equally bold experimentation with space. Thus, novels of “one day” often correspond to novels of “closed space”. The text can simultaneously combine a bird's eye view of space and an image of the locus from a specific position. The interaction of time plans is combined with deliberate spatial uncertainty. Writers often turn to the deformation of space, which is reflected in the special nature of speech means. So, for example, in K. Simon’s novel “The Roads of Flanders” the elimination of precise temporal and spatial characteristics is associated with the abandonment of personal forms of the verb and their replacement with forms of present participles. The complication of the narrative structure determines the multiplicity of spatial points of view in one work and their interaction (see, for example, the works of M. Bulgakov, Yu. Dombrovsky, etc.).

At the same time, in the literature of the 20th century. interest in mytho-poetic images and the mythopoetic model of space-time is increasing (see, for example, the poetry of A. Blok, the poetry and prose of A. Bely, the works of V. Khlebnikov). Thus, changes in the concept of time-space in science and in human worldview are inextricably linked with the nature of the space-time continuum in works of literature and the types of images that embody time and space. The reproduction of space in the text is also determined by the literary movement to which the author belongs: naturalism, for example, which strives to create the impression of genuine activity, is characterized by detailed descriptions of various localities: streets, squares, houses, etc.

Let us now dwell on the methodology for describing spatial relationships in a literary text.

Analysis of spatial relationships in a work of art assumes:

2) identifying the nature of these positions (dynamic - static; top-bottom, bird's eye view, etc.) in their connection with the time point of view;

3) determination of the main spatial characteristics of the work (location of action and its changes, movement of the character, type of space, etc.);

4) consideration of the main spatial images of the work;

5) characteristics of speech means expressing spatial relationships. The latter, naturally, corresponds to all the various stages of analysis noted above, and forms the basis.

Let's consider ways of expressing spatial relationships in I.A.'s story. Bunin "Easy Breathing"

The temporal organization of this text has repeatedly attracted researchers. Having described the differences between “disposition” and “composition”, L.S. Vygotsky noted: “...Events are connected and linked in such a way that they lose their everyday burden and opaque dregs; they are melodically linked to each other, and in their build-ups, resolutions and transitions they seem to unravel the threads that bind them; they are released from those ordinary connections in which they are given to us in life and in the impression of life; he renounces reality...” The complex temporal organization of the text corresponds to its spatial organization.

In the structure of the narrative, three main spatial points of view are distinguished (the narrator, Olya Meshcherskaya and the class lady). The verbal means of their expression are nominations of spatial realities, prepositional-case forms: with local meaning, adverbs of place, verbs with the meaning of movement in space, verbs with the meaning of a non-procedural color attribute localized in a specific situation (Next, between monastery and a prison, the cloudy slope of the sky turns white and the spring field turns gray); finally, the very order of the components in the composed series, reflecting the direction of the optical point of view: She[Olya] she looked at the young king, depicted in full height in the middle of some glittering hall, at the even parting in the milky, neatly crimped hair of the boss and was silent expectantly.

All three points of view in the text are brought closer to each other by repetition of lexemes cold, fresh and derivatives from them. Their correlation creates an oxymoronic image of life and death. The interaction of different points of view determines the heterogeneity of the artistic space of the text.

The alternation of heterogeneous time periods is reflected by changes in spatial characteristics and a change in locales of action; cemetery- gymnasium garden - cathedral street- the boss's office - the station - the garden - the glass veranda - Cathedral Street -(world) - cemetery - gymnasium garden. In a number of spatial characteristics, as we see, repetitions are found, the rhythmic convergence of which organizes the beginning and end of a work characterized by elements of a ring composition. At the same time, the members of this series enter into oppositions: first of all, “open space - closed space” is contrasted, cf., for example: a spacious county cemetery - the boss’s office or a glass veranda. Spatial images that are repeated in the text are also contrasted with each other: on the one hand, a grave, a cross on it, a cemetery, developing the motif of death (death), on the other, the spring wind, an image traditionally associated with the motifs of will, life, open space. Bunin uses the technique of comparing narrowing and expanding spaces. Tragic events in life, the heroine is connected with the space narrowing around her; see for example: ...a Cossack officer, ugly and plebeian in appearance... shot her on the station platform, among a large crowd of people... The cross-cutting images of the story that dominate the text - images of wind and light breathing - are associated with an expanding (in the finale to infinity) space: Now this light breath has again dispersed into the world, into this cloudy world, into this cold spring wind. Thus, consideration of the spatial organization of “Easy Breathing” confirms the conclusions of L.S. Vygotsky about the originality of the ideological and aesthetic content of the story, reflected in its construction.

So, taking into account spatial characteristics and considering artistic space is an important part of the philological analysis of the text.

Questions and tasks

1. Read I. A. Bunin’s story “In a Familiar Street.”

2. Identify the leading spatial point of view in the narrative structure.

3. Determine the main spatial characteristics of the text. How do the places of action highlighted in it relate to the two main time plans of the text (past and present)?

4. What role do its intertextual connections play in the organization of the text of the story - repeated quotes from the poem by Ya. P. Polonsky? What spatial images stand out in Polonsky’s poem and in the text of the story?

5. Indicate the means of speech that express spatial relationships in the text. What makes them unique?

6. Determine the type of artistic space in the text under consideration and show its dynamics.

7. Do you agree with the opinion of M.M. Bakhtin that “any entry into the sphere of meanings occurs only through the gates of chronotopes”? What chronotopes can you note in Bunin’s story? Show the plot-forming role of the chronotope.

Artistic space of drama: A. Vampilov “Last summer in Chulimsk”

The artistic space of drama is characterized by particular complexity. The space of a dramatic text must necessarily take into account the stage space and determine the forms of its possible organization. Under stage space is understood as “the space specifically perceived by the public on stage... or on fragments of scenes of all kinds of scenography.”

A dramaturgical text, thus, always correlates the system of events presented in it with the conditions of the theater and the possibilities of embodying the action on stage with its inherent boundaries. “It is at the level of space... that you realize the articulation between text and performance.” The forms of the stage space are determined by the author's stage directions and the spatio-temporal characteristics contained in the cue: the characters. In addition, the dramatic text always provides indications of off-stage space, not limited by the conditions of the theater. What is not shown in the drama nevertheless plays an important role in its interpretation. Thus, off-stage space “is sometimes freely used for a certain kind of absence... to deny what “is”... Figuratively off-stage space” (emphasized by Sh. Levi. – N.N.) can be represented as a black aura of the stage or a special type of emptiness that hovers over the stage, sometimes becoming something like padding material between reality as such and intratheatrical reality...” In drama, finally, due to the specifics of this type of literature, a special role is played by symbolic aspect of the spatial picture of the world.

Let us turn to A. Vampilov’s play “Last Summer in Chulimsk” (1972), which is distinguished by a complex genre synthesis: it combines elements of comedy, “moral drama,” parable and tragedy. The drama “Last Summer in Chulimsk” is characterized by the unity of the scene. It is defined by the first (“setting”) remark, which opens the play and is a detailed descriptive text:

Summer morning in the taiga regional center. An old wooden house with a high cornice, a veranda and a mezzanine. Behind the house rises a lonely birch tree, further away you can see a hill, covered with spruce below, pine and larch above. Three windows and a door open onto the veranda of the house, on which is nailed a “Tea House” sign... There are openwork carvings everywhere on the cornices, window frames, shutters, and gates. Half-upholstered, shabby, black with age, this carving still gives the house an elegant look...

Already in the first part of the remark, as we see, cross-cutting semantic oppositions are formed that are significant for the text as a whole: “old - new”, “beauty - destruction”. This opposition continues in the next part of the remark, the very volume of which indicates its special significance for the interpretation of the drama:

In front of the house there is a wooden sidewalk and as old as the house (its fence is also decorated with carvings), a front garden with currant bushes along the edges, with grass and flowers in the middle.

Simple white and pink flowers grow right in the grass, sparsely and randomly, as in a forest... On one side, two boards have been knocked out of the fence, currant bushes have been broken off, the grass and flowers are dented...

The description of the house again emphasizes signs of beauty and decay, with signs of destruction dominating. In the stage direction - the only direct manifestation of the author's position in the drama - speech means are highlighted that not only denote the realities of the space recreated on stage, but also, in figurative use, indicate the characters of the play who have not yet appeared on stage, the features of their lives, relationships (simple flowers, growing disorderly; rumpled flowers and grass). The remark reflects the spatial point of view of a specific observer, at the same time it is constructed as if the author is trying to revive pictures of the past in his memory.

The stage directions determine the nature of the stage space, which consists of a platform in front of the house, a veranda (tea room), a small balcony in front of the mezzanine, a staircase leading to it, and a front garden. High gates are also mentioned, see one of the following remarks: The bolt rattles, the gate opens, and Pomigalov, Valentina’s father, appears... Through the open gate one can see part of the yard, a canopy, a woodpile under the canopy, a fence and a gate to the garden... The highlighted details make it possible to organize the stage action and highlight a number of key spatial images that are clearly of an axiological (evaluative) nature. Such are, for example, the movement up and down the stairs leading to the mezzanine, the closed gate of Valentina’s house, separating it from the outside world, the window of an old house turned into a display case for a buffet, a broken front garden fence. Unfortunately, directors and theater artists the rich possibilities opened up by the author's remarks are not always taken into account. “The scenographic appearance of Chulimsk, as a rule, is monotonous... Scenographic artists... have revealed a tendency not only to simplify the scenery, but to separate the front garden from the house with a mezzanine. “Meanwhile, this “insignificant” detail, the disorganization of the house and its untidiness suddenly turn out to be one of those underwater reefs that do not allow us to get closer to the symbolism of the play, its deeper stage embodiment.”

The space of drama is both open and closed. On the one hand, the text of the play repeatedly mentions the taiga and the city, which remains unnamed, on the other hand, the action of the drama is limited to only one “locus” - an old house with a front garden, from which two roads diverge to villages with symbolic names - Loss and Keys. The spatial image of a crossroads introduces into the text the motive of choice that the heroes face. This motive, associated with the ancient type of value situation of “searching for the road,” is most clearly expressed in the final phenomenon of the first scene of the second act, while the theme of danger and “fall” is associated with the road leading to Poteryaikha, and the hero (Shamanov) is at the “crossroads” roads" makes a mistake in choosing the path.

The image of the House (at the crossroads) has traditional symbolism. In Slavic folk culture, the house is always opposed to the external (“alien”) world and serves as a stable symbol of a habitable and ordered space, protected from chaos. The house embodies the idea of ​​spiritual harmony and requires protection. The actions taken around him are usually of a protective nature; it is in this regard that the actions of the main character of the drama, Valentina, can be considered, who, despite the misunderstanding of those around her, constantly repairs the fence and, as noted in the stage directions, establishes gate. The playwright’s choice of this particular verb is indicative: the root repeated in the text okay actualizes such important meanings for the Russian linguistic picture of the world as “harmony” and “order of the world.”

The image of the House expresses other stable symbolic meanings in the play. This is a micromodel of the world, and a garden surrounded by a fence symbolizes in world culture feminine of the universe, the House finally evokes the richest associations with man, not only with his body, but also with his soul, with his inner life in all its complexity.

The image of the old house, as we see, reveals the mythopoetic subtext of a seemingly everyday drama from provincial life.

In addition, this spatial image also has a temporal dimension: it connects the past and present and embodies the connection of times, which is no longer felt by most of the characters and is supported only by Valentina. “The old house is a mute witness to the irreversible processes of life, the inevitability of leaving, the accumulation of the burden of mistakes and the gains of those who live here. He is eternal. They are fleeting."

At the same time, the old house with openwork carvings is just a “point” in the space recreated in the drama. It is part of Chulimsk, which, on the one hand, is opposed to the taiga (open space), on the other, to the nameless city, with which some of the characters in the drama are connected. “...Sleepy Chulimsk, in which the working day begins by mutual agreement, a good old village where you can leave an unlocked cash register... a prosaic and implausible world, where a real revolver coexists with no less real chickens and wild boars - this Chulimsk lives in special ways passions,” above all love and jealousy. Time seemed to have stopped in the village. The social space of the play is determined, firstly, by telephone conversations with invisible authorities (the telephone acts as an intermediary between different worlds), and secondly, by individual references to the city and structures for which “documents” are most important, cf.:

E R E M E V. I worked for forty years...

Dergachev. There are no documents, and there is no conversation... Your pension is from there (pointed finger to the sky) due, but here, brother, don’t wait. It won't break off for you here.

The non-stage space in Vampilov’s drama is thus the unnamed city from which Shamanov and Pashka came, and most of Chulimsk, while the realities and “loci” of the regional center are introduced in “one-way” telephone conversations. In general, the social space of drama is quite conventional; it is separate from the world recreated in the play.

The only character in the play who is outwardly directly connected with the social principle is the “seventh secretary” Mechetkin. This is the comic hero of the drama. His “meaningful” surname is already indicative, which is clearly of a contaminated nature (it possibly goes back to the combination of the verb rushing about with the word ratchet). The comic effect is also created by the author's remarks characterizing the hero: He behaves strangely tensely, clearly assuming an authoritative sternness and guiding concern; Not noticing the ridicule, he swells up. Against the background of the speech characteristics of other characters, it is Mechetkin’s remarks that stand out with their bright characterological means: an abundance of cliches, “label” words, elements of “clericalism”; compare: Signals are already coming at you; It stands, you know, on the road, preventing rational movement; The question is quite double-edged; The question comes down to personal initiative.

Only for Mechetkin’s speech characterization does the playwright use reception of a language mask: the hero’s speech is endowed with properties that “to one degree or another separate him from the rest of the characters, and belong to him as something constant and indispensable, accompanying him in any of his actions or gestures.” Mechetkin is thereby separated from other characters in the play: in the world of Chulimsk, in the space surrounding the old house With carved, he is a stranger, fool, fool, damned(according to the assessment of the other heroes, who treat him with ridicule).

An old house at a crossroads is the central image of the drama, but its characters are united by the motif of the breakdown of family ties, loneliness and the loss of a true home. This motif is consistently developed in the characters’ remarks: Shamanov “left his wife,” Valentina’s sister “forgot her own father.” Pashka does not find a home in Chulimsk (But they say it’s better at home... Doesn’t correspond...), Kashkina is lonely, the “moron” Mechetkin has no family, Ilya is the only one left in the taiga.

In the characters' remarks, Chulimsk appears gradually emptying space: the youth left him, again to the taiga, where “there are no deer, the beast... has become scarce,” the old Evenk Eremeev leaves. The heroes, who have lost their real home, are temporarily united by a “renovated” teahouse - the main location of the drama, the place of chance meetings, sudden recognition and everyday communication of the characters. The tragic situations recreated in the play are combined with everyday scenes in which the names of the ordered dishes and drinks are regularly repeated. “People have lunch, just have lunch, and at this time their happiness is formed and their lives are shattered...” Following Chekhov, Vampilov, in the flow of everyday life, reveals the essential foundations of existence. It is no coincidence that in the text of the drama there are almost no lexical signals of historical time, and the speech of most characters is almost devoid of bright characterological features (in their remarks only individual colloquial words and Siberian regionalisms are used what, no one’s, however). To reveal the characters of the characters in the play, spatial characteristics are significant, first of all, the way they move in space - moving “straight through the front garden” or bypassing the fence.

Another, no less important, spatial characteristic of characters is static or dynamic. It is revealed in two main aspects: as the stability of the connection with the “point” space of Chulimsk and as the activity / passivity of a particular hero. So, in author's remark, representing Shamanov in the first scene, emphasizes his apathy, “unfeigned negligence and absent-mindedness”, while using the key word for the phenomena of the first act in which the hero acts, sleep: He, as if suddenly falling into sleep, lowers his head. In the remarks of Shamanov himself in the first act, speech devices with the semes “indifference” and “peace” are repeated. The “sleep” in which the hero is immersed turns out to be a “sleep” of the soul, synonymous with the character’s internal “blindness.” In the second act, these speech means are replaced by lexical units expressing opposite meanings. Thus, in the remark indicating the appearance of Shamanov, the dynamics are already emphasized, contrasting with his previous state of “apathy”: He walks quickly, almost swiftly. Runs up to the veranda.

The transition from static to dynamic is a sign of the hero’s rebirth. As for the connection of the characters with the space of Chulimsk, its stability is characteristic only of Anna Khoroshikh and Valentina, who “has never even been to the city.” It is the female characters who act in the drama as guardians of “their” space (both external and internal): Anna is busy renovating the teahouse and trying to save her home (family), Valentina is “fixing” the fence.

The characteristics of the characters’ characters are determined by their relationship to the key image of the drama - a front garden with a broken gate: most of the characters walk “straight”, “ahead”, the townsman Shamanov goes around the front garden, only the old Evenk Eremeev, associated with the open space of the taiga, tries to help fix it. In this context, Valentina’s repeated actions take on a symbolic meaning: she restores what was destroyed, establishes a connection between times, and tries to overcome disunity. Her dialogue with Shamanov is indicative:

Shamanov. ...So I still want to ask you... Why are you doing this?

VALENTINE (not right away). Are you talking about the front garden?.. Why am I fixing it?

Shamanov. What for?

VALENTINE. But... Isn't it clear?

Shamanov shakes his head: it’s unclear...

V a l e n t i n a ( funny). Well then, I’ll explain to you... I’m fixing the front garden so that it’s intact.

Shamanov (grinned). Yes? But it seems to me that you are repairing the front garden so that it will be broken.

VALENTINE (becoming serious). I am repairing it so that it is intact.

"General and constant sign the language of drama must be recognized...symbolism, biplane(highlighted by B.A. Larin. - N.N.), the double significance of speeches. In drama there are always permeating themes - ideas, moods, suggestions, perceived in addition to the main, direct meaning of the speeches."

Such “two-dimensionality” is inherent in the above dialogue. On the one hand, Valentina’s words are addressed to Shamanov and the adjective whole appears in them in its direct meaning, on the other hand, they are addressed to the viewer (reader) and in the context of the entire work acquire “dual significance.” Word whole in this case, it is already characterized by semantic diffuseness and at the same time realizes several inherent meanings: “one from which nothing is subtracted, not separated”; “undestroyed”, “whole”, “united”, “preserved”, finally, “healthy”. Integrity is opposed to destruction, the disintegration of human connections, disunity and “disorder” (remember the first remark of the drama), and is associated with the state of internal health and goodness. It is characteristic that the name of the heroine, Valentina, which served as the original title of the play, has the etymological meaning of “healthy, strong.” At the same time, Valentina’s actions cause misunderstanding of other characters in the drama, the similarity of their assessments emphasizes tragic loneliness heroine in the space around her. Her image evokes associations with the image of a lonely birch tree in the first stage directions of the drama - a traditional symbol of a girl in Russian folklore.

The text of the play is structured in such a way that it requires constant reference to the “spatial” stage direction that opens it, which from an auxiliary (service) element of the drama turns into a constructive element of the text: the system of images of the stage directions and the system of images of the characters form an obvious parallelism and turn out to be interdependent. Thus, as already mentioned, the image of a birch tree is correlated with the image of Valentina, and the image of “crushed” grass is associated with her image (as well as with the images of Anna, Dergachev, Eremeev).

The world in which the drama's heroes live is distinctly disharmonious. First of all, this is manifested in the organization of the play’s dialogues, which are characterized by frequent “inconsistency” of replicas, violations of semantic and structural coherence in dialogic unities. The characters in the drama either do not hear each other, or do not always understand the meaning of the remark addressed to them. The disunity of the characters is also reflected in the transformation of a number of dialogues into monologues (see, for example, Kashkina’s monologue in the first act).

The text of the drama is dominated by dialogues reflecting the conflicting relationships of the characters (dialogues-arguments, quarrels, squabbles, etc.), and dialogues of a directive nature (such, for example, Valentina’s dialogue with her father).

The disharmony of the depicted world is also manifested in the names of its characteristic sounds. The author's stage directions consistently record the sounds filling the stage space. As a rule, sounds are sharp, irritating, “unnatural”: in the first act scandalous hubbub is replaced the noise of a car brake, in the second - dominate the screech of a hacksaw, the clatter of a hammer, the crack of a motorcycle, the crack of a diesel engine.“Noise” is contrasted with the only melody in the play - Der-gachev’s song, which serves as one of the leitmotifs of the drama, but remains unfinished.

In the first act, Dergachev’s voice is heard three times: the repeated beginning of the song “It was a long time ago, fifteen years ago...” interrupts the dialogue between Shamanov and Kashkina and at the same time is included in it as one of his lines. This “replica,” on the one hand, forms the temporal refrain of the scene and refers to the hero’s past, on the other hand, it serves as a kind of answer to Kashkina’s questions and comments and replaces Shamanov’s remarks. Wed:

Kashkina. There’s just one thing I don’t understand: how did you get to such a life... I would finally explain.

Shamanov shrugged.

"It was a long time ago,

About fifteen years ago..."

In the second act, this song opens the action of each scene, framing it. So, at the beginning of the second scene (“Night”) it sounds four times, while its text becomes shorter and shorter. In this act, the song already correlates with the fate of Valentina: the tragic situation of the folk ballad precedes what happened to the heroine. At the same time, the leitmotif song expands the stage space, deepens the time perspective of the drama as a whole and reflects the memories of Dergachev himself, and its incompleteness correlates with open ending plays.

Thus, in the space of drama, dissonant sounds and sounds of a song of a tragic nature contrast, and it is the former that win. Against their background, rare “zones of silence” are especially expressive. Silence, contrasted with the “scandalous hubbub” and noise, is established only in the finale. It is characteristic that in the final scene of the drama the words silence And silence(as well as words with the same root) are repeated in the stage directions five times, with the word silence placed by the playwright in a strong position of the text - its last paragraph. The silence into which the heroes are first immersed serves as a sign of their inner concentration, the desire to peer and listen to themselves and others, and accompanies the actions of the heroine and the end of the drama.

Vampilov’s latest play is called “Last Summer in Chulimsk.” Such a title, which, as already noted, the playwright did not immediately settle on, suggests retrospection and highlights the point of view of an observer or participant in the events! to what once happened in Chulimsk. The answer of the researcher of creativity Vampilov to the question: “What happened in Chulimsk?” is indicative. - “Last summer a miracle happened in Chulimsk.”

The “miracle” that happened in Chulimsk is the awakening of the hero’s soul, Shamanov’s insight. This was facilitated by the “horror” he experienced (Pashka’s shot) and the love of Valentina, whose “fall” serves as a kind of atoning sacrifice and at the same time determines the tragic guilt of the hero.

The spatio-temporal organization of Vampilov’s drama is characterized by the chronotope of the threshold, “its most significant replenishment is the chronotope of crisis and life turning point,” the time of the play is the decisive moments of falls and renewal. Other characters in the drama, especially Valentina, are also associated with the internal crisis, making decisions that determine a person’s life.

If the evolution of Shamanov’s image is predominantly reflected in the contrast of speech means in the main compositional parts of the drama, then the development of Valentina’s character is manifested in relation to the spatial dominant of this image - the actions of the heroine associated with “setting up” the gate. In the second act, Vadentina for the first time tries to act like everyone else: goes straight through! through the front garden - at the same time, to construct her replicas, a technique is used that can be called the “semantic echo” technique. Valentin, firstly, repeats Shamanov’s replica (from Act I): Wasted work...; secondly, in her subsequent statements they “condense”, explicate the meanings that were previously regularly expressed by the hero’s remarks in the first act: Doesn't matter; tired of it. The “direct” movement, a temporary transition to Shamanov’s position, leads to disaster. In the finale, after the tragedy Valentina experienced, we again see a return to the dominant character of this image: Strict, calm, she goes up to the veranda. Suddenly she stopped. She turned her head towards the front garden. Slowly, but decisively, he descends into the front garden. He approaches the fence, strengthens the boards... Adjusts the gate... Silence. Valentina and Eremeev are restoring the front garden.

The play ends with the motives of renewal, overcoming chaos and destruction. “...In the finale, Vampilov unites young Valentina and old man Eremeev - the harmony of eternity, the beginning and end of life, without the natural light of purity and faith unthinkable.” The ending is preceded by Mechetkin’s seemingly unmotivated story about the history of the old house, cf.:

Mechetkin (addressing either Shamanov or Kashkina). This very house... was built by the merchant Chernykh. And, by the way, this merchant was bewitched (chews) they bewitched that he would live until he completed this very house... When he completed the house, he began to rebuild it. And I've been rebuilding my whole life...

This story returns the reader (viewer) to the end-to-end spatial image of the drama. In Mechetkin’s extended remark, the figurative parallel “life is a rebuilt house” is updated, which, taking into account the symbolic meanings inherent in the key spatial image of the play house, can be interpreted as “life-renewal”, “life is the constant work of the soul”, finally, as “life is the reconstruction of the world and oneself in it”.

It is characteristic that the words repair, repair regularly repeated in the first act, disappear in the second: the focus is already on the “reconstruction” of the characters’ souls. It is interesting that it is the “chewing” Mechetkin who tells the story of the old house: the vanity of the comic hero emphasizes the general meaning of the parable.

At the end of the drama, the space of most of its characters is transformed: Pashka is preparing to leave Chulimsk, old man Eremeev is leaving for the taiga, but Dergachev opens his house for him (There's always room for you) The space of Shamanov expands, who decides to go to the city and speak at the trial. Valentina may be waiting for Mechetkin's house, but her actions remain unchanged. Vampilov's drama is constructed as a play in which the internal space of the characters changes, but the external space retains its stability.

“The artist’s task,” the playwright noted, “is to knock people out of mechanicalness.” This problem is solved in the play “Last Summer in Chulimsk,” which, as you read it, ceases to be perceived as everyday and appears as a philosophical drama. This is largely facilitated by the play’s system of spatial images.

Questions and tasks

1. Read the play “Three Girls in Blue” by L. Petrushevskaya.

2. Identify the main spatial images of the drama and determine their connections in the text.

3. Indicate the linguistic means that express spatial relationships in the text of the play. Which of these means, from your point of view, are especially significant for creating the artistic space of L. Petrushevskaya’s drama?

4. Determine the role of the image of the house in the figurative system of the drama. What meanings does it express? What is the dynamics of this image?

5. Give a general description of the drama space. How is space modeled in the text of this play?

Notes:

Emphases in quotes that will appear later belong to the author of the textbook,

Bakhtin M.M. Language in fiction // Collection. cit.: In 7 volumes - M., 1997. - T. 5. - P.306.

“At the same time, it must be borne in mind that it is precisely in terms of spatio-temporal characteristics that the greatest analogies can be found between literature and other ... forms of art” (Uspensky B.A. Poetics of composition. - M., 1970. - P. 139).

Foucault M. Words and Things: The Archeology of the Humanities. - M., 1977. - P. 139.

Potebnya A.A. Aesthetics and poetics. - M., 1976. - P. 289.

Florensky P.A. Analysis of spatiality and time in artistic and visual works. - M., 1993. - P. 230.

“For example, in works of science fiction, the chronological aspect of the image may be completely indifferent, or the action may take place in the future.” (Sierotwieriski S. Slownik terminow literackich. - Wroclaw, 1966. - S. 55).

Todorov Ts. Poetics // Structuralism “for” and “against”. - M, 1975. - P. 66.

Problems of text formation and literary text. St. Petersburg, 1999. - pp. 204-205.

Bakhtin M.M. Aesthetics verbal creativity. - M., 1979. - P. 204-205.

Chernukhina I.Ya. Elements of organization of artistic prose text. - Voronezh, 1984. - P. 44.

Toporov V.K. Space and text // Text: semantics and structure. - M., 1983. - S. 234, 239.

See, for example, the interpretation of the image of a door in ancient times: “The door meant that “horizon”, that “between” that looked into opposite sides light and darkness and figuratively expressed the point of “limit”" (Freidenberg O.M. Myth and literature of antiquity. - M., 1978. - P. 563). The image of a threshold also has the semantics of a limit. The staircase in the mythopoetic tradition is an image that embodies the connection between “top” and “bottom”; in literature, it reflects the internal development of a person, his movement towards or deviation from the truth, and connects external and internal spaces. Bridge - a figurative parallel to the connecting means, method of connection different worlds, began, spaces.

A. Vampilov abandoned this title after the appearance of M. Roshchin’s play “Valentin and Valentina” and very much regretted changing the name of the drama.

Streltsova E. Captivity of duck hunting. - Irkutsk, 1998. - P. 290.

Bakhtin M.M. Literary critical articles. - M, 1986. - P. 280.

Streltsova E. Captivity of duck hunting. - Irkutsk, 1998. - P. 321.

Vampilov A. Notebooks // Favorites. - M, 1999. - P. 676.

Artistic time is the reproduction of time in a work of art, the most important compositional component of the work. It is not identical to objective time. There are three types of artistic time: “the “idyllic time” in the father’s house, the “adventurous time” of trials in a foreign land, the “mysterious time” of descent into the underworld of disasters.” The “adventurous” time is presented in Apuleius’s novel “The Golden Ass”, the “idyllic” time - in the novel by I.A. Goncharov’s “Ordinary History”, “mysterious” - in the novel “The Master and Margarita” by M.S. Bulgakov. Time in a work of art can be extended (retardation technique - the author uses landscapes, portraits, interiors, philosophical discussions, lyrical digressions - the collection “Notes of a Hunter” by I.S. Turgenev) or accelerated (the author denotes all events that happened over a long period of time as two- in three phrases - the epilogue of the novel “The Noble Nest” by I. S. Turgenev (“So, eight years have passed”)). The time of plot action can be combined in a work with the author's time. The emphasis on the author's time, its differences from the time of the events of the work, is characteristic of the literature of sentimentalism (Stern, Fielding). The combination of plot and authorial time is typical for the novel by A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin".

Highlight Various types artistic time: linear (corresponds to the past, present and future, events are continuous and irreversible - the poem "Winter. What should we do in the village? I meet..." A.S. Pushkin) and cyclic (events are repeated, occur during cycles - daily, annual, etc. - the poem “Works and Days” by Hesiod); “closed” (limited by plot framework - the story “Mumu” ​​by I.S. Turgenev) and “open” (included in a specific historical era - the epic novel “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy); objective (not refracted through the perception of the author or characters, described in traditional units of time - days, weeks, months, etc. - the story “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” by A.I. Solzhenitsyn) and subjective (perceptual) (given through the prism perception of the author or hero - Raskolnikov’s perception of time in F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment”); mythological (poems by E. Baratynsky “ The Last Poet", "Signs") and historical (description of the past, historical events in the life of the state, human personality, etc. - the novel "Prince Silver" by A.K. Tolstoy, the poem "Pugachev" by S.A. Yesenin). In addition, M. Bakhtin also distinguishes psychological time (a type of subjective time), crisis time (the last moment of time before death or before contact with mystical forces), carnival time (which has fallen out of real historical time and includes many metamorphoses and transformations).

It is also worth noting such artistic techniques as retrospection (referring to the past of the characters or the author), prospection (referring to the future, author's hints, sometimes open indications of events that will happen in the future).

INTRODUCTION

Subject thesis"Features of the spatio-temporal organization of Botho Strauss's plays."

Relevance and novelty work is that the German playwright, novelist and essayist Botho Strauss, a representative of the new drama, is practically unknown in Russia. One book has been published with translations of 6 of his plays (“So big and so small”, “Time and Room”, “Ithaca”, “Hypochondriacs”, “Spectators”, “Park”) and an introduction by Vladimir Kolyazin. Also in the dissertation work of I.S. Roganova, Strauss is mentioned as the author with whom German postmodern drama begins. His plays have been staged in Russia only once - by Oleg Rybkin in 1995 in the Red Torch, the play “Time and Room”. Interest in this author began with a note about this performance in one of the Novosibirsk newspapers.

Target- identification and description of the features of the spatio-temporal organization of the author’s plays.

Tasks: analysis of the spatial and temporal organization of each play; identifying common features and patterns in the organization.

Object The following plays by Strauss are: “The Hypochondriacs”, “So Big and So Small”, “Park”, “Time and Room”.

Subject are the features of the spatio-temporal organization of plays.

This work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography.

The introduction indicates the topic, relevance, object, subject, goals and objectives of the work.

The first chapter consists of two paragraphs: the concept of artistic time and space, artistic time and artistic space in drama, changes in the reflection of these categories that arose in the twentieth century are considered, and part of the second paragraph is devoted to the influence of cinema on the composition and spatial-temporal organization of new drama .

The second chapter consists of two paragraphs: the organization of space in plays, the organization of time. The first paragraph identifies such features of the organization as the closedness of space, the relevance of indicators of the boundaries of this closedness, the shift in emphasis from external space to internal space - memory, associations, montage in the organization. The second paragraph reveals the following features of the organization of the category of time: montage, fragmentation associated with the relevance of the motive of recollection, retrospectiveness. Thus, montage becomes the main principle in the spatio-temporal organization of the plays under study.

During the study, we relied on the works of Yu.N. Tynyanova, O.V. Zhurcheva, V. Kolyazina, Yu.M. Lotman, M.M. Bakhtin, P. Pavy.

The volume of work is 60 pages. The list of sources used includes 54 titles.

CATEGORIES OF SPACE AND TIME IN DRAMA

SPACE AND TIME IN A WORK OF ART

Space and time - categories that include ideas, knowledge about the world order, place and the role of man in it, provide grounds for describing and analyzing the ways of their speech expression and representations in the fabric of a work of art. Understood in this way, these categories can be considered as means of interpreting a literary text.

In the literary encyclopedia we will find the following definition for these categories, written by I. Rodnyanskaya: “artistic time and artistic space are the most important characteristics of the artistic image, organizing the composition of the work and ensuring its perception as holistic and original artistic reality. <…>Its very content [of the literary and poetic image] necessarily reproduces the spatio-temporal picture of the world (transmitted by indirect means of storytelling) and, moreover, in its symbolic-ideological aspect” [Rodnyanskaya I. Artistic time and artistic space. http://feb-web.ru/feb/kle/Kle-abc/ke9/ke9-7721.htm].

In the spatio-temporal picture of the world, reproduced by art, including drama, there are images of biographical time (childhood, youth), historical, cosmic (the idea of ​​eternity and universal history), calendar, daily, as well as ideas about movement and immobility, about the relationship between past, present and future. Spatial paintings are represented by images of closed and open space, earthly and cosmic, actually visible and imaginary, ideas about objectivity close and distant. In this case, any, as a rule, indicator, marker of this picture of the world in a work of art acquires a symbolic, symbolic character. According to D.S. Likhachev, from era to era, as the understanding of the changeability of the world becomes wider and deeper, images of time acquire more and more significance in literature: writers become more and more clearly and intensely aware of the “diversity of forms of movement,” “mastering the world in its time dimensions.”

Artistic space can be point, linear, planar or volumetric. The second and third can also have a horizontal or vertical orientation. Linear space may or may not include the concept of directionality. In the presence of this feature (the image of a linear directed space, characterized by the relevance of the length attribute and the irrelevance of the width attribute, in art is often a road), linear space becomes a convenient artistic language for modeling temporal categories (“life path”, “road” as a means of character development in time ). To describe point space we have to turn to the concept of delimitation. Artistic space in a literary work is a continuum in which characters are located and action takes place. Naive perception constantly pushes the reader to identify artistic and physical space.

However, the idea that artistic space is always a model of some natural space is not always justified. Space in a work of art models various connections in the picture of the world: temporal, social, ethical, etc. This may happen because in one or another model of the world the category of space is complexly merged with certain concepts that exist in our picture of the world as separate or opposite. However, the reason may be different: in an artistic model of the world, “space” sometimes metaphorically takes on the expression of completely non-spatial relations in the modeling structure of the world.

Thus, artistic space is a model of the world of a given author, expressed in the language of his spatial ideas. At the same time, as often happens in other matters, this language, taken by itself, is much less individual and in to a greater extent belongs to time, era, social and artistic groups, than what the artist speaks in this language, than his individual model of the world.

In particular, artistic space can be the basis for the interpretation of the artistic world, since spatial relationships:

They can determine the nature of the “resistance of the environment of the inner world” (D.S. Likhachev);

They are one of the main ways to realize the worldview of characters, their relationships, degrees of freedom/non-freedom;

They serve as one of the main ways to embody the author’s point of view.

Space and its properties are inseparable from the things that fill it. Therefore, the analysis of artistic space and the artistic world is closely related to the analysis of the features of the material world that fills it.

Time is introduced into the work using a cinematic technique, that is, by dividing it into separate moments of peace. This general reception fine arts, and none of them can do without it. The reflection of time in the work is fragmentary due to the fact that continuously flowing homogeneous time is not capable of giving rhythm. The latter involves pulsation, condensation and rarefaction, deceleration and acceleration, steps and stops. Hence, visual arts, giving rhythm, must have in themselves some dismemberment, with some of their elements delaying attention and the eye, while with others, intermediate ones, promoting both from element to another. In other words, the lines that form the basic scheme of a pictorial work must penetrate or subdue the alternating elements of rest and jump.

But it is not enough to decompose time into moments at rest: it is necessary to connect them into a single series, and this presupposes some internal unity of individual moments, which makes it possible and even the need to move from element to element and in this transition to recognize in the new element something from the element just abandoned . Dismemberment is a condition for facilitated analysis; but a condition for facilitated synthesis is also required.

We can say it another way: the organization of time is always and inevitably achieved by dismemberment, that is, by discontinuity. With the activity and synthetic nature of the mind, this discontinuity is given clearly and decisively. Then the synthesis itself, if only it is within the capabilities of the viewer, will be extremely complete and sublime, it will be able to cover great times and be filled with movement.

The simplest and at the same time the most open method of cinematic analysis is achieved by a simple sequence of images, the spaces of which physically have nothing in common, are not coordinated with each other, and are not even connected. In essence, this is the same cinematic tape, but not cut in many places and therefore in no way condoning the passive connection of images with each other.

An important characteristic of any artistic world is statics/dynamics. In its implementation, space plays the most important role. Statics implies time stopped, frozen, not unfolding forward, but statically oriented towards the past, that is, there cannot be real life in a closed space. Movement in a static world has the character of “moving immobility.” Dynamics is living, absorbing the present time into the future. Continuation of life is possible only outside of isolation. And the character is perceived and evaluated in unity with his location; he seems to merge with space into an indivisible whole, becoming a part of it. The dynamics of a character depend on whether he has his own individual space, his own path relative to the world around him, or whether he remains, according to Lotman, the same type of environment around him. Kruglikov V.A. It even seems possible “to use the designations of individuality and personality as an analogue of human space and time.” “Then it is appropriate to present individuality as a semantic image of the unfolding of the “I” in human space. At the same time, individuality denotes and indicates the location of personality in a person. In turn, personality can be represented as a semantic image of the unfolding of the “I” in a person’s time, as that subjective time in which movements, displacements and changes of individuality occur.<…>The absolute fullness of individuality is tragic for a person, just like the absolute fullness of the personality” [Kruglikov V.A. Space and time of the “man of culture” // Culture, man and picture of the world. Ed. Arnoldov A.I., Kruglikov V.A. M., 1987].

V. Rudnev identifies three key parameters for the characteristics of artistic space: closedness/openness, straightness/curvature, largeness/smallness. They are explained in the psychoanalytic terms of Otto Rank's theory of birth trauma: at birth, a painful transition occurs from the closed, small, crooked space of the mother's womb into the huge straight and open space of the outside world. In the pragmatics of space, the most important role is played by the concepts of “here” and “there”: they model the position of the speaker and the listener in relation to each other and in relation to the outside world. Rudnev suggests distinguishing here, there, nowhere with capital and small letters:

“The word “here” with a small letter means a space that is in relation to sensory reachability on the part of the speaker, that is, objects located “here” can be seen, heard or touched.

The word “there” with a small letter means a space “located beyond or on the border of sensory reach on the part of the speaker. A boundary can be considered a state of affairs when an object can be perceived by only one sense organ, for example, it can be seen but not heard (it is there, at the other end of the room) or, conversely, heard but not seen (it is there, beyond partition).

The word "Here" with a capital letter means the space that unites the speaker with the object in question. It could be really very far away. “He is here in America” (the speaker may be in California, and the one in question may be in Florida or Wisconsin).

There is an extremely interesting paradox associated with the pragmatics of space. It is natural to assume that if an object is here, then it is not somewhere there (or nowhere). But if we make this logic modal, that is, assign the “possible” operator to both parts of the statement, then we get the following.

It is possible that the object is here, but it is also possible that it is not here. All plots related to space are built on this paradox. For example, Hamlet in Shakespeare's tragedy kills Polonius by mistake. This error is hidden in the structure of the pragmatic space. Hamlet thinks that there, behind the curtain, is the king, whom he was going to kill. The space there is a place of uncertainty. But even here there can be a place of uncertainty, for example, when a double of the one you are waiting for appears to you, and you think that someone is here, but in fact he is somewhere there or he was completely killed (Nowhere)” [ Rudnev V.P. Dictionary of 20th century culture. - M.: Agraf, 1997. - 384 p.].

The idea of ​​the unity of time and space arose in connection with the advent of Einstein's theory of relativity. This idea is also confirmed by the fact that quite often words with a spatial meaning acquire temporal semantics, or have syncretic semantics, denoting both time and space. Not a single object of reality exists only in space outside of time or only in time outside of space. Time is understood as the fourth dimension, the main difference of which from the first three (space) is that time is irreversible (anisotropic). This is how twentieth-century philosophy of time researcher Hans Reichenbach puts it:

1. The past does not return;

2. The past cannot be changed, but the future can;

3. It is impossible to have a reliable protocol about the future [ibid.].

The term chronotope, introduced by Einstein in his theory of relativity, was used by M.M. Bakhtin when studying the novel [Bakhtin M.M. Epic and novel. St. Petersburg, 2000]. Chronotope (literally - time-space) is a significant interconnection of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature; continuity of space and time, when time acts as the fourth dimension of space. Time becomes denser, becomes artistically visible; space is drawn into the movement of time and plot. Signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time. This intersection of rows and merging of signs characterizes the artistic chronotope.

The chronotope determines the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality. All time-spatial definitions in art and literature are inseparable from each other and are always emotionally and value-laden.

The chronotope is the most important characteristic of an artistic image and at the same time a way of creating artistic reality. MM. Bakhtin writes that “any entry into the sphere of meaning occurs only through the gates of chronotopes.” The chronotope, on the one hand, reflects the worldview of its era, on the other, the measure of development of the author's self-awareness, the process of the emergence of points of view on space and time. As the most general, universal category of culture, artistic space-time is capable of embodying “the worldview of an era, the behavior of people, their consciousness, the rhythm of life, their attitude towards things” (Gurevich). The chronotopic beginning of literary works, writes Khalizev, is capable of giving them a philosophical character, “bringing” the verbal fabric to the image of being as a whole, to the picture of the world [Khalizev V.E. Theory of literature. M., 2005].

In the spatio-temporal organization of works of the twentieth century, as well as modern literature, various, sometimes extreme, trends coexist (and struggle) - extreme expansion or, on the contrary, concentrated compression of the boundaries of artistic reality, a tendency towards increasing conventionality or, conversely, towards emphasizing the documentary nature of chronological and topographical landmarks, closedness and openness, deployment and illegality. Among these trends, the following, the most obvious, can be noted:

The desire for a nameless or fictitious topography: the City, instead of Kyiv, in Bulgakov (this casts a certain legendary light on historically specific events); the unmistakable, but never named Cologne in the prose of G. Böll; the story of Macondo in García Márquez's carnivalized national epic, One Hundred Years of Solitude. It is significant, however, that artistic time-space here it requires real historical and geographical identification or at least rapprochement, without which the work cannot be understood at all; The closed artistic time of a fairy tale or parable, excluded from the historical account, is widely used - “The Trial” by F. Kafka, “The Plague” by A. Camus, “Watt” by S. Beckett. The fairy-tale and parable “once upon a time”, “once upon a time”, equal to “always” and “whenever” corresponds to the eternal “conditions of human existence”, and is also used with the goal that the familiar modern color does not distract the reader in search of historical correlations, does not excite “ naive" question: "when did this happen?"; topography eludes identification, localization in the real world.

The presence of two different unmerged spaces in one artistic world: the real, that is, physical, surrounding the heroes, and the “romantic”, created by the imagination of the hero himself, caused by the clash of the romantic ideal with the coming era of mercenary, put forward by bourgeois development. Moreover, the emphasis moves from the space of the external world to the internal space of human consciousness. Under internal space the unfolding of events implies the character's memory; the intermittent, backward and forward progression of plot time is motivated not by the author’s initiative, but by the psychology of recollection. Time is “stratified”; in extreme cases (for example, in M. Proust), the narrative “here and now” is left to play the role of a frame or a material reason for stimulating memory, freely flying through space and time in pursuit of the desired moment of experience. In connection with the discovery of the compositional possibilities of “remembering,” the original relationship in importance between moving and “attached to place” characters often changes: if previously the leading characters, going through a serious spiritual path, were, as a rule, mobile, and the extras merged with the everyday background into the motionless whole, now, on the contrary, the “remembering” hero, who belongs to the central characters, is often motionless, being endowed with his own subjective sphere, the right to demonstrate his inner world (the position “at the window” of the heroine of the novel by W. Woolf “A Trip to the Lighthouse”) . This position makes it possible to compress one’s own time of action into a few days and hours, while the time and space of an entire human life can be projected onto the screen of recollection. The contents of the character's memory here play the same role as the collective knowledge of legend in relation to the ancient epic - it frees one from exposition, epilogue and, in general, any explanatory moments provided by the proactive intervention of the author-narrator.

The character also begins to be thought of as a kind of space. G. Gachev writes that “Space and Time are not objective categories of existence, but subjective forms of the human mind: a priori forms of our sensuality, that is, orientation outward, outward (Space) and inward (Time)” [Gachev G.D. European images of Space and Time//Culture, man and picture of the world. Ed. Arnoldov A.I., Kruglikov V.A. M., 1987]. Yampolsky writes that “the body forms its own space,” which for clarity he calls “place.” This gathering of spaces into a whole, according to Heidegger, is a property of a thing. A thing embodies a certain collective nature, a collective energy, and it creates a place. Collecting space introduces boundaries into it, boundaries give existence to space. The place becomes a cast of a person, his mask, the boundary in which he himself finds being, moves and changes. “The human body is also a thing. It also deforms the space around it, giving it the identity of the place. The human body needs a localization, a place in which it can place itself and find a refuge in which it can abide. As Edward Cayce noted, “the body as such is an intermediary between my consciousness of place and the place itself, moving me between places and introducing me into the intimate crevices of each given place [Yampolsky M. The Demon and the Labyrinth].

Thanks to the elimination of the author as a narrating person, wide possibilities opened up for montage, a kind of spatio-temporal mosaic, when different “theatres of action”, panoramic and close-ups are juxtaposed without motivation or commentary as a “documentary” face of reality itself.

In the twentieth century there were concepts of multidimensional time. They originated in the mainstream of absolute idealism, British philosophy of the early twentieth century. Twentieth-century culture was influenced by W. John Wilm Dunne's serial concept (The Experiment with Time). Dunn analyzed the well-known phenomenon of prophetic dreams, when on one end of the planet a person dreams of an event that a year later happens in reality on the other end of the planet. Explaining this mysterious phenomenon, Dunn concluded that time has at least two dimensions for one person. A person lives in one dimension, and in another he observes. And this second dimension is space-like, along it you can move into the past and into the future. This dimension manifests itself in altered states of consciousness, when the intellect does not put pressure on a person, that is, first of all, in a dream.

The phenomenon of neo-mythological consciousness at the beginning of the twentieth century updated the mythological cyclical model time in which not a single Reichenbach postulate works. This cyclical time of the agrarian cult is familiar to everyone. After winter comes spring, nature comes to life, and the cycle repeats. In the literature and philosophy of the twentieth century, the archaic myth of eternal recurrence becomes popular.

In contrast to this, the consciousness of man at the end of the twentieth century, based on the idea of ​​linear time, which presupposes the presence of a certain end, precisely postulates the beginning of this end. And it turns out that time no longer moves in the usual direction; To understand what is happening, a person turns to the past. Baudrillard writes about it this way: “We use the concepts of past, present and future, which are very conventional, when talking about the initial and the final. However, today we find ourselves drawn into a kind of open-ended process that no longer has any ending.

The end is also the final goal, the goal that makes this or that movement purposeful. Our history now has neither purpose nor direction: it has lost them, lost them irrevocably. Being on the other side of truth and error, on the other side of good and evil, we are no longer able to go back. Apparently, for every process there is a specific point of no return, after passing which it forever loses its finitude. If there is no completion, then everything exists only by being dissolved in an endless history, an endless crisis, an endless series of processes.

Having lost sight of the end, we desperately try to capture the beginning, this is our desire to find the origins. But these efforts are in vain: both anthropologists and paleontologists discover that all origins disappear in the depths of time, they are lost in the past, as endless as the future.

We have already passed the point of no return and are completely involved in a non-stop process in which everything is immersed in an endless vacuum and has lost its human dimension and which deprives us of the memory of the past, and the focus on the future, and the ability to integrate this future into the present. From now on, our world is a universe of abstract, ethereal things that continue to live by inertia, which have become simulacra of themselves, but do not know death: they are guaranteed endless existence because they are only artificial formations.

And yet we are still in captivity of the illusion that certain processes will necessarily reveal their finitude, and with it their direction, will allow us to retrospectively establish their origins, and as a result we will be able to comprehend the movement that interests us with the help of concepts of cause and consequences.

The absence of an end creates a situation in which it is difficult to escape the impression that all the information we receive contains nothing new, that everything we are told about has already happened. Since there is now no completion or final goal, since humanity has gained immortality, the subject ceases to understand what he is. And this newfound immortality is the last phantasm born of our technologies” [Baudrillard Jean Passwords from fragment to fragment Yekaterinburg, 2006].

It should be added that the past is accessible only in the form of memories and dreams. This is a continuous attempt to embody once again what has already happened, what has already happened once and should not happen again. In the center is the fate of a man who finds himself “at the end of times.” The motif of expectation is often used in works of art: hope for a miracle, or longing for a better life, or expectation of trouble, a premonition of disaster.

In Deja Loer's play "Olga's Room" there is a phrase that well illustrates this tendency to turn to the past: "Only if I manage to reproduce the past with absolute accuracy can I see the future."

The concept of time running backwards is related to the same idea. “Time introduces quite understandable metaphysical confusion: it appears with man, but precedes eternity. Another ambiguity, no less important and no less expressive, prevents us from determining the direction of time. They say that it flows from the past to the future: but the opposite is no less logical, as the Spanish poet Miguel de Unamuno wrote about” (Borges). Unamuno does not mean a simple countdown; time here is a metaphor for man. Dying, a person begins to consistently lose what he managed to do and experience, all his experience, he unwinds like a ball to a state of non-existence.

The concept of the space-time continuum is essential for the philological analysis of a literary text, since both time and space serve as constructive principles for the organization of a literary work. Artistic time is a form of existence of aesthetic reality, a special way of understanding the world.

Features of time modeling in literature are determined by the specifics of this type of art: literature is traditionally viewed as art temporary; unlike painting, it recreates the concreteness of the passage of time. This feature of a literary work is determined by the properties of linguistic means that form its figurative structure: “grammar determines for each language an order that distributes ... space in time,” transforms spatial characteristics into temporal ones.

The problem of artistic time has long occupied literary theorists, art historians, and linguists. So, A.A. Potebnya, emphasizing that the art of words is dynamic, showed the limitless possibilities of organizing artistic time in the text. He considered the text as a dialectical unity of two compositional speech forms: descriptions (“depiction of features, simultaneously existing in space") and narration ("Narration transforms a series of simultaneous signs into a series of sequential perceptions, into an image of the movement of gaze and thought from object to object"). A.A. Potebnya distinguished between real time and artistic time; Having examined the relationship between these categories in works of folklore, he noted the historical variability of artistic time. Ideas by A.A. Potebny received further development in the works of philologists late XIX-began- - la XX century However, interest in the problems of artistic time has especially revived in last decades XX century, which was associated with the rapid development of science, the evolution of views on space and time, with the acceleration of the pace of social life, with the increased attention in connection with this to the problems of memory, origins, tradition, on the one hand; and the future, on the other hand; finally, with the emergence of new forms in art.

“The work,” noted P.A. Florensky - aesthetically forcibly develops... in a certain sequence.” Time in a work of art is the duration, sequence and correlation of its events, based on their cause-and-effect, linear or associative relationship.

Time in the text has clearly defined or rather blurred boundaries (events, for example, can cover tens of years, a year, several days, a day, an hour, etc.), which may or, on the contrary, not be designated in the work in relation to the historical time or time established by the author conditionally (see, for example, E. Zamyatin’s novel “We”).

Artistic time wears systemic character. This is a way of organizing the aesthetic reality of a work, its inner world, and at the same time an image associated with the embodiment of the author’s concept, with a reflection of precisely his picture of the world (remember, for example, M. Bulgakov’s novel “ White Guard"). From time as an immanent property of a work, it is advisable to distinguish the time of the passage of the text, which can be considered as the time of the reader; Thus, when considering a literary text, we are dealing with the antinomy “the time of the work - the time of the reader.” This antinomy in the process of perceiving the work can be resolved different ways. At the same time, the time of the work is heterogeneous: thus, as a result of temporal shifts, “omissions”, highlighting central events in close-up, the depicted time is compressed, shortened, while when juxtaposing and describing simultaneous events, it, on the contrary, is stretched.

A comparison of real time and artistic time reveals their differences. The topological properties of real time in the macroworld are one-dimensionality, continuity, irreversibility, orderliness. In artistic time, all these properties are transformed. It may be multidimensional. This is due to the very nature of a literary work, which has, firstly, an author and presupposes the presence of a reader, and secondly, boundaries: a beginning and an end. Two time axes appear in the text - the “axis of storytelling” and the “axis of events described”: “the axis of storytelling is one-dimensional, while the axis of events described is multidimensional.” Their relationship destroys the multidimensionality of artistic time, makes temporal shifts possible, and determines the multiplicity of temporal points of view in the structure of the text. Thus, in a prose work, the narrator’s conditional present tense is usually established, which correlates with the narration about the past or future of the characters, with the characteristics of situations in various time dimensions. The action of a work can unfold in different time planes (“The Double” by A. Pogorelsky, “Russian Nights” by V.F. Odoevsky, “The Master and Margarita” by M. Bulgakov, etc.).

Irreversibility (unidirectionality) is also not characteristic of artistic time: the real sequence of events is often disrupted in the text. According to the law of irreversibility, only folklore time moves. In the literature of modern times, temporal displacements, disruption of temporal sequence, and switching of temporal registers play an important role. Retrospection as a manifestation of the reversibility of artistic time is the principle of organization of a number of thematic genres (memoirs and autobiographical works, detective novels). Retrospective in a literary text can also act as a means of revealing its implicit content - subtext.

The multidirectionality and reversibility of artistic time is especially clearly manifested in the literature of the 20th century. If Stern, according to E.M. Forster, “turned the clock upside down,” then “Marcel Proust, even more inventive, swapped the hands... Gertrude Stein, who tried to banish time from the novel, smashed her clock into pieces and scattered its fragments around the world..." It was in the 20th century. a “stream of consciousness” novel arises, a “one day” novel, a sequential time series in which time is destroyed, and time appears only as a component of a person’s psychological existence.

Artistic time is characterized as continuity, so and discreteness.“Remaining essentially continuous in the sequential change of temporal and spatial facts, the continuum in textual reproduction is simultaneously divided into separate episodes.” The selection of these episodes is determined by the author’s aesthetic intentions, hence the possibility of time gaps, “compression” or, conversely, expansion of plot time. - nor, see, for example, the remark of T. Mann: “At the wonderful festival of narration and reproduction, omissions play an important and indispensable role.”

The possibilities of expanding or compressing time are widely used by writers. So, for example, in the story by I.S. Turgenev's "Spring Waters" highlights Sanin's love story for Gemma in close-up - the most striking event in the hero's life, its emotional peak; At the same time, artistic time slows down, “stretches out,” but the course of the hero’s subsequent life is conveyed in a generalized, summary way: And there - living in Paris and all the humiliation, all the disgusting torment of a slave... Then- return to homeland, poisoned, devastated life, petty fuss, petty troubles...

Artistic time in the text acts as a dialectical unity final And infinite. In the endless flow of time, one event or a chain of events is singled out; their beginning and end are usually fixed. The ending of the work is a signal that the time period presented to the reader has ended, but time continues beyond it. Such a property of real-time works as orderliness is also transformed in a literary text. This may be due to the subjective determination of the reference point or measure of time: for example, in S. Bobrov’s autobiographical story “Boy”, the measure of time for the hero is a holiday:

For a long time I tried to imagine what a year was... and suddenly I saw in front of me a rather long ribbon of grayish-pearly fog, lying horizontally in front of me, like a towel thrown on the floor.<...>Was this towel divided for months?.. No, it was unnoticeable. For seasons?.. It’s also somehow not very clear... It was clearer something else. These were the patterns of the holidays that colored the year.

Artistic time represents unity private And general.“As a manifestation of the private, it has the features of individual time and is characterized by a beginning and an end. As a reflection of the limitless world, it is characterized by infinity; temporary flow." As a unity of discrete and continuous, finite and infinite, and can act. a separate temporary situation in a literary text: “There are seconds, five or six of them pass at a time, and you suddenly feel the presence of eternal harmony, completely achieved... As if you suddenly feel all of nature and suddenly say: yes, this is true.” The plane of the timeless in a literary text is created through the use of - the use of repetitions, maxims and aphorisms, various kinds of reminiscences, symbols and other tropes. In this regard, artistic time can be considered as a complementary phenomenon, to the analysis of which N. Bohr’s principle of complementarity is applicable (opposite means cannot be combined synchronously; to obtain a holistic view, two “experiences” separated in time are needed). The antinomy “finite - infinite” is resolved in a literary text as a result of the use of conjugate, but spaced apart in time and therefore ambiguous means, for example, symbols.

Fundamentally significant for the organization of a work of art are such characteristics of artistic time as duration / brevity the event depicted, homogeneity / heterogeneity situations, the connection of time with subject-event content (its full/unfilled,"emptiness"). According to these parameters, both works and fragments of text in them, forming certain time blocks, can be contrasted.

Artistic time is based on a certain system of linguistic means. This is, first of all, a system of tense forms of the verb, their sequence and opposition, transposition (figurative use) of tense forms, lexical units with temporal semantics, case forms with the meaning of time, chronological marks, syntactic constructions that create a certain time plan (for example, nominative sentences represent in the text there is a plan of the present), names of historical figures, mythological heroes, nominations of historical events.

Of particular importance for artistic time is the functioning of verb forms; the predominance of statics or dynamics in the text, the acceleration or slowdown of time, their sequence determines the transition from one situation to another, and, consequently, the movement of time. Compare, for example, the following fragments of E. Zamyatin’s story “Mamai”: Mamai wandered lostly through the unfamiliar Zagorodny. The penguin wings were in the way; his head hung like the faucet of a broken samovar...

And suddenly his head jerked up, his legs began to prance like a twenty-five-year-old...

Forms of time act as signals of various subjective spheres in the structure of the narrative, cf., for example:

Gleb lying on the sand, resting my head in my hands, it was a quiet, sunny morning. He wasn't working on his mezzanine today. It's all over. Tomorrow are leaving, Ellie fits, everything is re-drilled. Helsingfors again...

(B. Zaitsev. Gleb’s Journey )

The functions of types of tense forms in a literary text are largely typified. As noted by V.V. Vinogradov, narrative (“event”) time is determined primarily by the relationship between the dynamic forms of the past tense of the perfect form and the forms of the past imperfect, acting in a procedural-long-term or qualitative-characterizing meaning. The latter forms are correspondingly assigned to the descriptions.

The time of the text as a whole is determined by the interaction of three temporal “axes”:

1) calendar time, displayed mainly by lexical units with the seme “time” and dates;

2) event-based time, organized by the connection of all predicates of the text (primarily verbal forms);

3) perceptual time, expressing the position of the narrator and the character (in this case, different lexical and grammatical means and temporal shifts are used).

Artistic and grammatical tenses are closely related, but they should not be equated. “Grammatical tense and the tense of a verbal work can diverge significantly. The time of action and the author’s and reader’s time are created by a combination of many factors: among them, only partly grammatical time...”

Artistic time is created by all elements of the text, while the means expressing temporal relations interact with the means expressing spatial relations. Let's limit ourselves to one example: for example, change of designs C; predicates of motion (we left the city, drove into the forest, arrived in Nizhneye Gorodishche, drove up to the river etc.) in the story of A.P. Chekhov ) “On the Cart,” on the one hand, determines the temporal sequence of situations and forms the plot time of the text, on the other hand, reflects the character’s movement in space and participates in the creation of artistic space. To create an image of time, spatial metaphors are regularly used in literary texts.

The oldest works are characterized mythological time a sign of which is the idea of ​​cyclical reincarnations, “world periods”. Mythological time, not in the opinion of K. Levi-Strauss, can be defined as the unity of such characteristics as reversibility-irreversibility, synchronicity-diachronicity. The present and the future in mythological time appear only as different temporal hypostases of the past, which is an invariant structure. The cyclical structure of mythological time turned out to be significantly significant for the development of art in different eras. “The exceptionally powerful orientation of mythological thinking towards establishing homo- and isomorphisms, on the one hand, made it scientifically fruitful, and on the other, determined its periodic revival in various historical eras.” The idea of ​​time as a change of cycles, “eternal repetition”, is present in a number of neo-mythological works of the 20th century. So, according to V.V. Ivanov, this concept is close to the image of time in the poetry of V. Khlebnikov, “who deeply felt the ways of science of his time.”

In medieval culture, time was viewed primarily as a reflection of eternity, while the idea of ​​it was predominantly of an eschatological nature: time begins with the act of creation and ends with the “second coming.” The main direction of time becomes orientation towards the future - the future exodus from time into eternity, while the metrization of time itself changes and the role of the present, the dimension of which is connected with the spiritual life of a person, significantly increases: “... for the present of past objects we have memory or memories; for the present of real objects we have a look, an outlook, an intuition; for the present of future objects we have aspiration, hope, hope,” wrote Augustine. Thus, in ancient Russian literature, time, as D.S. notes. Likhachev, not as egocentric as in the literature of modern times. It is characterized by isolation, one-pointedness, strict adherence to the real sequence of events, and a constant appeal to the eternal: “Medieval literature strives for the timeless, for overcoming time in the depiction of the highest manifestations of existence - the divine establishment of the universe.” The achievements of ancient Russian literature in recreating events “from the angle of eternity” in a transformed form were used by writers of subsequent generations, in particular F.M. Dostoevsky, for whom “the temporary was... a form of realization of the eternal.” Let us limit ourselves to one example - the dialogue between Stavrogin and Kirillov in the novel “Demons”:

There are minutes, you get to minutes, and time suddenly stops and will be forever.

Are you hoping to get to that point?

“This is hardly possible in our time,” Nikolai Vsevolodovich responded, also without any irony, slowly and as if thoughtfully. - In the Apocalypse, the angel swears that there will be no more time.

I know. This is very true there; clearly and accurately. When the whole person achieves happiness, there will be no more time, because there is no need.

Since the Renaissance, the evolutionary theory of time has been affirmed in culture and science: spatial events become the basis for the movement of time. Time, thus, is understood as eternity, not opposed to time, but moving and being realized in every instantaneous situation. This is reflected in the literature of modern times, which boldly violates the principle of irreversibility of real time. Finally, the 20th century is a period of particularly bold experimentation with artistic time. The ironic judgment of Zh.P. is indicative. Sartre: “...most of the largest modern writers - Proust, Joyce... Faulkner, Gide, W. Wolf - each in their own way tried to cripple time. Some of them deprived him of his past and future in order to reduce him to the pure intuition of the moment... Proust and Faulkner simply simply “decapitated” him, depriving him of the future, that is, the dimension of action and freedom.”

Consideration of artistic time in its development shows that its evolution (reversibility → irreversibility → reversibility) is a forward movement in which each higher stage negates, removes its lower (preceding) one, contains its richness and again removes itself in the next , third, stage.

Features of modeling artistic time are taken into account when determining the constitutive characteristics of the genus, genre, and movement in literature. So, according to A.A. Potebni, "lyrics" - praesens","epic - perfectum"; the principle of recreating times - can distinguish between genres: aphorisms and maxims, for example, are characterized by a constant present; Reversible artistic time is inherent in memoirs and autobiographical works. The literary direction is also associated with a specific concept of the development of time and the principles of its transmission, while, for example, the measure of adequacy of real time is different. Thus, symbolism is characterized by the implementation of the idea of ​​​​eternal movement-becoming: the world develops according to the laws of the “triad (the unity of the world spirit with the Soul of the world - the rejection of the Soul of the world from unity - the defeat of Chaos).

At the same time, the principles of mastering artistic time are individual, this is a feature of the artist’s idiostyle (thus, artistic time in the novels of L.N. Tolstoy, for example, differs significantly from the model of time in the works of F.M. Dostoevsky).

Taking into account the peculiarities of the embodiment of time in a literary text, considering the concept of time in it and, more broadly, in the writer’s work is a necessary component of the analysis of the work; underestimation of this aspect, absolutization of one of the particular manifestations of artistic time, identification of its properties without taking into account both objective real time and subjective time can lead to erroneous interpretations of the artistic text, making the analysis incomplete and schematic.

The analysis of artistic time includes the following main points:

1) determination of the features of artistic time in the work in question:

Unidimensionality or multidimensionality;

Reversibility or irreversibility;

Linearity or violation of time sequence;

2) highlighting the temporal plans (planes) presented in the work in the temporal structure of the text and considering their interaction;

4) identifying signals that highlight these forms of time;

5) consideration of the entire system of time indicators in the text, identifying not only their direct, but also figurative meanings;

6) determining the relationship between historical and everyday time, biographical and historical;

7) establishing a connection between artistic time and space.

Let us turn to the consideration of individual aspects of the artistic time of the text based on the material of specific works (“The Past and Thoughts” by A. I. Herzen and the story “Cold Autumn” by I. A. Bunin).

“The Past and Thoughts” by A. I. Herzen: features of temporary organization

In a literary text, a moving, often changeable and multidimensional time perspective arises; the sequence of events in it may not correspond to their real chronology. The author of the work, in accordance with his aesthetic intentions, sometimes expands, sometimes “thickens” time, sometimes slows it down; it speeds up.

A work of art correlates different aspect of artistic time: plot time (the temporal extent of the depicted actions and their reflection in the composition of the work) and plot time (their real sequence), author's time and subjective time of the characters. It presents different manifestations(forms) of time (everyday historical time, personal time and social time). The center of attention of a writer or poet can be himself image of time, associated with the motive of movement, development, formation, with the opposition of the transitory and the eternal.

Of particular interest is the analysis of the temporal organization of works in which different time plans are consistently correlated, a broad panorama of the era is given, and a certain philosophy of history is embodied. Such works include the memoir-autobiographical epic “The Past and Thoughts” (1852 - 1868). This is not only the pinnacle of A.I.’s creativity. Herzen, but also a work of “new form” (as defined by L.N. Tolstoy) It combines elements of different genres (autobiography, confession, notes, historical chronicles), combines different forms of presentation and compositional and semantic types of speech, “gravestone and confession, past and thoughts, biography, speculation, events and thoughts, heard and seen, memories and... more memories” (A.I. Herzen). “The best... of the books devoted to a review of one’s own life” (Yu.K. Olesha), “The Past and Thoughts” is the history of the formation of a Russian revolutionary and at the same time the history of social thought of the 30-60s of the 19th century. “There is hardly another work of memoirs so imbued with conscious historicism.”

This is a work characterized by a complex and dynamic temporal organization, involving the interaction of various time plans. Its principles are defined by the author himself, who noted that his work is “and a confession around which, about which, here and there, captured memories from the past, here and there, stopped thoughts and other m" (highlighted by A.I. Herzen. - N.N.). This author’s characteristic, which opens the work, contains an indication of the basic principles of the temporal organization of the text: this is an orientation towards the subjective segmentation of one’s past, the free juxtaposition of different time plans, the constant switching of time registers; The author’s “thoughts” are combined with a retrospective, but devoid of strict chronological sequence. - stories about past events include characteristics of persons, events and facts from different historical eras. The narration of the past is supplemented by stage reproduction of individual situations; the story about the “past” is interrupted by fragments of text that reflect the immediate position of the narrator at the moment of speech or the reconstructed period of time.

This construction of the work “clearly reflected the methodological principle of “Past and Thoughts”: the constant interaction of the general and the particular, the transitions from the author’s direct thoughts to their substantive illustration and back.”

Artistic time in “Bygone...” reversible(the author resurrects past events), multidimensional(the action unfolds in different time planes) and nonlinear(the story about past events is disrupted by self-interruptions, reasoning, comments, assessments). The starting point that determines the change of time plans in the text is mobile and constantly moving.

The plot time of the work is time first of all biographical, The “past”, reconstructed inconsistently, reflects the main stages in the development of the author’s personality.

At the heart of biographical time is the end-to-end image of a path (road), in symbolic form embodying the life path of the narrator, seeking true knowledge and going through a series of tests. This traditional spatial image is realized in a system of expanded metaphors and comparisons, regularly repeated in the text and forming a cross-cutting motif of movement, overcoming oneself, and passing through a series of steps: The path we chose was not easy, we never left it; wounded, broken, we walked, and no one overtook us. I reached... not to the goal, but to the place where the road goes downhill...; ...the June of coming of age, with its painful work, with its rubble on the road, takes a person by surprise.; Like lost knights in fairy tales, we waited at a crossroads. You'll go right- you will lose your horse, but you yourself will be safe; if you go to the left, the horse will be intact, but you yourself will die; if you go forward, everyone will leave you; If you go back, this is no longer possible, the road there is overgrown with grass for us.

These tropical series developing in the text act as a constructive component of the biographical time of the work and form its figurative basis.

Reproducing past events, evaluating them ("Past- not a proof sheet... Not everything can be corrected. It remainsas cast in metal, detailed, unchanging, dark as bronze. People generally forget only what is not worth remembering or what they do not understand") and refracting through his subsequent experience, A.I. Herzen makes maximum use of the expressive capabilities of the tense forms of the verb.

The situations and facts depicted in the past are assessed by the author in different ways: some of them are described extremely briefly, while others (the most important for the author in an emotional, aesthetic or ideological sense), on the contrary, are highlighted “close-up”, while time “stops” or slows down. To achieve this aesthetic effect, imperfective past tense forms or present tense forms are used. If the forms of the past perfect express a chain of successively changing actions, then the forms of the imperfect form convey not the dynamics of the event, but the dynamics of the action itself, presenting it as an unfolding process. Performing in a literary text not only a “reproducing”, but also a “visually pictorial”, “descriptive” function, the forms of the past imperfect stop time. In the text of “Past and Thoughts” they are used as a means of highlighting in “close-up” situations or events that are especially significant for the author (the oath on Vorobyovy Mountain, the death of his father, a meeting with Natalie, leaving Russia, a meeting in Turin, the death of his wife). The choice of forms of the past imperfect as a sign of a certain author’s attitude towards the depicted performs in this case an emotional and expressive function. Wed, for example: The nurse in a sundress and a shower jacket is still watched follow us and cried; Sonnenberg, that funny figure from childhood, waved foulard- All around is an endless steppe of snow.

This function of the forms of the past imperfect is typical of artistic speech; it is associated with the special meaning of the imperfect form, which presupposes the obligatory presence of a moment of observation, a retrospective point of reference. A.I. Herzen also uses the expressive possibilities of the past imperfect form with the meaning of multiple or habitually repeated action: they serve for typification, generalization of empirical details and situations. Thus, to characterize life in his father’s house, Herzen uses the technique of describing one day - a description based on the consistent use of imperfective forms. “Past and Thoughts” is thus characterized by a constant change in the perspective of the image: isolated facts and situations, highlighted in close-up, are combined with the reproduction of long-term processes, periodically repeating phenomena. Interesting in this regard is the portrait of the Chaadaevs, built on the transition from the author’s specific personal observations to a typical characteristic:

I loved to look at him in the midst of this tinsel nobility, flighty senators, gray-haired rakes and honorable nonentities. No matter how dense the crowd, the eye found him immediately; summer did not distort his slender figure, he dressed very carefully, his pale, tender face was completely motionless, when he was silent, as if made of wax or marble, “a forehead like a naked skull”... For ten years he stood with folded arms , somewhere near a column, near a tree on the boulevard, in halls and theaters, in a club and - the embodiment of veto, he looked with lively protest at the whirlwind of faces spinning meaninglessly around him...

The forms of the present tense against the background of the forms of the past can also perform the function of slowing down time, the function of highlighting events and phenomena of the past in close-up, but they, unlike the forms of the past imperfect in the “picturesque” function, recreate, first of all, the immediate time of the author’s experience associated with the moment of lyrical concentrations, or (less often) convey predominantly typical situations, repeatedly repeated in the past and now reconstructed by memory as imaginary:

The peace of the oak forest and the noise of the oak forest, the continuous buzzing of flies, bees, bumblebees... and the smell... this grass-forest smell... which I so greedily sought in Italy, and in England, and in the spring, and in the hot summer, and almost never found it. Sometimes it seems to smell like it, after mown hay, in broad daylight, before a thunderstorm... and I remember a small place in front of the house... on the grass, a three-year-old boy, lying in clover and dandelions, between grasshoppers, all sorts of beetles and ladybugs, and ourselves, both youth and friends! The sun has set, it’s still very warm, we don’t want to go home, we’re sitting on the grass. The catcher picks mushrooms and scolds me for no reason. What is this, like a bell? to us, or what? Today is Saturday - maybe... The troika rolls through the village, knocking on the bridge.

The forms of the present tense in “The Past...” are associated primarily with the author’s subjective psychological time, his emotional sphere; their use complicates the image of time. The reconstruction of events and facts of the past, again directly experienced by the author, is associated with the use of nominative sentences, and in some cases with the use of forms of the past perfect in the perfect meaning. The chain of forms of the historical present and nominatives not only brings the events of the past as close as possible, but also conveys a subjective sense of time and recreates its rhythm:

My heart was beating strongly when I again saw familiar, dear streets, places, houses that I had not seen for about four years... Kuznetsky Most, Tverskoy Boulevard... here is Ogarev’s house, they stuck some kind of huge coat of arms on him, it’s someone else’s already... here Povarskaya - the spirit is engaged: in the meso- - Nina, in the corner window, a candle is burning, this is her room, she writes to me, she thinks about me, the candle burns so cheerfully, so to me burns.

Thus, the biographical plot time of the work is uneven and discontinuous, it is characterized by a deep but moving perspective; the reconstruction of real biographical facts is combined with the transmission of various aspects of the author’s subjective awareness and measurement of time.

Artistic and grammatical time, as already noted, are closely related, however, “grammar appears as a piece of smalt in the overall mosaic picture of a verbal work.” Artistic time is created by all elements of the text.

Lyrical expression and attention to the “moment” are combined in the prose of A.I. Herzen with constant typification, with a social-analytical approach to what is depicted. Considering that “it is more necessary here than anywhere else to take off masks and portraits,” since “we are terribly falling apart from what has just passed,” the author combines; “thoughts” in the present and a story about the “past” with portraits of contemporaries, while restoring the missing links in the image of the era: “the universal without personality is an empty distraction; but a person only has full reality to the extent that he is in society.”

Portraits of contemporaries in “The Past and Thoughts” are conditionally possible; divided into static and dynamic. Thus, in Chapter III of the first volume, a portrait of Nicholas I is presented, it is static and emphatically evaluative, the speech means involved in its creation contain the common semantic feature “cold”: a cropped and shaggy jellyfish with a mustache; His beauty filled him with cold... But the main thing was his eyes, without any warmth, without any mercy, winter eyes.

The portrait description of Ogarev is constructed differently in Chapter IV of the same volume. A description of his appearance is followed by an introduction; elements of prospection related to the hero’s future. “If a pictorial portrait is always a moment stopped in time, then a verbal portrait characterizes a person in “actions and deeds” relating to different “moments” of his biography.” Creating a portrait of N. Ogarev in adolescence, A.I. Herzen, at the same time, names the traits of the hero in maturity: Early on one could see in him that anointing that not many people receive,- for bad luck or for good luck... but probably so as not to be in the crowd... unaccountable sadness and extreme meekness shone through the large gray eyes, hinting at the future growth of the great spirit; That's how he grew up.

The combination of different time points of view in portraits when describing and characterizing the characters deepens the moving time perspective of the work.

The multiplicity of time points of view presented in the structure of the text is increased by the inclusion of fragments of the diary, letters of other characters, excerpts from literary works, in particular from the poems of N. Ogarev. These elements of the text are correlated with the author's narrative or author's descriptions and are often contrasted with them as genuine, objective - subjective, transformed by time. See for example: The truth of that time, as it was then understood, without the artificial perspective that distance gives, without the cooling of time, without the corrected illumination by rays passing through a series of other events, was preserved in the notebook of that time.

The biographical time of the author is supplemented in the work with elements of the biographical time of other heroes, while A.I. Herzen resorts to extensive comparisons and metaphors that recreate the passage of time: The years of her life abroad passed luxuriantly and noisily, but they went and plucked flower after flower... Like a tree in the middle of winter, she retained the linear outline of her branches, the leaves flew around, the bare branches chilled bonyly, but the majestic growth and bold dimensions were seen all the more clearly. The image of a clock is repeatedly used in “The Past...”, embodying the inexorable power of time: The large English table clock, with its measured*, loud spondee - tick-tock - tick-tock - tick-tock... seemed to be measuring out the last quarter of an hour of her life...; And the spondee of the English clock continued to measure days, hours, minutes... and finally reached the fateful second.

The image of fleeting time in “The Past and Thoughts,” as we see, is associated with an orientation towards the traditional, often general linguistic type of comparisons and metaphors, which, repeated in the text, undergo transformations and affect the surrounding elements of the context; as a result, the stability of tropical characteristics is combined with their constant update.

Thus, biographical time in “Past and Thoughts” consists of plot time, based on the sequence of events of the author’s past, and elements of the biographical time of other characters, while the subjective perception of time by the narrator, his evaluative attitude to the reconstructed facts are constantly emphasized. “The author is like an editor in cinematography”: he either speeds up the time of the work, then stops it, does not always correlate the events of his life with chronology, emphasizes, on the one hand, the fluidity of time, on the other hand, the duration of individual episodes resurrected by memory.

Biographical time, despite the complex perspective inherent in it, is interpreted in the work of A. Herzen as private time, presupposing subjectivity of measurement, closed, having a beginning and an end (“Everything personal quickly crumbles away... Let “The Past and Thoughts” settle accounts with personal life and be its table of contents”). It is included in the broad flow of time associated with the historical era reflected in the work. Thus, closed biographical time contrasted open historical time. This opposition is reflected in the features of the composition of “The Past and Thoughts”: “in the sixth and seventh parts there is no longer a lyrical hero; in general, the personal, “private” fate of the author remains outside the boundaries of what is depicted,” the dominant element of the author’s speech becomes “thoughts” that appear in a monologue or dialogized form. One of the leading grammatical forms organizing these contexts is the present tense. If the plot biographical time of “The Past and Thoughts” is characterized by the use of the actual present (“the author’s current ... the result of moving the “observation point” to one of the moments of the past, the plot action”) or the historical present, then for “thoughts” and the author’s digressions, constituting the main layer of historical time, characterized by the present in an expanded or constant meaning, acting in interaction with the forms of the past tense, as well as the present of direct author’s speech: The nationality, like a banner, like a battle cry, is only surrounded by a revolutionary aura when the people fight for independence, when they overthrow the foreign yoke... The War of 1812 greatly developed a sense of popular consciousness and love for the homeland, but the patriotism of 1812 did not have the Old Believer-Slavic character. We see him in Karamzin and Pushkin...

““The past and thoughts,” wrote A.I. Herzen, is not a historical monograph, but a reflection of history in a person, accidentally caught on her way."

The life of an individual in “Bydrm and Thoughts” is perceived in connection with a certain historical situation and is motivated by it. A metaphorical image of the background appears in the text, which is then concretized, acquiring perspective and dynamics: A thousand times I wanted to convey a series of unique figures, sharp portraits taken from life... There is nothing gregarious in them... one common connection- em them or better yet one general unhappiness; Peering into the dark gray background, you can see soldiers under sticks, serfs under rods... wagons rushing to Siberia, convicts trudged there, shaved foreheads, branded faces, helmets, epaulettes, sultans... in a word, St. Petersburg Russia.. They want to run from the canvas and cannot.

If the biographical time of a work is characterized by a spatial image of a road, then to represent historical time, in addition to the image of the background, images of the sea (ocean) and elements are regularly used:

Impressive, sincerely young, we were easily caught up in a powerful wave... and early we swam across that line at which whole rows of people stop, fold their arms, walk back or look around for a ford - across the sea!

In history, it is easier for him [man] to be passionately carried away by the flow of events... than to peer into the ebb and flow of the waves that carry him. A man... grows by understanding his position into a helmsman who proudly cuts through the waves with his boat, forcing the bottomless abyss to serve him through communication.

Characterizing the role of the individual in the historical process, A.I. Herzen resorts to a number of metaphorical correspondences that are inextricably linked with each other: a person in history is “at once a boat, a wave and a helmsman,” while everything that exists is connected by “ends and beginnings, causes and actions.” A person’s aspirations “are clothed in words, embodied in images, remain in tradition and are passed on from century to century.” This understanding of the place of man in the historical process led to the author’s appeal to the universal language of culture, the search for certain “formulas” to explain the problems of history and, more broadly, of existence, to classify particular phenomena and situations. Such “formulas” in the text of “Past and Thoughts” are a special type of tropes, characteristic of the style of A.I. Herzen. These are metaphors, comparisons, periphrases, which include the names of historical figures, literary heroes, mythological characters, names of historical events, words denoting historical and cultural concepts. These “point quotes” appear in the text as metonymic replacements for entire situations and plots. The paths of which they are included serve to figuratively characterize phenomena of which Herzen was a contemporary, persons and events of other historical eras. See for example: Student young ladies- Jacobins, Saint-Just in the Amazon - everything is sharp, pure, merciless...;[Moscow] with murmuring and contempt she received into her walls a woman stained with the blood of her husband[Catherine II], this Lady Macbeth without repentance, this Lucretia Borgia without Italian blood...

Phenomena of history and modernity, empirical facts and myths, real persons and literary images are compared, as a result the situations described in the work receive a second plan: through the particular the general appears, through the individual - the repeating, through the transitory - the eternal.

The relationship in the structure of the work of two time layers: private time, biographical time and historical time - leads to a complication of the subjective organization of the text. Copyright I alternates sequentially with We, which in different contexts takes on different meanings: it points either to the author, or to persons close to him, or, with the strengthening of the role of historical time, serves as a means of pointing to the entire generation, national collective, or even, more broadly, to the human race as a whole:

Our historical vocation, our deed lies in this: through our disappointment, through our suffering, we reach the point of humility and submission before the truth and deliver the next generations from these sorrows...

In the connection of generations, the unity of the human race is affirmed, the history of which seems to the author to be a tireless striving forward, a path that has no end, but presupposes, however, the repetition of certain motives. The same repetitions of A.I. Herzen also finds in human life, the course of which, from his point of view, has a peculiar rhythm:

Yes, in life there is an addiction to the returning rhythm, to the repetition of the motive; who doesn’t know how close old age is to childhood? Take a closer look and you will see that on both sides of the full height of life, with its wreaths of flowers and thorns, with its cradles and coffins, eras are often repeated, similar in the main features.

It is historical time that is especially important for the narrative: the formation of the hero of “Past and Thoughts” reflects the formation of the era; biographical time is not only contrasted with historical time, but also acts as one of its manifestations.

Dominant images that characterize both biographical time (the image of the path) and historical time (the image of the sea, the elements) in the text interact, their connection gives rise to the movement of particular end-to-end images associated with the deployment of the dominant: I'm not coming from London. There is nowhere and no reason... It was washed here and thrown by the waves, which so mercilessly broke and twisted me and everything close to me.

The interaction of different time plans in the text, the correlation in the work of biographical and historical time, “the reflection of history in a person” are the distinctive features of the memoir-autobiographical epic of A.I. Herzen. These principles of temporal organization determine the figurative structure of the text and are reflected in the language of the work.