Pedagogical conditions for the use of methods and techniques for introducing children of senior preschool age to verbal art. On the origin of verbal art
Literary art exists in two forms: oral - this is when the work is transmitted from singer (or storyteller) to singer, without being recorded in writing, and in writing, genetically later, but only genetically. In fact, since the invention of writing, both of these forms have coexisted and exchanged with each other. Oral creativity is often recorded in writing, and written creativity again goes into oral existence (the simplest example is a song composed by an author and which over time has become popular and nameless). Oral memory, with all its power, does not retain what has emerged from poetic usage...
Many examples of oral creativity, which now form the basis of the world word culture, would have been irretrievably lost (if they had not been written down). These are, for example, "Shijing" - a collection of Chinese folk songs, preserved thanks to the works of Confucius, the epic poems of Homer, written down at the behest of the Athenian tyrant Pisistratus, Irish sagas, recorded by caring monks who saved one of the greatest human cultures from oblivion.
The relationship between oral and written literature can be traced in the most ancient Russian monuments: “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” unknown author and “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion.
Ancient written monuments usually did not have an author (more precisely, he did not sign), like the chroniclers or the author of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign.” When historical narrative the historian and the writer were one and the same person. The speaker and the poet, the speaker and the preacher were not separated from each other for just as long. “The Tale of Igor’s Host” is precisely a “word,” a political appeal and an instructive work, just as “The Tale of Law and Grace” was both a “word,” an oratorical work, and a sermon.
Works of literature, separated from history, appear already on the threshold of modern times, when secular literature created on the basis of folklore forms also appears.
Written fiction constantly refers to oral folk tradition, borrowing and processing very, very much from this bottomless well. Such creations of old literature as “Grief-misfortune” or “The Tale of Ruff, Shchetinnikov’s son” are generated by folklore. Lermontov's wonderful poem "Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov" is entirely based on the metrics and figurative system of ancient Russian ballads. Pushkin's "Fairy Tales" were written in the same vein. And in Tvardovsky’s works, a “chatty” metric is observed. Yes, and all of Yesenin is out folklore tradition, in fact, would be impossible, like Klyuev, like Rubtsov, and many others.
There are frequent cases of “reverse” movement: Christian literary tradition gave rise both in Rus' and in the West to a whole genre of “spiritual poems,” ballads and songs with religious content. Folk ballads The West, in particular the English ones, processed by poets and translated into Russian by our poets, “descended to the people” a second time, giving rise to the genre of later Russian ballads (“Khazbulat the Daring,” etc.) and the so-called “philistine romances” of the 19th century. And here’s what’s interesting: before the advent of the romance, Russian folk poetry I didn’t know the solo lyrical song, that’s all lyrical songs were choral, and the manner of their performance, defined as “organic polyphony,” in general, was an exceptional phenomenon in world vocal culture. Romance responded to the need for solo, individual singing (with a guitar).
With all these mutual influences, oral creativity (folklore) retains its fundamental difference from written (author's) creativity - folklore is impersonal. His works not only “do not have an author” (more precisely, he is always unknown), but also do not have such a stylistic difference as the author’s style. Just like the characters of folklore - good fellows, beautiful maidens, etc. - do not have an individual psychological portrait. Heroes of folklore are always “types” and never “characters”. Written literature, on the contrary, is always characterized by a desire to describe the individual, unique, to describe characters, and, at the same time, to express a special, author's manner of narration, the author's style.
Classic peasant folklore is dying these days, because the very life that gave birth to it is being destroyed. But this does not mean that the spoken word of art will die out completely. It, like the Russian language itself, will constantly inspire authors. Moreover, a “return” of traditional forms of oral poetry is also possible. So, nowadays, in connection with the rise of the Cossacks, the Cossack choral song comes to life, gaining a second wind.
Unfortunately, people began to record works of oral literature (folklore) quite late, mainly already in the 19th century, having lost a lot of our former riches: the ancient Russian epic, for example, came to us in scanty fragments, and pre-Christian mythology never I've arrived.
Written literature was luckier, although in the fires of Russian cities, in the timelessness of the XVIII - early XIX centuries, when all interest in Russian antiquity was lost, many written monuments perished, and therefore we should consider the existing composition of ancient Russian (pre-Petrine) literature to be only a modest excerpt of the great literature of our ancestors.
The artistic image is the basis of any type of art.
Reader's imagination and artistic image.
The imaginary simplicity of writing.
“Increased” imagery of words in literature.
Art as thinking in images.
Verbal image and poetic idea(pathos).
Types and properties of artistic image.
Art is a complex interweaving of various concepts and categories. We have identified a number of essential properties that are characteristic of all known forms of art. There is another universal category that allows you to see the relationship between different arts. This is a category artistic image, which is built on the basis of a certain conditional agreement between the author and the reader, viewer, listener - the perceptive side of art. The category of artistic image is a universal category of art. This is both a part, a detail of the text, and the very way of existence of a work of art.
Already in ancient times, when the first works of art appeared, theories appeared to explain the origin of art and the ways of reflecting reality in it. One of the oldest such theories is Aristotle’s theory (IV century BC) about mimesis (imitation). Aristotle said that art is a form of imitation of life. Later, new theories emerged to explain the relationship between art and reality. There have been many attempts to understand the meaning of this relationship.
All theories that have emerged to date can be divided into two large groups. On the one hand, this is a group of theories that prove that art is called upon reflect reality, "continue" her and hers explain. As a rule, the authors of these theories strive to give a completely realistic explanation of art, to show that art is created in accordance with the artist’s intention, but at the same time it is somehow inscribed in the social context and, to one degree or another, depicts existing reality.
The process of creating a work of art becomes a completely conscious act. This fact gave reason to believe that creativity can be put at the service of a specific idea, and the creative process should be subject to constant control. This is, for example, how representatives of Marxist literary criticism treated art.
Another group of theories is related to the idea of the unconscious in the creative process. It is believed that the artist-creator works by inspiration and embodies in his work only the world created in his own mind. A work of art that arose as a result of an unconscious artistic act may have absolutely no connection with social demands, but embodies only the creative will and imagination of the artist.
In Russia there were many culturologists, art historians and literary critics who considered the absolute moment of the unconscious in artistic creativity. Among them, the name of Yuli Isaevich Aikhenvald (1872–1928), a literary scholar and critic of the 1910–1920s, especially stands out.
Modern literary criticism adheres to quite broad views and, defining the boundaries of a writer’s freedom and the peculiarities of his creative thinking, proceeds from equal opportunities for the conscious and unconscious in artistic creativity. For modern researcher The influence of the artist’s associative thinking on the creative process also becomes important.
It turns out that in the creative process not everything is born in accordance with the plan or strict artistic logic. The creative process takes place primarily in the sphere of the author's subconscious. Consciousness often plays a subordinate role here.
The creative process appears as if by chance and develops as if by touch. It is naive to believe that the author knows everything in advance, knows what he wants. Very often in the process of creativity he finds himself in a situation where you are looking for India, but you find America...
A lot is born unexpectedly, spontaneously; one thought can evoke a whole series of associations. When observing a work of art, it turns out that the same artistic image can emphasize individual and generalize typical features, evoke specific, clear ideas and fleeting associations, be the result of the writer’s scrupulous planning work and his unconscious attractions to certain artistic incarnations. All this is extremely important for understanding the category of artistic image.
Artistic image is the basis of any type of art. Many researchers believe that it is the category of artistic image that distinguishes art from other spheres of human spiritual life. Any work of art consists of artistic images, and their number cannot be counted, since the image appears at each level of the work of art.
If we talk about literature, then an artistic image arises at the level of an individual sound and sound combinations, words and connections between them, meaningful pauses and rhythm. It arises at the level of depicting an object, phenomenon, fleeting motif and at the level of artistic comprehension of space, iconic place, and temporal extent.
An image in a work of art appears in the mind of the artist, then it must appear in the mind of the reader. That is, the usefulness of an artistic image appears only after reading and understanding literary text.
Sometimes an artistic image is compared to familiar determining the meaning of the text, with a key that helps to comprehend the work. In some eastern cultures the sign becomes a means of communication, the artistic image is perceived there as a system of signs inscribed in a certain tradition.
N. Zabolotsky’s poem “Art” can be read as a short treatise on the role and purpose of art and why the poet needs artistic images.
The tree grows, reminding
Natural wooden column.
Members diverge from her,
Dressed in round leaves.
A collection of such trees
Forms a forest, an oak grove.
But the definition of forest is inaccurate,
If you point to one formal structure.
Fat body of a cow
Placed on four endings,
Crowned with a temple-shaped head
And two horns (like the moon in the first
quarters),
It will also be unclear
It will also be incomprehensible
If we forget about its meaning
On the map of living people around the world.
House, wooden building,
Made up like a graveyard of trees,
Built like a hut of corpses,
Like a gazebo of the dead, -
Which mortal understands him?
To whom among the living is available,
If we forget a person,
Who built it and cut it down?
Man, ruler of the planet,
Lord of the wooden forest,
Emperor of cow meat,
Hosts of a two-story house, -
He rules the planet too,
He also cuts down forests,
He will even slaughter a cow,
But he can’t say a word.
But I, a monotonous person,
He took a long shining pipe into his mouth,
Blown, and, subordinate to the breath,
Words flew out into the world, becoming objects.
The cow cooked porridge for me,
The tree read a fairy tale
A dead houses peace
They jumped as if they were alive.
The objects and phenomena surrounding the poet, at his will, turn into works of art, overturn the ideas of the average person, and make a fairy tale out of history. The important thing is that, according to the poet, the world is a cycle of objects and, being named, with certain words and images, these objects acquire true life.
The artistic image is different in different types of art and is associated with materials of a given type. In different types of art the very structure of the image is different. An artistic image can “reconstruct” an object in more or less detail, or it can completely avoid copying it, representing a new embodiment of this object. In music, for example, the artistic image has little connection with the subject area and to a greater extent reflects the associative sphere of the composer’s thinking.
Feature verbal artistic image is that there are no closed areas for it, it can go not only into two-dimensional or three dimensional space, but also to comprehend the fourth dimension. A writer in a literary work is able to convey both the world of colors and the world of music.
Wonderful Russian writer of the 20th century. K.G. Paustovsky talks about the famous painting by artist M.V. Nesterov “Vision to the Youth Bartholomew”:
“For many, this youth, this village shepherd with the deepest purity of blue eyes - white-headed, thin, in onuchakh - seems to be the personification of ancient Russia - its hidden quiet beauty, its dim skies, the mild sun, the radiance of its boundless distances, its pastures and quiet forests, its legends and fairy tales. This picture is like a crystal lamp lit by the artist for the glory of his country, his Russia.” Painting canvas in literary presentation it begins to pulsate with new artistic meanings, new images that contain everything depicted on the canvas, and perceived and experienced by the writer.
A literary and artistic image that contains musical composition, is even more complicated. Beethoven's Sonata No. 2, sounding like a refrain in the story by A.I. Kuprin " Garnet bracelet”, is comprehended through the feelings that arise in the heroine during the sound of a piece of music: “She recognized from the very first chords this exceptional, unique work of depth. And her soul seemed to split into two. She simultaneously thought that a great love had passed her by, which is repeated only once in a thousand years... And words were formed in her mind. In her thoughts they so coincided with the music that it was as if they were verses that ended with the words: “Hallowed be Thy name.”
In a verbal artistic image, various pictures alternate, addressed to our perception; they can turn to the reader with both the “visible” and “audible” side. In a literary work, everything comes to life, moves, breathes, speaks, and is meaningfully silent. An artistic image is able to convey the slightest movements of thoughts, feelings, human emotion, to capture subtle overtones of meaning, the subtlest fleeting subtexts, not to mention the seasons, changeable weather, the play of clouds, the sound of rain, sparkling snow. Here is a poem by A.A. Feta:
Wonderful picture
How dear you are to me:
White plain,
Full moon,
The light of the high heavens,
And shining snow
And distant sleighs
Lonely running.
This poetic masterpiece has been familiar to us since first grade. Later we learned that Fet more than once tried to do without verbs in his poems. But they are the ones who convey action and movement in language. It would seem that a verbless poem can only photographically accurately convey the picture of nature seen, a static landscape. But with Fet, in some miraculous way, everything comes to life, everything moves, the snow sparkles and shimmers under the full moon.
This happens because the nouns taken by the poet not only carry a certain shade of “verbalism” (for example, the word run is a verbal noun, it in itself already expresses movement, and even fast movement), but also because the poet is counting on the experience of the reader, on the fact that he also had to observe such a “wonderful picture”, on ours creative thinking.
Yes, word light combined with words high heavens immediately evokes a stream of associations: light of the high heavens does not fall from the sky, but flows, flickers, dissipates, casting bizarre moving shadows on the snow, which continually change their size and shape. Not static, but in constant change and movement shiny snow, which sparkles, glares, reflects with multi-colored sparkles - from bright white to bluish and reddish.
As you can see, for understanding artistic imagery the reader's imagination is required. The image that arose in the mind of the writer may or may not be repeated, rethought or distorted in the mind of the reader. It turns out that Not only the author, but also the reader should be endowed with imaginative thinking.
Literary writing sometimes seems like a very simple matter: look around you, write down, come up with characters, their dialogues and monologues - and the literary work is ready. IN " Theater crossing after the presentation of the new comedy" N.V. Gogol two talk about the writer’s work:
"First. Think about it: well, a dancer, for example, is still an art, there’s no way you can do what he does. Well, even if I wanted to, for example: my legs simply won’t lift... But you can write without learning...
Second. But, however. Still, he must know something: without it you can’t write...
First....Why is there a mind here... Well, if there were, let’s say, some kind of scientific science. Some subject that you don’t know yet. But what is this? After all, every man knows this. You see this every day on the street. Just sit by the window and write down everything that happens - that’s the whole point!”
This deceptive idea of the simplicity of writing led to the fact that people who had barely mastered literacy immediately began to write. So, for example, it happened immediately after the revolution of 1917, when a huge number of people rushed to “become writers”, who had neither a reading memory, nor a general culture, nor a special ability to turn simple everyday objects and phenomena into a miracle of literature - all those things without which a real writer fails.
The craving for literary creativity without special skills or grounds is called "graphomania". And these days, the number of graphomaniacs is not decreasing: Internet sites, blogs, and newspapers with free advertisements with poems, which are coyly called “congratulations,” are filled with their “works.” This happens because the language we speak and write seems to be a common property. The illusion of lightness of a writer’s bread arises. Meanwhile in literary creativity plays an important role endowment with a special, artistic consciousness, the ability to think in artistic images.
For literature, not every word is important, but only those that can evoke a sympathetic response. IN artistic speech thanks to its imagery, the word carries much heavy load than in everyday speech. This “increased” imagery of the poetic word Poets feel well. D.S. Samoilov writes:
And the free horn of the wind,
And the sound of cheerful waves,
And the glow of the month,
As soon as they fell into verse.
Acquired significance
And so - who knew them.
And my story is vague.
And the news about the two of us,
And a true saying
As soon as they fall into verse,
Will gain meaning
And so - who knew them!
That is, poetry returns to the word the worn-out, forgotten, unseen by the “non-poet” meaning of the word.
When they lose their meaning
Words and objects
To the ground for their renewal
Poets come -
The word in a literary text has truly magical properties precisely because the poet’s consciousness gravitates toward artistic imagery. An artistic image can be born not only in artistic, but also in everyday everyday speech. When a person talks about something, he may well saturate his speech with artistic images.
At the same time, the presence of artistic images is not necessary for everyday speech. For art, which, according to Belinsky, is thinking in images, artistic images are organic. If in everyday life a person may or may not use artistic images, then in art, thinking without images is impossible . An artistic image is both the language of art and its individual statement.
It is impossible to decompose a literary work into artistic images; they do not exist separately, by themselves. B.L. Pasternak wrote: “...the image enters the image...”. Each figurative detail in a work is perceived only through the general context, and the general figurative context is made up of artistic details.
The artistic image is a complex concept due to the elusive essence of this subject: the artistic image cannot be fully explained due to its inexhaustibility and fragility of boundaries.
It is interesting that some researchers talk about the artistic image as a phenomenon that gives art some hyperbolicity, since the artistic image exaggerates the significance of the object, making it a particularly valuable object, even if it is the Mirgorod puddle in Gogol.
Others (for example, D.S. Likhachev), on the contrary, believe that imagery contributes to the fact that art represents litotes ( deliberate understatement of an object ) and that art leaves things unsaid and thereby makes people guess about the whole, and then admire this whole as their guess.
Imagery can be understood as the language of art. To create artistic images, the writer uses a huge arsenal means of artistic expression. However, their absence does not mean that the image has not been created. On the contrary, it is especially interesting to observe how an artistic image is formed out of the blue of ordinary everyday vocabulary, unobtrusive syntax, and ordinary sound.
How is an artistic image born in a poetic line?
One of the founders of modern literary criticism V.G. Belinsky believed that the artist (poet) must experience not only the insight and inspiration that comes from above, but also go through creative torments comparable to the torments that accompany childbirth.
“The higher the poet, the more original the world of his work - and not only great, even simply wonderful poets differ from ordinary ones in that their poetic activity is marked by the stamp of a distinctive and original character. In this characteristic feature lies the secret of their personality and the secret of their poetry. To grasp and determine the essence of this feature means to find the key to the secret of the poet’s personality and poetry,” writes Belinsky.
In fact, Belinsky pushes us to try to unravel the mystery of every great poet through an understanding of the peculiarities (“peculiarities”) creative process. Belinsky considers the “mighty thought” that took possession of the poet to be an important component of this process. But this, from the point of view of the great critic, is not enough. After all, a thought, even a very deep one, can come to the mind of any person, especially one who has a philosophical mindset and character. But then “for someone who is not a poet by nature, even if the thought he comes up with is deep, true, even holy, the work will still come out petty, false, false, ugly, dead, and it will not convince anyone, but will rather disappoint everyone in the thought he expressed, despite all its truthfulness!
What kind of thought, according to Belinsky, can become “the living embryo of a living creature”? Such a thought can only be poetic thought ! It is this poetic thought, poetic idea that moves a true artist on the path of creating a work.
Belinsky calls this force, this passion that has mastered the artist pathos. “In pathos, the poet is in love with an idea, as with a beautiful, living being, passionately imbued with it - and he contemplates it not with reason, not with reason, not with feeling, and not with any one ability of his soul, but with all the fullness and integrity of his moral being - and therefore the idea is, in his work, not an abstract thought, not a dead form, but a living creation, in which the living beauty of the form testifies to the presence of the divine idea in it and in which there is no feature indicating stitching or soldering - there is no boundary between idea and form, but both are whole and single organic creation.”
So, the unity of the poetic idea and poetic form, nurtured and born in agony as a result of divine insight and creative passion, is such in general outline stages of the creative process that leads to the creation of artistic imagery.
Let's see how these stages are interpreted by the poets themselves. IN creative heritage A.A. Akhmatova’s famous cycle of poems “Secrets of Craft”. The first two poems from this cycle are called “Creativity” and are dedicated specifically to the creative process:
It happens like this: some kind of languor;
The chime of the clock does not stop in my ears;
In the distance, the rumble of fading thunder.
I imagine both complaints and groans,
Some secret circle is narrowing,
But in this abyss of whispers and ringings
One, all-conquering sound rises -
This is how this poem begins, and the poet feels the mysterious process of creativity so fragilely and sensitively.
What can serve as the initial impetus? Silence, silence, complaints and groans or roar, thunder? Unclear and unrecognized (secret – whose?) – voices? And some one - all-conquering - sound should arise from this unclear sound confusion, from this bizarre scale, in order to suddenly help the poet find an amazing inner readiness for creative creation?
The second half of Akhmatov’s poem only partially provides answers to our naive questions:
It’s so incredibly quiet around him,
You can hear the grass growing in the forest,
How he walks dashingly on the ground with a knapsack...
But now the words are heard
And light rhymes signal bells, -
Then I begin to understand.
And just dictated lines
They go into a snow-white notebook.
From the mass of unclear, difficultly dissected sounds, one is born, it is clearly audible, since absolute silence reigns around. It is so quiet that other sounds become audible, in principle beyond the control of the human ear. But if we, although we are not given the opportunity to hear the sound of growing grass, are still able to imagine it in our own imagination, then only the poet can perceive the steps-call signs of a dashing person walking on the earth (i.e., troubles, misfortunes). Rhymed words begin to form from this incredible melody, and it seems that they were simply dictated by someone.
We have taken on a very thankless task - the literalist interpretation of something that is not subject to such an interpretation and resists this procedure in every possible way. But where is the poetic idea that Belinsky speaks of? What does it involve? And most importantly, how to distinguish the stages of the creative process? Where do poems come from, how are they born?
These questions are partly answered by Akhmatova’s second poem, placed under the title “creativity.” Perhaps for the first time in Russian poetry, it was in this poem that an attempt was made to present a register of words and concepts, verbal artistic images creating a poetic text.
Entering into a polemical dialogue with many predecessors and contemporaries who worked in the poetic field, Akhmatova creates her own poetic dictionary. It is not the sky and the stars, not the fogs and distant continents, not the expanses of the sea and the exoticism of distant travels that, from Akhmatova’s point of view, become the subject of the main poetic experiences:
I don't need odic armies
and the charm of elegiac undertakings.
For me, everything should be out of place in poetry,
Not like with people.
If only you knew from what kind of rubbish
Poems grow without shame,
How yellow dandelion by the fence,
Like burdocks and quinoa.
Angry shout, tar smell fresh,
Mysterious mold on the wall…
And the verse already sounds, perky, tender,
To the delight of you and me.
Imagine burdocks, quinoa and mold as poetic objects? In this poem, Akhmatova not only boldly pushed the boundaries of art, identifying as objects high poetry all - without exception - the world, but also made an important discovery, explaining to lovers of the poetic word that poetry can “grow” from any observation, experience, state, feeling.
Types of verbal and artistic images in literature depend on what level, “floor” of the literary text they are at. These can be: sound images (assonances and dissonances, onomatopoeia, alliteration, etc.), verbal images(various types of metaphors, hyperbole and litotes, comparisons and likenings, epithets, etc.), images created at the syntactic level of the text (repetitions, exclamations, questions, inversions, etc.), images created at the level of the motif of a literary work, images of literary characters, images of nature (landscape), images of things (interior).
Artistic images are also distinguished by aesthetic tonality: tragic images, comic images, satirical images, lyrical images. In this case, one should keep in mind the ability of artistic images to grow and connect with other images.
It is generally accepted that images of people in a literary work have such properties as a combination of individual and typical traits, external design and psychological content. It is worth paying attention to such figurative means used to create the image of a person as grotesque, irony, and sarcasm. In the scientific literature there are attempts to arrange artistic images according to the principle of their universality: national, universal, social.
Art reflects the experience of many generations, but at the same time, each artist creates his own world. Literature is one of many types of art, but this special one is verbal art, and therefore literature stands apart from other types of art.
EAT. MELETINSKY
Archaeological material, which provides so much for the history of fine art, helps very little in studying the roots of verbal art.
Literary art, apparently, arose later than some other types of art, since its material, the primary element, is the word, speech. Of course, all arts could appear only after a person had mastered articulate speech, but for the emergence of verbal art, a high degree of development of language in its communicative function and the presence of rather complex grammatical and syntactic forms were required. Apparently, fine art appeared first. The first decorated wooden and bone objects (female figurines - Paleolithic “Venuses”) date back to approximately 25 thousand years BC. e. Classic monuments of European cave painting (images of animals in Aurignacian, Solutre and Madeleine) date back to 25-10 thousand years BC. e.
Fine art arose in the Upper Paleolithic (the last stage of the Old Stone Age), when man, by his constitution, was no longer different from the modern one, spoke, and knew the clan organization based on dual exogamy (division of a social group into two halves, within which marriage ties are prohibited) , made perfect tools from stone, bone and horn, and had primitive religious ideas. But people had already made less advanced tools in the Middle and Lower Paleolithic, at least 400 thousand years earlier.
In the process of labor, the hand was improved, which could now give natural material a utilitarian and expedient form, and then just as expediently use the object it made. The "intellectual" use of the hand (and eye) sharpened the abilities that made articulate speech and human thinking possible.
The development of mythology certainly contributed to the appearance of symbolic and fantastic images. There is almost no doubt that Paleolithic cave painting not only synthesized observations of animals - objects of hunting - and in this case represented a way of “mastering” them, but also had magical significance as a means of attracting and subduing hunting prey. This is indicated by images of animal spears stuck into the figures. Of course, the “revival” of rock paintings or drawings on the ground among Australians during rituals, aimed at stimulating the reproduction of a given animal species, has a magical character. Fine art was also widely used in more complex rituals, closely related to early religious beliefs. However, there could be (this is confirmed by the example of the same Australians) fine art that was not strictly associated with religious and magical purposes.
In the famous Cave of the Three Brothers there is an image of a disguised man with deer antlers dating back to the Madeleine era, that is, the heyday of Paleolithic painting in Europe. This and similar figures undoubtedly indicate the existence at that time of hunting dances, apparently already having a magical purpose. Dance - this living plasticity - is not only one of the most ancient forms of art, but a form that reached high perfection precisely in the primitive period.
If in the most ancient fine arts expressive figurative imagery was intertwined with ornamental motifs, then in dance the dynamic reproduction of hunting scenes, labor processes and some aspects of everyday life is necessarily subject to a strict rhythm, and the rhythm of movements has been supported by sound rhythm since time immemorial. Primitive music is almost inseparable from dance and has been subordinate to it for a long time.
At the primitive stage, the transformative role of art was often naively identified with a utilitarian goal, achieved not by labor, but by magic. A primitive magical ritual, as animistic and totemic ideas developed and became more complex, veneration of ancestors, master spirits, etc., grew into a religious cult.
The connection between dance and magical ritual, and then religious cult, turned out to be closer than that of fine art, since dance became the main factor in ritual performance.
Folk ritual games, including elements of dance, pantomime, music, partly fine art (and later poetry), in their syncretic unity became the embryo of theater. A specific feature of primitive theater is the use of masks, which genetically goes back to camouflage as a hunting technique (dressing in the skin of an animal in order to approach the object of the hunt without arousing suspicion). Putting on animal skins is common when performing the already mentioned hunting dances among North American Indians, some peoples of Africa, etc. Imitation of animal habits using animal masks and body painting was developed in totemic rituals associated with the corresponding idea of the special kinship of a group of people (certain genera) with certain species of animals or plants, about their origin from common ancestors (who were usually depicted as creatures of half-human, half-animal nature).
The image of the animal (first the object of the hunt, and then the revered totem) precedes the “theater” (as well as in rock art) image of a person. Human masks first appear in funeral and memorial rites in connection with the cult of ancestors (dead relatives).
Wedding ceremony among many peoples it has the features of a unique ritual-syncretistic action, distinct elements of theatricality. The same should be said about various calendar agrarian folk ritual games that depict the change of winter in spring or summer in the form of a struggle, a dispute between two forces, in the form of a “funeral” for a doll or actor, embodying the defeated, dying winter. More complex shapes calendar agrarian mysteries are associated with the cult of a dying and resurrecting god. Such are the ancient Egyptian cult mysteries about Osiris and Isis, the ancient Babylonian New Year celebrations in honor of Marduk, the ancient Greek mysteries in honor of the fertility gods Demeter and Dionysus. (These are, in essence, the genesis of the medieval Christian mysteries.)
The origin of the ancient theater is associated with the Dionysian mysteries.
In archaic forms of theater, the pantomimic element dominates the verbal text, in some cases a small verbal part is transferred to a special “actor” (this feature is still preserved in the traditional theater of Japan and Indonesia). The transformation of ritual and theatrical spectacle into drama occurs already in a historically developed society through a break from ritual and a much more intensive penetration of elements of verbal art, often with the help of writing.
Let's move directly to verbal art.
K. Bücher in the famous book “Work and Rhythm” 2, relying on an extensive collection of work songs of various peoples, hypothesized that “at the lower stages of development, work, music and poetry were something unified, but the main element of this trinity was work”; verse meter directly goes back to labor rhythms, and from labor song the main types of poetry gradually developed - epic, lyricism, drama. This hypothesis represents the connection between labor and poetry in a vulgar, one-sided way.
Outstanding Russian scientist AN. Veselovsky in his “Historical Poetics” saw the roots of not only dance, music, but also poetry in folk ritual. Primitive poetry, according to his concept, was originally a choir song accompanied by dancing and pantomime. In the song, the verbal element was naturally combined with the musical. Thus, poetry arose as if in the depths primitive syncretism types of arts united within the framework of folk ritual. The role of the word at first was insignificant and entirely subordinated to rhythmic and facial principles. The text was improvised on occasion until it finally acquired a traditional character.
A. N. Veselovsky proceeded from the primitive syncretism of not only types of art, but also types of poetry. “The epic and the lyrics seemed to us to be the consequences of the decay of the ancient ritual choir” 3. In his opinion, along with the separation of song from ritual, a differentiation of genders occurs, with epic being distinguished first, and then lyricism and drama. He considers the lyrical-epic character of its early forms to be the legacy of primitive syncretism in the epic. As for the lyrics, it grew out of the emotional cries of the ancient choir and short formulas of various contents as an expression of “collective emotionality”, “group subjectivism” and emerged from ritual syncretism, mainly from spring ritual games. Veselovsky associates the final emphasis on lyricism with a greater individualization of poetic consciousness than in the epic. He builds drama into a folk ritual that has already taken the form of a developed cult. Poetic creativity appears to him in its genesis as collective in the literal sense, that is, as choral. The poet ascends to the singer and, ultimately, to the lead singer of the ritual choir.
Analyzing the corresponding vocabulary, he proves the semantic similarity in the genesis of the concepts of song-tale-action-dance, as well as song-spell-fortune-ritual act.
Veselovsky traces some ancient features of the folk poetic style, for example, verse parallelism, to the ritual and choral roots of poetry, in particular to amoebic (i.e., with the participation of two half-choirs or two singers) performance. But “psychological parallelism” (the comparison of the phenomena of human mental life with the state of natural objects), in his opinion, is rooted in the primitive animistic worldview, which represents all nature as animate. To some features of the primitive worldview and way of life (animism, totemism, exogamy, matriarchy, patriarchy, etc.). Veselovsky constructs a number of typical narrative motifs and plots. His “Historical Poetics”, which arose on the basis of a generalization of the vast material accumulated by classical ethnography and folkloristics of the 19th century, represents the only consistent theory of its kind on the origin of verbal art.
However, the concept of A.N. Veselovsky in the light of the current state of science needs adjustments. Veselovsky very fully traced the role and evolution of the elements of verbal art in folk rituals, and correctly showed the gradual increase in the proportion of verbal text in ritual syncretism. However, the folk ritual, which played an exceptional role in the development of the dance-music-theater complex, cannot be considered as the only source of poetry.
The thesis about the complete original syncretic unity of epic, lyricism and drama is also an exaggeration.
Veselovsky's theory is most productive for understanding the origin of lyric poetry. Folklore lyrics are entirely songlike, and song by its very nature reflects the syncretism of music and poetry. A.N. Veselovsky and at the same time the famous French philologist Gaston Paris convincingly showed the connection between medieval knightly lyrics and the traditions of folk songs from the spring ritual cycle.
The epic in its genesis is much less closely connected with ritual syncretism. True, the song form characteristic of epic poetry probably ultimately goes back to the ritual chorus, but narrative folklore has been transmitted since ancient times both in the form of an oral prose tradition and in a mixed song-or poetic-prose form, with a specific weight in archaic there is more prose (and not less, as follows from the theory of primitive syncretism of types of art and types of poetry). This is explained by the fact that although the role of the word in primitive rituals is much less than the role of the mimic and rhythmic principles, even among the most “primitive” tribes, including the Australian ones, next to the ritual there is a developed tradition of prose storytelling, which ultimately does not go back to expressive, but to the purely communicative function of speech. In this narrative tradition, mythology occupies a huge place, which in no way can be completely removed from the boundaries of poetry.
Research on the origins and early stages of poetic creativity is extremely scarce.
M. Baur does not consider primitive song as the direct embryo of the epic. "Narrative Poetry in in every sense words are absent among the primitives and its place is taken by drama”; “Song is not a normal means for telling myths. They are usually told in prose tales."
Indeed, acquaintance with examples of poetry of culturally backward tribes shows that this poetry is predominantly ritual and lyrical. There are such genres as healer healing spells; hunting songs; war songs; songs associated with agricultural magic and accompanying both the labor operations of the farmer and the corresponding spring ritual; funeral lamentations, songs of death; wedding and love songs; “disgraceful” songs, playful song squabbles; various songs that accompany dances and are one of the elements of complex ritual ceremonies; spells-prayer addressed to various spirits and gods.
Many songs have a magical purpose, for example, witchcraft spells, songs about the growth and reproduction of plants...
Ritual and lyric poetry known only in song form, very often in combination with a theatrical and dramatic element. From the point of view of the sophistication of the stylistic structure, ritual poetry comes first, followed by the lyrical songs themselves. Songs can be very short, consisting of one word (for example, describing a particular animal) or two words (for example, the word "warrior" and the name of the warrior), but they can also be quite extensive.
In lyric poetry, in addition to parallelism, refrains and repetition, literal or with variations, are widely encountered. Metaphors are found in primitive poetry. They are also common in oratorical prose when describing the greatness of leaders or warriors. Some metaphors owe their origin to the taboo against mentioning death and illness. IN ritual poetry constant metaphorical formulas have developed.
The epic in its genesis is much less associated with ritual syncretism than lyrics. Classical epic monuments of European and Asian peoples for the most part poetic, but in the more archaic monuments of the epic (for example, in the tales of the peoples of the Caucasus, in the heroic poems of the Turkic-Mongol peoples of Siberia, in the Irish epic, etc.) the proportion of prose is greater, the so-called mixed form is often found, i.e. a combination of prose and poetry. The verses mostly convey the speeches of the characters and solemn epic descriptions. Some stories have come down to us in both poetic and prose form. On the other hand, in fairy tales of various peoples there are often poetic inclusions that can be interpreted as a relic of the same mixed form.
If we turn directly to primitive folklore, we will be convinced that the stories here, as a rule, do not exist in the form of songs, but in the form of oral prose with poetic inserts...
Although the song form of the heroic epic probably ultimately goes back to the primitive ritual-lyrical song, narrative folklore has been transmitted since ancient times mainly as a prosaic or predominantly prosaic (mixed) tradition. The combination of prose and verse (song) in a mixed tradition is, of course, something completely different than a lyric-epic song in the understanding of A.N. Veselovsky.
The origin of verbal art cannot be studied only “from the outside,” in its relationship with ritual and other forms of existence. The internal aspect of this problem leads us to myth.
The close connection between myth and ritual in primitive and ancient Eastern cultures is beyond doubt; some myths actually directly went back to rituals (for example, myths about dying and resurrecting gods). However, there are myths that are clearly independent of ritual in their genesis and do not even have ritual equivalents. In rituals, fragments of myths that arose completely independently were often staged. It is known that, for example, among the Bushmen or some groups of American Indians, mythology is much richer than rituals. The same applies to Ancient Greece, unlike Egypt or Mesopotamia. The question of the relationship between myths and rituals in genetic terms is adequate to the “chicken-egg” problem (who from whom?!). Mythology refers not to the sphere of behavior, but to the sphere of thinking, which, of course, does not exclude the interdependence of these two spheres.
Ancient myths contain, in a still undeveloped unity, the germs of art, religion, and pre-scientific ideas about nature and society. Mythology undoubtedly was the “cradle” and “school” of poetic fantasy, and in many ways anticipated its specifics, although the complete identification of mythology and literature proposed by “ritual-mythological” literary studies (Bodkin, Fry, Chase, etc.) certainly cannot be accepted.
But only Lévi-Strauss was able to truly describe mythological thinking in terms of its generation of symbolic modeling systems and, unlike Lévy-Bruhl, show the intellectual ability of myth for classification and analysis, while explaining at the same time those of its specific features that bring it closer to art: thinking on a sensory level, thinking that achieves its goals in indirect ways (“bricolage”) and uses a kaleidoscopic rearrangement of a ready-made set of elements, purely metaphorical thinking - some myths turn out to be metaphorical (less often metonymic) transformations of others, conveying the same “message” in different “codes” ; transformations of mythological texts become a means of revealing symbolic (not allegorical) meaning.
The importance of mythology is very great in the development of various types of arts, in the very genesis of artistic and imaginative thinking, but, of course, mythological storytelling had a specific significance for the formation of verbal storytelling.
Narrative poetry, which has language and plot as its primary elements, has such relative independence to a minimal extent.
The specificity of a primitive myth lies in the fact that ideas about the structure of the world are conveyed in the form of a narrative about the origin of certain of its elements. At the same time, the events of mythical time from the life of the “first ancestors” appear as the final causes of the current state of the world. From the point of view of science, events and people are determined by the state of the world; from the point of view of myth, the state of the world is the result of individual events, the actions of individual mythical personalities. Thus, narration is included in the very specificity of primitive myth. Myth is not only a worldview, but also a narrative. Hence the special importance of myth for the formation of verbal art, primarily narrative.
Not many people are given the happiness of close communication with artists of words.
So look for opportunities to hear them.
I.V. Ilyinsky
introduction
“The written word and the spoken word are not equivalent. Because it’s not only important What said, but also How said. And in this sense, the word sounds richer than what is reproduced on paper” 1. These words of the outstanding master of the sounding word Irakli Andronikov, spoken by him in connection with the publication of a unique book about writers’ voices, are heard today as if from another era.
For about two decades, literary reading in school has been completely forgotten. If some attention is paid to it, it is only within the framework of memorizing the obligatory minimum of program works. In some places, attempts are being made to revive reading competitions, but here too, as a rule, they are timed to coincide with significant historical dates. Expressive reading as an educational and educational task withdrawn from the high school curriculum. True, the priority in this matter does not belong to the school.
There are at least two reasons for the decline in interest in the spoken word. The first is a sharp decline in the general level of performing arts, the disappearance of the entire genre of artistic expression from the stage, and the replacement of word culture with a surrogate. At the heart of this sad phenomenon is the destruction of the reading school. From whom, if not from the masters of artistic expression, does this specific culture? In the last two decades, their reproduction has practically stopped. It cannot be said that society has lost interest in literary reading. Society has simply been deprived of this art. The second reason must be sought in the teaching leadership. Parallel to the disappearance of an entire genre from the stage pedagogical structures responsible for software and methodological support educational process, stopped research and development in this area. Materials devoted to the art of the spoken word have disappeared from the pages of pedagogical magazines. All this happened unnoticed, so older generation Teachers noticed this loss when those who had virtually no knowledge of the reading culture came to school.
It doesn’t take long to convince that artistic reading is a necessary component of a person’s general culture. This idea was expressed forty years ago by the classic reader of the genre I.V. Ilyinsky: “Classes and work on the artistic word develop a person’s culture, enrich and sharpen his language, fill his soul” 2. Now we can add to these golden words that the art of the sounding word can serve as an effective antidote to electronic hobbies and diseases of modern man, unknown to Ilyinsky’s generation.
It is very difficult to raise this layer of culture and return it to school. The efforts of the teaching community alone are not enough. The work should begin with an analysis of the state of reading culture in the recent past.
Previously, we had an established mechanism for introducing people to the culture and aesthetics of the artistic word. Education began in kindergarten and was a single structure, including school, radio, television and the theater community. Let’s just remember Nikolai Litvinov’s wonderful programs, which attracted a huge children’s audience. There was coordination between masters of artistic expression and the teaching community in creating joint educational programs.
Literary reading as an educational task has two sides: the actual reading and listening to examples of artistic words. The second side is no less important than the first, since “the ability to listen to readers, like the ability to listen to music, watch pictures and performances, enriches a person’s inner world” 3. It is possible to educate a cultured listener, as well as a reader, only through high examples of the spoken word.
Domestic verbal culture has a wealth of material representing reading school. The proposed elective course is structured as listening to classics of the genre and analyzing their skills and performance features. In terms of material coverage, the course is one of the integrated ones. It combines language, literature and theater arts.
From the history of the art of the sounding word
The reading of literary works in front of an audience of listeners began to develop into an independent genre in the 1840s. Interest in him initially came from the word artists themselves. Some of them were inimitable storytellers and readers. One of them, N.V. Gogol, dedicated an article (letter) to the young genre, “Readings of Russian poets before the public”: “I am glad,” wrote the author of “The Inspector General,” “that we have finally begun public readings of the works of our writers<...>I think we need public reading<...>Skilled readers must be created among us<...>Reading a literary work properly is not a trifle at all.”
The entire second half of the 19th century became preparatory stage to the formation of the reading genre. School teachers played a significant role in this matter. With their reading in literary classics classes, they laid the foundation for the art of the spoken word and instilled interest in it. “Peculiarities of V. Ostrogorsky’s activities<учителя словесности
петербургской гимназии>, - recalls the famous dramatic actress Elizaveta Thieme, - consisted of widespread propaganda “ expressive reading”. <...>Ostrogorsky back in the seventies
Some readers came from an acting background, but already during the period of self-determination of the genre, both performers and listeners understood that “the art of reading is completely independent, having all the rights to exist next to the theater, art in the full sense of the word is high and beautiful” 5 .
The genre gains recognition with the appearance of professional readers on the stage. The primacy in this, undoubtedly, belongs to Alexander Yakovlevich Zakushnyak, who organized the famous “story evenings” in 1924. And in 1937, the first All-Union competition of professional readers took place. At that time Vladimir Nikolaevich Yakhontov creates the Theater of One Actor - the Reader's Theater. The names of the masters become known throughout the country artistic reading– V. Aksenova, D. Orlova, D. Zhuravleva, I. Shvarts, E. Kaminki and others. Various theater actors such as V. Kachalov, A. Ostuzhev periodically perform reading programs. I. Ilyinsky, A. Koonen, A. Ktorov, N. Mordvinov, V. Maretskaya. Through their efforts, the theoretical foundations of young art are created, the specifics of the genre, its technique and varieties are determined.
The first generation of professional readers formed an audience of listeners, which, with the advent of radio in every home, became truly multimillion-dollar. Chamber at first, the genre quickly became one of the most popular. Secondary schools and national cultural universities played a major role in its popularization.
Back in 1918, the Institute of the Living Word was founded, at which the Cabinet for the Study of Artistic Speech operated for many years, the constant owner of which was the famous linguist Professor S.I. Bernstein. The unique sound fund of the Cabinet served to popularize and publish literary classics of the 20th century in the author's performance.
For many years in Moscow, in Armenian Lane, the Correspondence People's University of Arts was located, which included a department of artistic reading in the theater department. In the All-Union Theater Society, under the section of artist-readers, a methodological commission worked for many years, providing assistance to teachers and amateur groups in working on artistic expression.
Since 1965, the annual “The Art of the Sounding Word” began to be published, intended for school teachers. It published articles by recognized masters of the reading genre, revealed the principles of the art of reading, techniques for working on text, etc. The collection was published over 25 years (38 issues) and made a huge contribution to the cultivation of the culture of artistic expression.
By that time, the All-Union Recording Studio had accumulated a rich fund of examples of reading art, and the Melodiya company began producing gramophone records with their recordings. The voices of V. Yakhontov and Y. Smolensky, A. Pokrovsky and A. Slobodsky, R. Plyatt and S. Balashov were heard throughout the country.
By that time, reading competitions had become regular and multi-stage: city (village) - district - region - republic - Union. They were educational in nature and identified many talented youth. To a large extent, they provided the unsurpassed level of announcer art that we had until the 1990s. They set a high aesthetic criterion for the spoken word and raised the scale of demands.
In the mid-1970s, each school acquired a music library, in which recordings of domestic readers occupied a worthy place. Literature lessons were already unthinkable without listening to recordings of the poems of Pushkin, Lermontov, Nekrasov, Yesenin, Mayakovsky, and the prose of Gogol and Chekhov. But then these records did not replace printed texts, but supplemented them, enriching them. verbal culture schoolchildren. Unfortunately, then, at the turn of the 1960s and 1970s, in the era of enthusiasm for electives, it was not possible to create a similar course in verbal arts. Most likely, this fact can be explained by the extraordinary wealth and accessibility of examples of artistic expression that the school and society had at their disposal. Then, unfortunately, it was not possible to assess the danger of those trends in the field of speech culture, which were fully revealed later, already at the end of the 1980s.
In the 1990s, the literary genre did not die, but underwent a complex transformation. Like many areas of culture, it has not escaped commercialization. Along with the classic recordings, which were periodically reissued by various recording companies, new ones were also made. All of them, as a rule, are of a low level, since they mainly pursue non-pedagogical and non-educational goals. Actors who had never previously worked in the spoken word genre were often involved in such work. For example, in the 1990s, a huge number of works of Russian classics were voiced by the popular theater and film actor Vladimir Samoilov. But there is not a single one of them worthy of being placed next to the classics of the reading genre. A number of young actors in Moscow theaters did the same work with the same result. Not a single recording of the 1990s became an event in the art world.
In addition to actors, professional speakers began to record literary works. Well-known announcers E. Ternovsky and I. Prudovsky in the recent past recorded the entire “Anna Karenina” and the entire “War and Peace”. It is obvious that they were not persecuted artistic purposes. Such notes are intended to save those schoolchildren from reading who were too lazy to open the book, that is, they were performing an anti-pedagogical task that brought commercial benefit. This shifted the boundaries of genres and damaged the aesthetics of the artistic word. The prominent master of the reading genre, V.N., once warned against such a danger. Aksenov: “Often the literary material itself can captivate listeners, regardless of the skill of the performer,” he wrote in the mid-1950s. - We know readers who take interesting book and, without making almost any effort to elevate their reading to art, they reveal to their listeners plot. Such readers are “transmitters” of other people’s thoughts and words and have very little in common with art” 6.
In recent years, the Melodiya company has offered a whole program of publishing old classical recordings with the voices of the masters. In addition to solo numbers, it included classical radio plays. These recordings will help revive interest in high art. And in order to fit this material into the educational program, an elective course is needed that will help high school students become familiar with this art.
The originality of the artistic and verbal genre.
Originality is determined by the position of the genre between books and theater. The discrepancy between acting and reading art runs along the line of “appropriation of the text.” For the actor, he becomes absolutely his own, while the reciter’s word, in comparison with the actor’s, leaves room for understatement.
Another feature of the genre is that the actor's word is associated with the action. The reader strives for the “liberated word.” The reader, both on the stage and in sound recording, cannot limit himself to creating the image of one character, as in a play. He must recreate in the story pictures of nature, the sounds of music, and the sound of rain, as well as portraits of the heroes, their characters, the subtlest feelings and moods. The most expressive description of the reading genre was given by V.N. Yakhontov: “The art of literary expression is built on the conviction that the word is visible.”
Reading intended for the stage places specific demands on the performer: “dynamics, conciseness, temperament, concentration of all performing capabilities and expressive means in a concise and clear form" 7 . The genre of oral storytelling presupposes a form that is capable of resolving the style of a particular author through a combination of intonation and composition of the text.
Another outstanding master of artistic expression and genre theorist, A.I. Schwartz formulated the categories that make up the aesthetic nature of the art of literary reading: “1) Positive ideal; 2) Main idea; 3) The image of the narrator; 4) The attitude of the narrator to individual elements of the plot” 8. Ya.M. Smolensky believed that the most important element of the art of reading is the “logic of speech.” He considered mastering it a pedagogical task, because the unfavorable state of elementary reading logic “is a consequence of the one-sidedness in teaching the laws of logic at school.” Reading poetry will help solve this problem, since poetry disciplines thinking and “exacerbates the “rigidity” of the verbal form” 9 . And finally, the most important condition for the art of reading is language. “A master of artistic expression must have an excellent knowledge of his native language, take into account and feel all its nuances, the subtlest shades of thought and feeling” 10.
Since the emergence of the genre, two types of reading have been distinguished: story and theatricalization. Their founders and largest representatives were Zakushnyak and Yakhontov. Zakushnyak was an unsurpassed storyteller. Yakhontov created the genre of one-man theater. He loved to use sparse props, interiors, and historical costumes, which introduced elements of acting into the reading. The tradition of the story was brilliantly developed by I. Andronikov, who united both the author and the performer in one person. Alisa Koonen worked successfully in the genre of theatrical solo performance in the 1950s–1970s, after leaving the main stage. The synthesis of the arts - reading and music - is achieved in the genre of literary and musical montage, which received wide recognition in the 1960s and 1970s in the brilliant compositions of Alexei Pokrovsky.
Author's performance occupies a special place in the art of literary expression. The technique made it possible to preserve the voices of many classics of the 20th century, and even L. Tolstoy. Back in the 1920s, V. Mayakovsky insisted on releasing gramophone records with poems performed by the poets themselves. The systematic publication of such records began in 1956.
Author's reading, which is to a certain extent a means of self-expression, helps to better understand the artistic writer's world, to rethink textbook works. The voice of each author has a unique aesthetic, and its sound is often valuable in itself. He is able to influence the imagination with extraordinary power.
Take, for example, the well-known monologue of Khlopushi from S. Yesenin’s dramatic poem “Pugachev”. The poet invested such energy into this reading that it captivates the listener and shakes him to the core. Yesenin’s voice sounds in contrast to the idea of the poet that usually develops in the process of reading his poems in books. Yesenin here rises to high tragedy, and no artist can compete with him in this monologue.
Methodology for organizing classes
The initial and most important stage in working on the course is the competent selection of material. It has already been said above that the modern recording market is filled with products of far from high quality. Plus, not all classic recordings are reissued. Therefore, a teacher, if he has the equipment, can successfully use old gramophone records. They have been preserved in the collections of many youth libraries. For example, the Russian State Youth Library in Moscow provides re-recording of reading programs from vinyl discs to new media as a service.
The 38 issues of the collection “The Art of the Sounding Word” will be a great help in the teacher’s work. Its constant editor and author of a number of articles O.M. Itina provided many issues with methodological recommendations. For several years, she made diary entries in which she consistently analyzed the reading art of many masters of the sounding word. The methodologist periodically shared her observations with readers. “Learning with records is very important and useful<...>. First, you need to let students enjoy the work as a whole, without trying to immediately intrude on the resulting impression. And then start a conversation about what you heard, repeat the points that interested you... Then try together to understand what paths the performer followed in his work, how exactly he achieved the necessary impression” 11 - this is how the author of the work “On Readers and Listeners” draws a diagram of a lesson on studying the art of reading .
The program has been compiled taking into account the availability of sound recordings for modern school. It includes examples of classics of the reading genre. Among them are both the readers themselves and the actors. The combination of acting and reading talents is a rather rare phenomenon in art. Not many people combined both gifts (V.I. Kachalov, V.N. Aksenov, I.V. Ilyinsky, E.I. Time). Others either completely devoted themselves to the stage, or the latter served as an addition to their main acting role (A.G. Koonen, N.D. Mordvinov, M.F. Astangov, B.A. Babochkin).
The proposed course is recommended for philological classes at the final stage of training, when high school students have accumulated the necessary minimum knowledge of Russian literature. The goal of the course is to educate a cultured listener who can appreciate Russian speech and enjoy the art of the spoken word.
In 1919, in one of the conversations at Creative Mondays, K.S. Stanislavsky dropped catchphrase: “...We now have a turn word. We must look for ways to reach it” 12. Our turning point cultural era should put these classic words as a motto.
The article was published with the support of the National Educational Institution of Secondary Professional Education "Capital Professional Business College". NOU SPO "SPBK" offers to sign up for acting training in Moscow. Experienced teachers"SPBC" will help to reveal creative potential student, develop and hone his vocal and stage skills, and fully master all the subtleties and professional techniques of acting. You can learn more about the offer of the department of theatrical and pop art of the NOU SPO "SPBK" on the website www.SPBK-OTEI.com
PROGRAM
1. Introduction. 2 hours. From the history of the genre. AND I. Zakushnyak and V.N. Yakhontov are the founders of the “literary concert”. Evenings of Zakushnyak's story and Yakhontov's one-man theater. The essence of reading art, its difference from acting. Features of the reciter's word. Speech technique. Word and music. Two types of reading on stage - theatricalization and storytelling. Genres: oral history, performance cycle, literary program, plot cycle. Reader-storyteller and literary material. Two types of embodiment of the reader’s plan are stage and sound recording.
2. A. Pokrovsky – V.A. Zhukovsky. A tale about Tsar Berendey, about his son Ivan Tsarevich, about the tricks of Koshchei the Immortal and about the wisdom of Princess Marya, Koshchey’s daughter. 2 hours. Melodiousness of speech, close to melodic declamation. Gravity towards the musical construction of a phrase. Intonation closeness to the performance of folk storytellers (epic style).
3.
V.N. Yakhontov – A.S. Griboyedov. Woe from Wit (fragments: scenes from Act IV).
2 hours.“The unknown power of the voice”, “Music of thought and feeling”. Yakhontov is a “poet with someone else’s words.” The uniqueness of a one-man theater. A wealth of poetic voices. Melody, sense of phrase, sense of rhythm of the entire piece. “Speech should sound like poetry” is Yakhontov’s creative credo. Musical comprehension of the word. Richness and originality of intonations. Laconism of expressive means.
4. IN AND. Kachalov – A.S. Pushkin. The captain's daughter (fragment); Ruslan and Lyudmila (fragment). 2 hours.“Kachalov is a whole era in the history of verbal art, its symbol, its secret, its celebration” (P.P. Kogan). Velvety timbre, harmony of music of speech and deep thought. “The undoubted exponent of the melodious Russian language” (V.N. Aksenov). Full and euphonious speech, precise articulation, charm of a low, chesty voice. The finest balance between reading and playing. Intonation richness. Narrative “characteristics” in prose. Poetic melodiousness in the lyrical-epic genre. Intonation-strophic division of a phrase. Declamation as the basis of style.
5. A.A. Ostuzhev – A.S. Pushkin. The Stingy Knight (Baron's monologue). 1 hour. The originality of the actor’s creative destiny and its reflection in reading. Emotional richness of the voice, melodiousness (Chaliapin school). Passionate pathos and temperament combined with deep sincerity. Romantic spirituality of performance.
6. D.N. Zhuravlev – A.S. Pushkin. Queen of Spades. 2 hours. Accuracy of figurative vision, authenticity of the story. Psychological depth in revealing character. Poetry and truthfulness of performance, sensitive sense of phrase. The ability to moderately “move away” from the work, not to get bogged down in details, but to embrace everything in its entirety. Intonation accuracy of scenes.
7. N.D. Mordvinov – M.Yu. Lermontov. A song about the merchant Kalashnikov. 2 hours. Heroic-romantic (Mochalovsky) manner of performance. Differentiation of phrasing depending on the semantic content of the line (appealing, songlike, narrative, dramatic pathos). Epic epicness in intonation. Richness of the sound range - from a whisper to a scream.
Psychological transformation when depicting characters. The melodic richness of speech - from melodic recitation to singing.
8. A.K. Slobodskaya – N.V. Gogol. Overcoat (or I.V. Ilyinsky. Old world landowners). 2 hours. Stylistic richness, a combination of irony, humor, realistic “objectivity” of the story. Theatrical performance: playing with intonations when conveying the characters’ speech. Use of improperly direct speech in the function of direct speech. Consistency in deployment end-to-end action works. Weakening Gogol's fiction for the purpose of unity of executive intent.
9. A.I. Schwartz – N.V. Gogol. Dead Souls(excerpts from the poem: chapters 8–11, abridged). 3 hours.
“A master of deep, voluminous disclosure of the semantic, ideological and philosophical essence of a work” (D.N. Zhuravlev). Simplicity, restraint, parsimony of means combined with immeasurable depth. Temperament of thought and high intelligence. The image of the narrator, “depicting a character.” Intonation indirect speech in direct function as a favorite reading technique.
10. E.A. Polevitskaya, A.G. Koonen – I.S. Turgenev. Poems in prose. 2 hours. Polevitskaya's emotional spontaneity combined with psychological precision. Conveying subtle shades of experiences. The pathetic performance of Koonen. Richness of intonation colors.
11. I.V. Ilyinsky – M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Fairy tales (“Crucian idealist”, “Horse”).
2 hours. Ilyinsky is a reader-storyteller. “To help goodness and truth from the stage with laughter and tears” is the creative credo of Ilyinsky the reader. The narrator's mask combined with the image of the characters. "Direct improvisation" A masterful adaptation of the throaty voice to storytelling and acting.
12. Ya.M. Smolensky – L.N. Tolstoy. Two hussars. 2 hours. Smolensky is an artist who is alien to emphasized emotionality. Restraint of colors. Excellent mastery of emotion. "Spiritualized rationalism." Freeing the word from excessive emotion. Focus on the deep plasticity of the word. Flexible and sonorous regularity of speech. The capacity of the word, “within which there is thought, movement, mise-en-scène and image.”
13. D.N. Zhuravlev – A.P. Chekhov. About love. House with mezzanine. Lady with a dog. 2 hours. Restraint in conveying deep feelings. “Wave” style of performance: raising and lowering the tone depending on the semantic load of the fragment. Transmitting someone else's speech by raising or lowering the voice. Three types of intonation: calm, sustained tone in descriptions; dynamic speech in narration; logical clarity of phrasing in reasoning. Emotional tension in the transmission of strong experiences. Classic expressiveness of Old Moscow pronunciation.
14.
N.S. Plotnikov, V.A. Sperantova – M. Gorky. Grandfather Arkhip and Lenka (composition).
2 hours. The expressiveness of the external drawing, the art of Plotnikov’s transformation. Sperantova is a “miracle of the air”, a master of “childish” intonations. Psychologically accurate disclosure of the child’s inner world. Heartfelt lyricism.
15. M.F. Astangov – I.A. Bunin. Mister from San Francisco. 2 hours. Intellectual reader. Brilliant mastery of the art of psychological grotesquery. Philosophical comprehension of images.
16. Poems by Russian poets performed by the author. 2 hours. A.A. Block (poems chosen by the teacher). Creative credo: “economy of means of expression is a general principle of art.” Masterly mastery of the form of poetry pronunciation. The predominance of the ethical moment in reading over the aesthetic one (not so much admires as shocks). "Fearless Sincerity" (M. Gorky). Reading “full of either sadness or doom” (B. Agapov). S.A. Yesenin. "Inner Musical Power" (I. Evdokimov). “The combination of grace and strength of the “barbaric temperament” and artistry” (Frans Elens). Infectious sincerity, masculinity, high tragedy. V.V. Mayakovsky. Closeness to the intonations of natural, conversational speech. Dynamic construction sounding phrases, reflecting and specifying the semantic structure of a poetic text. “Demonstration of yourself, your thoughts, your passion, your spiritual experience” (P. Antokolsky). “I demand louder than the violinists the rights to the gramophone record.” A contrasting transition from melodious reading to everyday intonation of direct address to listeners.
17. M.A. Sholokhov reads excerpts from the novel “Virgin Soil Upturned” (story by grandfather Shchukar, excerpt from chapter 29). 1 hour. Two faces of Sholokhov the reader: actor and narrator. Virtuoso acting. Masterful likening of the hero's intonation (Shchukar). Restraint, conveying inner experiences and drama of events.
18. Reserve activity. 2 hours.
19. Final lesson. 2 hours. Independent analysis of a passage or completed work. An essay about a master you like. An abstract about the reader’s creativity (optional by the teacher and students).
1 I.L. Andronikov. Sound word. Shilov L.A. The voices began again. M., 1977.
2 Sat. "The art of the sounding word." Vol. 4. M., 1968. P. 27.
3 Sat. "The art of the sounding word." Vol. 1. M., 1965. P. 144.
4 Time E. Roads of art. M., 1967. P. 94.
5 Zhuravlev D.N. About the art of the reader. Sat. "The art of the sounding word." Vol. 1. P. 9.
6 Aksenov V
7 Zakushnyak A.Ya. Story evenings. Sat. "The art of the sounding word." Vol. 2. M., 1966. P. 17.
8 A.I. Schwartz. Notes from a reader. Sat. "The art of the sounding word." Vol. 2. M., 1966. P. 52.
9 Sat. "The art of the sounding word." Vol. 3. M., 1967. P. 23.
10 Aksenov V. The art of artistic words. M., 1962. P. 50.
11 Sat. "The art of the sounding word." Vol. 24. M., 1981.
12 Stanislavsky K. S. Collection Op. in 9 volumes. T. 6, part 1. M., 1994. P. 489.
O.G. EGOROV,
Doctor of Philology,
Lyceum of Zheleznodorozhny,
Moscow region
The material carrier of the imagery of literary works is the word that has received written embodiment. A word (including an artistic one) always means something and has an objective character. Literature, in other words, belongs to the group of fine arts, in the broad sense of the subject, where individual phenomena are recreated (persons, events, things, moods caused by something and impulses of people directed towards something). In this respect, it is similar to painting and sculpture (in their dominant, “figurative” variety) and differs from the non-figurative, non-objective arts. The latter are usually called expressive; they capture the general nature of the experience outside of its direct connections with any objects, facts, or events. These are music, dance (if it does not turn into pantomime - into the depiction of action through body movements), ornament, so-called abstract painting, architecture.
Verbal paintings (images), unlike paintings, sculptures, stage paintings, and screen paintings, are immaterial. That is, in literature there is figurativeness (subjectivity), but there is no direct visibility of images. Turning to visible reality, writers are able to give only its indirect, mediated reproduction. Literature masters the intelligible integrity of objects and phenomena, but not their sensually perceived appearance. Writers appeal to our imagination, and not directly to visual perception.
The immateriality of verbal fabric predetermines the visual richness and diversity of literary works. Here, according to Lessing, images “can be located next to each other in extreme quantity and variety, without covering each other and without harming each other, which cannot be the case with real things or even with their material reproductions.” Literature has infinitely wide visual (informative, cognitive) possibilities, because through words one can designate everything that is in a person’s horizons. The universality of literature has been spoken about more than once. Thus, Hegel called literature “a universal art, capable of developing and expressing any content in any form.” According to him, literature extends to everything that “in one way or another interests and occupies the spirit.”
Being insubstantial and lacking clarity, verbal and artistic images at the same time depict a fictional reality and appeal to the reader’s vision. This side of literary works is called verbal plasticity. Paintings through words are organized more according to the laws of recollection of what is seen, rather than as a direct, instantaneous transformation of visual perception. In this regard, literature is a kind of mirror of the “second life” of visible reality, namely, its presence in human consciousness. Verbal works capture subjective reactions to the objective world to a greater extent than the objects themselves as directly visible.
Fiction is a multifaceted phenomenon. There are two main sides in its composition. The first is fictitious objectivity, images of “non-verbal” reality. The second is speech constructions themselves, verbal structures. The actual verbal aspect of literature, in turn, is two-dimensional. Speech here appears, firstly, as a means of representation ( material carrier imagery) as a way of evaluative illumination of non-verbal reality; and, secondly, as the subject of the image - statements belonging to someone and characterizing someone. Literature, in other words, is capable of recreating the speech activity of people, and this particularly sharply distinguishes it from all other types of art. Only in literature does a person appear as a speaker.
Literature has two forms of existence: it exists both as a single-component art (in the form of readable works), and as an invaluable component of synthetic arts. This applies to the greatest extent to dramatic works, which are inherently intended for the theater. But other types of literature are also involved in syntheses of the arts: lyrics come into contact with music (song, romance), going beyond the boundaries of book existence. Lyrical works are readily interpreted by actors-readers and directors (when creating stage compositions). Narrative prose also finds its way onto stage and screen. And the books themselves often appear as synthetic works of art: the writing of letters (especially in old handwritten texts), ornaments, and illustrations are also significant in their composition. By participating in artistic syntheses, literature provides other types of art (primarily theater and cinema) with rich food , proving to be the most generous of them and acting as a conductor of the arts.
Literature is usually considered from two sides:
How to activity
As a work (product of activity)
As a type of activity: the semiotic nature of art, the aesthetic nature of art, the communicative nature of art.
Semiotic nature of art is associated with the nature of the sign in general: signifier, signified and meaning (or conventionality, referentiality and conceptuality). Literature is a secondary sign system (primary is language).
Aesthetic nature of art: attitude and activity. Aesthetic attitude is emotional reflection, experiencing an experience. “Art is always the author’s externality in relation to what is depicted” (Bakhtin). An example with Chekhov. Value activity is introduced. “The author must take such a non-life position that will allow him to see the phenomenon as integrity - an objective prerequisite for an aesthetic attitude” (Bakhtin).
The communicative nature of art took shape spontaneously. L.N. Tolstoy kept constant diaries (“Childhood”, “War Stories”). Art is a mechanism of communication, of finding others like yourself. Reader empathy and participation in the creation of an image: the unification of creative (author) and receptive (reader) consciousness.
Literature as the art of words is the dynamic nature of the verbal image. The first theorist to pose the problem of the nature of the verbal image, and, consequently, the place of literature among the arts, was Lessing, who stated that sculpture is a static spatial art. Each type of art has its own ultimate task. Static arts have a focus on bodily beauty (capturing eternally beautiful physicality), and literature has aesthetic and ethical values (Helen in Homer). If we put only the dynamic principle at the forefront, then we can also include music here. Signs in painting are natural, they are similar to what they depict; signs in poetry are arbitrary, have nothing to do with the subject. In music, a sequence of sounds affects, and in poetry, a sequence of meanings, it is marked by orderliness and a rapid change of ideas. Poetry is the music of the soul.
A special language or a special use of it? Does verbal material, once part of a work, remain the same means of social communication, while receiving additional functions, or is this material included in the work only on the condition that it is organized by the author as a special language?
Poetic language is initially special (Potebnya). The theory of allegorical language as a source for art. Poetry is created from polysemantic words, which have both an internal meaning and an idea that can break away from it.
Formalists believed that language has a natural poetic function; it is the main factor explaining the phenomenon of literariness.
Jacobson spoke of the self-directedness of the message, the “tangibility of the artistic form.” Opacity poetic language, speech with a focus on expression. Aesthetic effect of a difficult shape. One of the 6 functions of language according to Jacobson is poetic.
Philosophical-linguistic approach (L. Wilgenstein, M. Bakhtin). According to Bakhtin, the linguistic whole and the archetypal whole. The process of transforming a linguistic whole into an archetypal one. An aesthetic object does not include the aesthetic form, but its value. The author's aesthetic assessment is a reaction to a reaction, an attitude towards the positions of the characters, an expression in how these positions are compared.
Type of speech: poetry and prose. Poetry is rhythmically ordered speech. There is white (without rhyme) and free (not rhythmically ordered) verse. Poetic? poetic.
The relationship between structure and semantics is called verbally. The most large group- poetic verbal images: ready-made - figures (tropes), topoi, emblems and unready ones, which are a product of the author's world - images-symbols.
Literarycentrism
In different eras, preference was given to different types of art. In antiquity, sculpture was most influential; as part of the aesthetics of the Renaissance and the 17th century. the experience of painting dominated. Subsequently (in the 18th century, even more so in the 19th century), literature moved to the forefront of art, and accordingly there was a shift in theory. In his Laocoon, Lessing, in contrast to the traditional point of view, emphasized the advantages of poetry over painting and sculpture. According to Kant, “of all the arts, poetry holds first place.” With even greater energy, V.G. elevated verbal art above all others. Belinsky, who claims that poetry is the “highest kind of art”, that it “contains all the elements of other arts” and therefore “represents the entire integrity of art.” In the era of romanticism, music shared the role of leader in the world of art with poetry. Such judgments (both “literary-centric” and “music-centric”), reflecting shifts in artistic XIX culture- the beginning of the 20th century, at the same time one-sided and vulnerable. In contrast to the hierarchical elevation of one type of art above all others, theorists of our century emphasize the equality of artistic activity. It is no coincidence that the phrase “family of muses” is widely used. The 20th century (especially in its second half) was marked by serious shifts in the relationships between types of art. Art forms based on new means of mass communication emerged, strengthened and gained influence: oral speech heard on the radio and, most importantly, the visual imagery of cinema and television began to successfully compete with the written and printed word. In this regard, concepts emerged that, in relation to the first half of the century, can be rightfully called “film-centric”, and in the second half – “telecentric”. In contrast to the extremes of traditional literary centrism and modern telecentrism, it is right to say that literary literature in our time is the first among equal arts. The peculiar leadership of literature in the family of arts, clearly felt in the 19th-20th centuries, is associated not so much with its own aesthetic properties, but with its cognitive and communicative capabilities. After all, the word is a universal form of human consciousness and communication. And literary works are capable of actively influencing readers even in cases where they do not have brightness and scale as aesthetic values. Thinkers of the 20th century argue that poetry is related to other arts as metaphysics is to science, that it, being the focus of interpersonal understanding, is close to philosophy. At the same time, literature is characterized as “the materialization of self-consciousness” and “the memory of the spirit about itself.” The performance of non-artistic functions by literature turns out to be especially significant in moments and periods when social conditions and the political system are unfavorable for society. “A people deprived of public freedom,” wrote A.I. Herzen, “literature is the only platform from the height of which he makes the cry of his indignation and his conscience heard.”