Italian folk song: a path through the centuries. Tarantella: the personification of the Italian temperament

There are many peoples coexisting in the world who communicate in different languages. But people throughout history did not speak only with words. In ancient times, songs and dances were used to spiritualize one's emotions and thoughts.

Dance art against the backdrop of cultural development

Italian culture is of great importance against the backdrop of world achievements. The beginning of its rapid growth coincides with the birth new era- Renaissance. Actually, the Renaissance arises precisely in Italy and develops internally for some time, without touching other countries. His first successes occurred in the 14th-15th centuries. Later from Italy they spread throughout Europe. The development of folklore also begins in the 14th century. The fresh spirit of art, a different attitude towards the world and society, a change in values ​​were directly reflected in folk dances.

Renaissance influence: new steps and balls

In the Middle Ages, Italian movements to music were performed in steps, smoothly, and with swaying. The Renaissance changed attitudes towards God, which was reflected in folklore. Italian dances acquired energy and lively movements. So the “full stop” steps symbolized the earthly origin of man, his connection with the gifts of nature. And the movement “on toes” or “with a jump” identified a person’s desire for God and his glorification. The Italian dance heritage is based on them. Their combination is called “balli” or “ballo”.

Italian folk musical instruments from the Renaissance

Works of folklore were performed to the accompaniment. The following tools were used for this:

• Harpsichord (Italian "chembalo"). First mention: Italy, XIV century.
• Tambourine (a type of tambourine, the ancestor of the modern drum). Dancers also used it during movements.
• Violin (a bowed instrument that originated in the 15th century). Its Italian variety is viola.
• Lute (plucked string instrument.)
• Pipes, flutes and oboes.

Dance variety

The Italian musical world has become more diverse. The appearance of new instruments and melodies encouraged energetic movements to the beat. National italian dancing. Their names were formed, often based on the territorial principle. There were many varieties of them. The main Italian dances known today are bergamasca, galliarda, saltarella, pavana, tarantella and pizzica.

Bergamasca: points classic

Bergamasca is a popular Italian folk dance of the 16th-17th centuries, which went out of fashion after, but left a corresponding musical heritage. Native region: northern Italy, province of Bergamo. The music in this dance is cheerful and rhythmic. The time meter is a complex four-beat meter. Movements are simple, smooth, paired, changes between pairs are possible during the process. Initially, folk dance was loved at court during the Renaissance.

Its first literary mention was in William Shakespeare's play A Midsummer Night's Dream. At the end of the 18th century, Bergamasca smoothly transitioned from dance folklore into cultural heritage. Many composers used this style in the process of writing their works: Marco Uccellini, Solomone Rossi, Girolamo Frescobaldi, Johann Sebastian Bach.

By the end XIX century a different interpretation of bergamasca appeared. It was characterized by a complex mixed meter and a faster tempo (A. Piatti, C. Debussy). Today, echoes of folklore Bergamasque have been preserved, which they are successfully trying to embody in ballet and theatrical productions, using appropriate stylistic musical accompaniment.

Galliard: cheerful dances

Galliarda is an ancient Italian dance, one of the first folk dances. Appeared in the 15th century. Translated it means “cheerful.” Actually, he is very cheerful, energetic and rhythmic. It is a complex combination of five steps and jumps. This is a paired folk dance that gained popularity at aristocratic balls in Italy, France, England, Spain, and Germany.

In the 15th-16th centuries, the galliard became fashionable due to its comic form and cheerful, spontaneous rhythm. Lost popularity due to evolution and transformation into a standard prim courtier dance style. At the end XVII century completely switched to music.

The primary galliard is characterized by moderate pace, length of a meter - simple trilobed. IN later periods performed with the appropriate rhythm. This galliard was characterized by a complex length of musical meter. Famous modern works in this style they are distinguished by a slower and calmer tempo. Composers who used galliard music in their works: V. Galileo, V. Brake, B. Donato, W. Bird and others.

Saltarella: wedding fun

Saltarella (saltarello) is the most ancient Italian dance. It is quite cheerful and rhythmic. Accompanied by a combination of steps, jumps, rotations and bows. Origin: From Italian saltare - "to jump". The first mentions of this species folk art date back to the 12th century. Originally it was a social dance accompanied by music in a simple two- or three-beat meter. WITH XVIII century smoothly transformed into a paired saltarella to music of complex sizes. The style has been preserved to this day.

In the 19th-20th centuries, it turned into a mass Italian wedding dance, which was danced at wedding celebrations. By the way, at that time they were often timed to coincide with the harvest. In XXI - performed at some carnivals. Music in this style was developed in the compositions of many authors: F. Mendelssohn, G. Berlioz, A. Castellono, R. Barto, B. Bazurov.

Pavan: graceful solemnity

Pavana - old Italian ballroom dance, which was performed exclusively at court. Another name is known - padovana (from the name Padova; from the Latin pava - peacock). This dance is slow, graceful, solemn, ornate. The combination of movements consists of simple and double steps, curtsies and periodic changes in the location of partners relative to each other. It was danced not only at balls, but also at the beginning of processions or ceremonies.

The Italian pavane, having entered the court balls of other countries, changed. It became a kind of dance “dialect”. Thus, Spanish influence led to the emergence of “pavanilla”, and French influence to “passamezzo”. The music to which the steps were performed was slow, two-beat. emphasize the rhythm and important moments of the composition. The dance gradually went out of fashion, remaining in the works of musical heritage(P. Attenyan, I. Shane, C. Saint-Saens, M. Ravel).

Tarantella: the personification of the Italian temperament

Tarantella is a folk dance of Italy that has survived to this day. He is passionate, energetic, rhythmic, fun, tireless. The Italian tarantella dance is the hallmark of the locals. It consists of a combination of jumps (including to the side) with alternating leg throws forward and backward. It was named after the city of Taranto. There is also another version. They said that people who were bitten were exposed to a disease - tarantism. The disease was very similar to rabies, which they tried to cure through the process of non-stop rapid movements.

The music is performed in a simple three-beat or complex size. She's fast and fun. Characteristics:

1. Combination of basic instruments (including keyboards) with additional ones, which are in the hands of dancers (tambourines and castanets).
2. Lack of standard music.
3. Improvisation of musical instruments within a known rhythm.

The rhythmicity inherent in movements was used in their compositions by F. Schubert, F. Chopin, F. Mendelssohn, P. Tchaikovsky. Tarantella is still a colorful folk dance today, the basics of which every patriot knows. And in the 21st century, it continues to be danced en masse at cheerful family celebrations and magnificent weddings.

Pizzica: a catchy dance fight

Pizzica is a fast Italian dance derived from the tarantella. It became a dance trend in Italian folklore due to the emergence of its own distinctive features. If the tarantella is primarily a mass dance, then the pizzica has become exclusively a couples dance. Even more lively and energetic, it received some militant notes. The movements of the two dancers resemble a duel in which cheerful rivals fight.

It is often performed by ladies with several gentlemen in turn. At the same time, by performing energetic movements, the young lady expressed her originality, independence, and vigorous femininity, as a result, rejecting each of them. The gentlemen succumbed to the pressure, demonstrating their admiration for the woman. So individual special character characteristic only of pizza. In some way, it characterizes the passionate Italian nature. Having gained popularity in the 18th century, pizzica has not lost it to this day. It continues to be performed at fairs and carnivals, family celebrations and theater and ballet performances.

The emergence of something new led to the creation of appropriate musical accompaniment. “Pizzicato” appears - a method of performing works on bowed instruments, but not with the bow itself, but with plucking of the fingers. As a result, completely different sounds and melodies appear.

Italian dances in the history of world choreography

Originating as a folk art, penetrating into aristocratic ballrooms, dancing became popular in society. There was a need to systematize and specify steps for the purpose of amateur and professional training. The first theoretical choreographers were Italians: Domenico da Piacenza (XIV-XV), Guglielmo Embreo, Fabrizio Caroso (XVI). These works, along with the honing of movements and their stylization, served as the basis for the worldwide development of ballet.

Meanwhile, at the origins there were cheerful, simple rural and city residents dancing the saltarella or tarantella. The Italians' temperament is passionate and lively. The Renaissance era is mysterious and majestic. These features characterize Italian dances. Their legacy is the basis for the development of dance art in the world as a whole. Their features are a reflection of the history, character, emotions and psychology of an entire people through many centuries.

“Folk Art” - Find out how the love of oral folk art is brought up in your family. Thus, interest in Russian folk art increased. Project implementation. 6 hours. Research objectives: What types of folk art do you use in your games? Stages of work: Goals and objectives are set. Is Russian folk art used in your life, in games?

“Russian folk costume” - If the sleeves were lowered, then it was impossible to do any work. In Rus', the main clothing for women was a sundress and an embroidered shirt. The soul of the people is reflected in clothes. Sundresses could be of different colors: red, blue, brown... Girls could walk with their heads open. Green – nettle. By clothing you can learn about the traditions and customs of your people.

"Artists of the Italian Renaissance" - Representative of the High Renaissance. Return prodigal son. Raphael. Madonna and Child. Velazquez. Bathers. The Last Artist German Renaissance. Painting. The fruits of jealousy. Gioconda. Leonardo da Vinci. Madonna Constabile. There are numerous church paintings and images of saints. Venus and Adonis.

“Folk Music” - Pyatnitsky Russian Song Choir of the All-Union Radio. All genres of Russian folklore deserve equal attention from collectors and researchers. Vasily Tatishchev. Truly popular. Ensemble " Golden ring" M. Gorky said: “... The beginning of the art of words is in folklore.” Properties: Musical images connected with people's lives. Centuries of polishing by time.

“Russian folk instruments” - Musical instruments in kindergarten. Balalaika Harmony. Same-horned pipes! First instruments. Holes were made in the body to change the pitch. He grew up in the forest, cries in his arms, was taken out of the forest, and jumps on the floor. They sculpted from clay. Russian folk instruments. Appeared in 1870 in Tula. In classes and at holidays.

“Orchestra of Folk Instruments” - Composition of the orchestra. There are several varieties of Russian domra. Domra is the leading instrument in the folk instrument orchestra. The button accordion owes its appearance to the Russian master Pyotr Sterligov. Wind instruments. The Bayan has existed in Rus' since 1907. They are part of the folk instruments orchestra. The first information about the gusli dates back to the 6th century.

The mandolin is a plucked string musical instrument. Its appearance dates back to the 16th century, and its homeland was colorful Italy. The mandolin is a musical instrument very similar in appearance to the lute, as it also has a pear-shaped shape. It differs from the lute in that it has fewer strings and a shorter neck.

Basically, the mandolin always had four paired strings (known as the Neapolitan mandolin), and the lute, depending on the era, had six or more strings. In addition to this type of mandolin, other types are known:

• Sicilian - with a flat bottom and four triple strings;
• Milanese - with six strings, tuning an octave higher than the guitar;
• Genoese – five-string mandolin;
• Florentine.

How to play the mandolin

Usually the mandolin is played with a pick, or more precisely, a plectrum. Although, it happens that they play with their fingers. The sound of the mandolin is unique - the rapid and repeated repetition of the sound (tremolo) is explained by the fact that when you touch the strings, the sound quickly decays, that is, it turns out to be short. That is why, in order to prolong the sound and obtain a supposedly prolonged note, a tremolo is used.

The mandolin became widely known outside Italy a century after its origin. This instrument became very popular and quickly received the status of a folk instrument. It still walks around the planet, becoming more and more rooted in modern culture.

It is even known that such a famous composer as Mozart used a mandolin in a serenade in his opera “Don Giovanni”.

In addition, many of today's bands, composers and singers use this musical instrument to add some "zest" to their music. to your compositions.

With the help of a mandolin, you can perfectly both accompany and play solo parts. For example, Neapolitan orchestras are known, the sounds in which merge from many mandolins different sizes. The mandolin is also used in symphony and opera orchestras. Along with the banjo, the mandolin is also used in American bluegrass and folk music.

As already mentioned, the mandolin is a very unusual musical instrument and it is loved by many precisely because its trump card is the tremolo, which, perhaps, cannot be found in other musical instruments.

Mandolin is a musical instrument that is one of the most popular in the folk instruments category. Perhaps few musical instruments can boast of such popularity. Rather, the mandolin is traditionally considered a folk instrument, although many composers have used it in their works, giving them a special charm and uniqueness. Although the mandolin is often used in orchestras, it also sounds great as an independent musical part. Various etudes and pieces are performed on it, accompanied by other instruments.

Where else did the mandolin become famous?

Relatively quickly, the mandolin migrated from Italy to the northern United States of America and became firmly entrenched in local music. In Europe, this instrument conquered the Scandinavian people, who gave the mandolin a special strict sonority.

The mandolin has relative instruments. These are mandola, bouzouki and octave mandolin. Modern rock and roll harmonies are very similar to the same mandolin.

It is known that the members of Led Zeppelin were very fond of the sound of the mandolin and used it in their melodies. Even Jimmy Page, a member of the band, complemented the mandolin with a mandola and guitar neck. Paul McCartney also preferred this complex musical instrument.

In addition to its wonderful sound, the mandolin has a number of undeniable advantages:

• harmonious structure;
• compactness;
• combination with other mandolins or other musical instruments altogether - guitar, recorder.

The tuning of a mandolin is somewhat reminiscent of the tuning of a violin:

• the first pair of strings is tuned to E of the 2nd octave;
• the second pair is in A of the 1st octave,
• D 1st octave;
• the fourth pair of strings is G of the small octave.

The popularity of the mandolin is growing more and more. For example, Vadimir Kholstinin, a member of the “Aria” group, uses a mandolin in the musical composition “Lost Paradise.” It is also used in the metal opera of the Epidemic group (the song “Walk Your Path”) and in Sergei Mavrin (“Makadash”).

And the famous song “Loosing my religion” by R.E.M. with the unique sound of a mandolin? It seems that she is known in almost all countries of the world.

The mandolin is a rather mysterious musical instrument. Her secret to success has not yet been fully revealed. Even though more than four hundred years have passed since its appearance, it absolutely does not lose its popularity, but rather, on the contrary, is gaining more and more fans. In modern times, it is used more and more often in a wide variety of musical genres.

It is very amazing that the mandolin can fit perfectly into any composition, highlight or highlight the sound of almost any instrument. Hearing the sounds of this several magic instrument, as if you are plunging into the ancient era of courageous knights, lovely ladies and proud kings.

Video: What a mandolin sounds like

Origins Italian music go back to musical culture Ancient Rome (see Ancient Roman music). Music played creatures. role in society, state life of the Roman Empire, in everyday life various. layers of the population; the music was rich and varied. tools. Samples of ancient Roman music have not reached us, but dep. its elements survived into the Middle Ages. Christ hymns and folk music traditions. In the 4th century, when Christianity was declared state. religion, Rome, along with Byzantium, became one of the centers of liturgical development. singing, first the basis of which was psalmody, which originated from Syria and Palestine. The Milanese Archbishop Ambrose consolidated the practice of antiphonal singing of hymns (see Antiphon), bringing their melody closer to the narration. origins. A special Western Christian tradition is associated with his name. church singing, called Ambrosian (see Ambrosian singing). In con. 6th century, under Pope Gregory I, solid forms of Christ were developed. liturgy and its music is ordered. side. The singer created at the same time in Rome. the school (“schola cantorum”) became a kind of academy for church singing. lawsuits and higher legislators. authority in this area. Gregory I was credited with unifying and fixing the basic principles. liturgical chants. However, later research has established that melodious. style and forms of the so-called Gregorian chant finally took shape only in the 8th-9th centuries. Roman Catholic. the church, striving for uniformity of worship, propagated this style of monogols. chorus singing among all nations being converted to Christ. faith. This process was completed by the end. 11th century, when the Gregorian liturgy with its corresponding chant. regulations were established in the countries of Middle and West. and Yuzh. Europe. At the same time, it stopped further development Gregorian chant, frozen into immutability. forms.

From the end 1st millennium AD as a result of frequent enemy invasions of Italian territory, as well as the increased oppression of the papacy, which interfered with the free expression of creativity. initiative, in I. m. comes a long period. stagnation, it ceases to play a noticeable role in the general music. European development countries The most important changes that took place in Europe. music at the turn of the 1st and 2nd millennia are weakly and often belatedly reflected in historical music. While the scholar-musicians of the West. and North-West Europe already in the 9th century. gave justification early forms polyphony, the most prominent Italian. music the medieval theorist Guido d'Arezzo (11th century) paid the main attention to single-headed Gregorian chant, only briefly touching on the organum. In the 12th century, polyphonic singing entered into the liturgical practice of some Italian churches, but its few known examples do not indicate about the independent contribution of Italy to the development of polyphonic genres of that era. The new rise of historical music in the late 13th-14th centuries was associated with the Early Renaissance, which reflected the growth of humanistic tendencies, the beginning emancipation of the human personality from the oppression of religious dogmas, a more free and direct perception of the world during the period of weakening the power of feudal lords and the formation of early capitalist relations. Early Renaissance corresponds to the definition of Ars nova accepted in the history of music. Basic The centers of this movement were the cities of Center. and Sev. Italy - Florence, Venice, Padua - are more advanced in their social system and culture than the south. regions in which feudal relations were still firmly preserved. These cities attracted the most talented composers and performing musicians. New genres and stylistic trends arose here.

The desire for increased expression manifested itself in the lyrics. hymns on freely interpreted religion. The theme is laudah, which was sung in everyday life and during religions. processions. Already at the end. 12th century "Laudist brotherhoods" arose, the number of which increased in the 13th and especially 14th centuries. Laudas were cultivated among the monks of the Franciscan order, which was in opposition to the officialdom. Roman church, sometimes they reflected motives of social protest. The melody of laud is associated with nar. origins, the rhythm is different. clarity, clarity of structure, predominant major coloring. Some of them are close in character to dance. songs.

In Florence, new genres of secular polygon arose. wok music intended for home amateur performance: madrigal, caccia, ballata. It was 2- or 3-goal. strophic songs with melodic primacy. upper voice, which was distinguished by rhythm. mobility, abundance of colored passages. Madrigal - aristocratic. a genre characterized by sophistication of poetics and music. building. It was dominated by subtle eroticism. themes, also embodied satirical. motives, sometimes politically charged. The content of the caccia initially consisted of hunting pictures (hence the name itself: caccia - hunting), but then its themes expanded and covered a variety of genre scenes. The most popular of the secular genres of Ars nova is ballata (a dance song similar in content to a madrigal).

Widespread development in 14th century Italy. receives instr. music. Basic The instruments of that time were the lute, harp, fidel, flute, oboe, trumpet, and various organs. type (positives, portables). They were used to accompany singing and for solo or ensemble playing.

The rise of Italy. Ars nova occurs in mid. 14th century In the 40s creativity unfolds. the activities of its most prominent masters - Giovanni from Florence and Jacopo from Bologna. The blind virtuoso organist and composer became especially famous. F. Landino is a multi-talented person, poet, musician and scientist, who was respected in Italian circles. humanists. In his work, the connection with the people intensified. origins, the melody acquired greater freedom of expression, sometimes exquisite sophistication, floridity and rhythm. diversity.

During the era of the High Renaissance (16th century), historical art took a leading position among Europeans. music crops In an atmosphere of general upsurge of the arts. culture, music-making developed intensively in various layers of society. Its centers were, along with the church. chapels of crafts. guild associations, circles of enlightened lovers of literature and art, sometimes calling themselves after antiquity. modeled after academies. In plural schools were created in cities that contributed to independence. contribution to the development of historical art. The largest and most influential among them are the Roman and Venetian schools. In the center of Catholicism - Rome, new artistic forms brought to life by the Renaissance movement often encountered resistance from the church. authorities. But, despite the prohibitions and denunciations, throughout the 15th century. in Roman Catholic polygoal was firmly established in worship. singing. This was facilitated by the activities of representatives of the Franco-Flemish school G. Dufay, Josquin Despres and other composers, who served at different times in the papal chapel. In the Sistine Chapel (founded 1473) and choir. chapel of the Cathedral of St. Peter, the best masters of the church concentrated. singing not only from Italy, but also from other countries. Church issues singing was given special attention. attention at the Council of Trent (1545-63), whose decisions condemned the excessive passion for “figurative” polyphonic. music, making it difficult to understand the “sacred words”, and the demand for simplicity and clarity was put forward; the introduction of secular melodies into the liturgical was prohibited. music. But, contrary to the desire of the church. authorities to expel all innovations from cult singing and, if possible, return it to the traditions of Gregorian chant, composers of the Roman school created a highly developed polyphonic. an art in which the best achievements of Franco-Flemish polyphony were implemented and reinterpreted in the spirit of Renaissance aesthetics. In production composers of this school are a complex imitation. technique was combined with chord-harmonic. warehouse, multi-headed the texture acquired the character of harmonious euphony, the melodic beginning became more independent, the upper voice often came to the fore. The greatest representative of the Roman school is Palestrina. His perfectly balanced, enlightened in mood, harmonious art is sometimes compared to the work of Raphael. Being the pinnacle of the choir. polyphony strict style, Palestrina’s music also contains developed elements of homophonic thinking. The desire for a balance between the horizontal and vertical principles was also characteristic of other composers of the same school: C. Festa, G. Animucci (who stood at the head of the Chapel of St. Peter in 1555-71), Clemens the Pope, students and followers of Palestrina - J. Nanino, F. Anerio and others. Spanish also joined the Roman school. composers who worked in the papal chapel: C. Morales, B. Escobedo, T. L. de Victoria (received the nickname “Spanish Palestrina”).

Founder Venetian school was A. Willaert (Dutch by origin), who in 1527 headed the chapel of the Cathedral of St. Mark and was its leader for 35 years. His successors were C. de Pope and the Spaniard C. Merulo. This school reached its greatest flowering in the work of A. Gabrieli and his nephew G. Gabrieli. In contrast to the strict and restrained writing style of Palestrina and other composers of the Roman school, the art of the Venetians was characterized by a lush sound palette and an abundance of bright colors. effects. The principle of polychoricity was of particular importance to them. Contrasting two choirs, arranged. V different sides church, served as the basis for a dynamic. and colorful contrasts. The constantly varying number of voices reached 20 for G. Gabrieli. Contrasts choir. sonorities were complemented by changes in instruments. timbres, and the instruments not only duplicated the voices of the choir, but also performed independently. and connecting episodes. Harmonic the language was saturated with numerous, often bold for that time, chromatisms, which gave it the features of increased expression.

The creativity of the masters of the Venetian school played a big role in the development of new forms of instruments. music. In the 16th century The composition of the instruments itself has been significantly enriched, their expression has expanded. possibilities. The importance of bowed instruments with their melodious, warm sound has increased. It was during this period that the classic was formed. viola type; violin, previously widespread. in popular life, becomes prof. music tool. As solo instruments, the lute and organ continued to occupy a leading position. In 1507-09, music publisher O. Petrucci published. 3 collections of pieces for lute, still preserved. signs of wok addiction. motet type polyphony. In the future, this dependence weakens, specific tools are developed. presentation techniques. Characteristic of the 16th century. genres solo instrument Music - ricercar, fantasia, canzone, capriccio. In 1549 there appeared org. Richercars Villarta. Following him, this genre was developed by G. Gabrieli, some ricercars whose presentation is close to a fugue. In org. The toccatas of the Venetian masters reflect the virtuosity and tendency to free imagination. In 1551 a collection of books was published in Venice. keyboard dance pieces character.

The emergence of the first independent states is associated with the names of A. and J. Gabrieli. samples of chamber ensemble and orchestra. music. Their compositions for various instruments. compositions (from 3 to 22 parties) were combined into a collection. "Canzones and Sonatas" ("Canzoni e sonate...", published in 1615 after the death of the composers). These plays are based on the principle of contrasting different. instr. groups (both homogeneous - bowed, woodwind, brass, and mixed), which then received successive. embodiment in the concert genre.

The most complete and vivid expression of Renaissance ideas in music was the madrigal, new bloom which came in the 16th century. Many people paid attention to this most important genre of secular music-making during the Renaissance. composers. Madrigals were written by the Venetians A. Willart, C. de Pope, A. Gabrieli, and the masters of the Roman school C. Festa and Palestrina. Schools of madrigalists existed in Milan, Florence, Ferrara, Bologna, and Naples. Madrigal 16th century differed from the madrigal of the Ars nova period in its greater richness and poetic sophistication. content, but basic his sphere remained love lyrics, often pastorally colored, combined with enthusiastic celebration of the beauties of nature. The poetry of F. Petrarch had a great influence on the development of the madrigal (many of his poems were set to music by different authors). Madrigalist composers turned to the works of L. Ariosto, T. Tasso and other major poets of the Renaissance. In madrigals of the 16th century. 4- or 5-goal scores prevailed. a warehouse that connects the elements of polyphony and homophony. Leading melodic player The voice was distinguished by its subtlety of expression. shades, flexible transmission of poetic details. text. The overall composition was free and did not obey strophic lines. principle. Among the madrigal masters of the 16th century. The Dutchman J. Arkadelt, who worked in Rome and Florence, stood out. His madrigals, published in 1538-44 (6 books), were reprinted many times and reproduced in various editions. printed and handwritten meetings. The highest flowering of this genre is associated with creativity. activities of L. Marenzio, C. Monteverdi and C. Gesualdo di Venosa in the end. 16 - beginning 17th centuries If Marenzio is characterized by the sphere of refinement. lyrical images, then in Gesualdo di Venosa and Monteverdi the madrigal is dramatized and endowed with in-depth psychological. expression, they used new, unusual means of harmonious. language, sharpened intonation. expressiveness of the wok. melodica. The rich layer of I. m. are people. songs and dances, distinguished by the melodiousness of melodies, liveliness, and fiery rhythms. For Italian The dances are characterized by meter 6/8, 12/8 and a fast, often rapid, tempo: saltarello (records from the 13th-14th centuries have been preserved), related lombarda (dance of Lombardy) and forlana (Venetian, Friulian dance), tarantella (southern Italian dance , which became national). Along with the tarantella, the siciliana is popular (the size is the same, but the tempo is moderate, the character of the melody is different - pastoral). Sicilians are close to the barcarolle (song of the Venetian gondoliers) and the Tuscan rispetto (song of praise, love confession). Lamento songs (a type of lamentation) are widely known. The plasticity and melodiousness of the melody, bright lyricism, and often emphasized sensitivity are typical of Neapolitan songs widespread in Italy.

Nar. music also influenced prof. music creation. The greatest simplicity and closeness to the people. The genres of frottola and villanelle differed in their origins.

The Renaissance gave impetus to the development of music theory. thoughts in Italy. The foundation is modern. the doctrine of harmony was laid down by G. Zarlino. Middle-century He contrasted the doctrine of modes with a new tonal system with 2 fundamentals. modal inflections- major and minor. In his judgments, Zarlino relied primarily on direct auditory perception, and not on abstract scholastic calculations and numerical operations.

The largest event in I. m. at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. there was the emergence of opera. Having appeared already at the end of the Renaissance, opera is nevertheless entirely connected with its ideas and culture. Opera as a standalone. The genre grew, on the one hand, from theater. performances of the 16th century, accompanied by music, on the other - from a madrigal. Many people created music for the TV. famous composers of the 16th century. Thus, A. Gabrieli wrote choruses for Sophocles’ tragedy “Oedipus” (1585, Vicenza). One of the predecessors of the opera was A. Poliziano's play "The Tale of Orpheus" (1480, Mantua). The madrigal developed means of flexible expression. embodiments of poetic text in music. The common practice of performing madrigals by one singer with instruments. resistance brought them closer to the wok type. monody, which became the basis of the first Italian. oper. In con. 16th century the genre of madrigal comedy arose, in which the mimich. the acting was accompanied by a wok. episodes in madrigal style. A typical example of this genre is “Amphiparnassus” by O. Vecchi (1594).

In 1581 a polemicist appeared. V. Galilei’s treatise “Conversation on Ancient and Modern Music” (“Dialogo della musica antica et délia moderna”), in which the chanting voice. declamation (following the ancient model) was opposed to the “barbarism” of the Middle Ages. polyphony. The excerpt from Dante's "Divine Comedy" that he set to music was supposed to serve as an illustration of this concept. style. Galilee's thoughts found support among a group of poets, musicians and humanist scientists who united in 1580 on the initiative of the enlightened Florentine Count G. Bardi (the so-called Florentine Camerata). The figures of this circle created the first operas - “Daphne” (1597-98) and “Eurydice” (1600) by J. Peri to the text by O. Rinuccini. Solo wok. parts of these operas with op. basso continuo are sustained in declamation. manner, the madrigal structure is preserved in the choirs.

Several years later, the music for “Eurydice” was composed independently by the singer and compositor. G. Caccini, who was also the author of the collection. solo chamber songs with accompaniment "New Music" ("Le nuove musiche", 1601), main. on the same stylistics. principles. This style of writing was called the “new style” (Stile nuovo), or “figurative style” (Stile rарpresentativo).

Prod. Florentines are to a certain extent rational, their meaning is mainly experimental. The genius of the music breathed real life into the opera. playwright, artist of powerful tragic talent K. Monteverdi. He turned to the opera genre in mature age, being already the author of many. spiritual op. and secular madrigals. His first operas "Orpheus" (1607) and "Ariadne" (1608) were post. in Mantua. After a long break, Monteverdi again acted as an opera composer in Venice. The pinnacle of his operatic creativity is “The Coronation of Poppea” (1642), prod. truly Shakespearean power, distinguished by the depth of drama. expressions, masterful character sculpting, sharpness and intensity of conflict situations.

In Venice, opera went beyond the narrow aristocratic. circle of connoisseurs and became a public spectacle. The first public building opened here in 1637. opera t-r"San Cassiano" (during 1637-1800 at least 16 such t-trovs were created). More democratic. The composition of the audience also influenced the character of the works. Mythological the subject gave way to the dominant place of history. stories with real action. faces, drams and heroic. the beginning was intertwined with the comedic and even sometimes crudely farcical. Wok. the melody acquired greater melodiousness; within the recitative scenes, sections emerged. episodes of arious type. These features, characteristic of Monteverdi's late operas, were further developed in the work of F. Cavalli, the author of 42 operas, among which the opera Jason (1649) won the greatest popularity.

Opera in Rome acquired a peculiar coloring under the influence of the Catholics who dominated here. trends. Along with the antique mythological plots ("The Death of Orpheus" - "La morte d"Orfeo" by S. Landi, 1619; "The Chain of Adonis" - "La Caténa d"Adone" by D. Mazzocchi, 1626) the opera included religion. themes interpreted in Christ. moralizing plan. Most means. prod. Roman school - the opera "Saint Alexei" by Landi (1632), which was distinguished by its melodic. the richness and drama of the music, the abundance of developed choir textures. episodes. The first examples of comic books appeared in Rome. opera genre: “Let the sufferer hope” (“Che soffre, speri”, 1639) by V. Mazzocchi and M. Marazzoli and “Every cloud has a silver lining” (“Dal male il bene”, 1653) by A. M. Abbatini and Marazzoli.

K ser. 17th century opera departed almost completely from the principles of Renaissance aesthetics advocated by the Florentine Camerata. This is evidenced by the work of M. A. Chesti, associated with the Venetian opera school. In his writings there are agitated dramas. The recitative is contrasted with a soft melodious melody, and the role of rounded woks has increased. numbers (often to the detriment of the dramatic justification of the action). Opera of Honor" Golden Apple"("Il porno d"oro", 1667), staged with pomp in Vienna on the occasion of the wedding of Emperor Leopold I, became the prototype of the ceremonial advents. performances, which from that time became widespread in Europe. “This is no longer a purely Italian opera,” writes R. Rolland, “it is a type of international court opera.”

From the end 17th century leading role in the development of Italy. the opera went to Naples. The first major representative of the Neapolitan opera school was F. Provenzale, but its true head was A. Scarlatti. The author of numerous operatic works (more than 100), he established the typical structure of Italian. opera seria, preserved without creatures. changes until the end 18th century Chief the place in an opera of this type belongs to the aria, usually a 3-part da capo; recitative is given a service role, the importance of choirs and ensembles is reduced to a minimum. But bright melodic. Scarlatti's gift, polyphonic skill. letters, undoubtedly dramatic. instinct allowed the composer, despite all limitations, to achieve a strong, impressive impact. Scarlatti developed and enriched both vocal and instrumental. opera forms. He developed a typical Italian structure. an operatic overture (or symphony, according to the terminology accepted at that time) with fast outer sections and a slow middle episode, which became the prototype of a symphony as an independent one. conc. works.

In close connection with opera, a new non-liturgical genre developed. religious lawsuit - oratorio. Emerging from religions. readings accompanied by the singing of polygons. laud, she acquired independence. finished form in the works of G. Carissimi. In his oratorios, written mostly on biblical themes, he enriched the operatic forms that had developed by the middle. 17th century, achievements of the chorus. conc. style. Among the composers who developed this genre after Carissimi, A. Stradella stood out (his personality became legendary due to his adventurous biography). He introduced elements of drama into the oratorio. pathos and characterization. Almost all composers of the Neapolitan school paid attention to the oratorio genre, although compared to opera, oratorio occupied a secondary place in their work.

A genre related to the oratorio is the chamber cantata for one, sometimes 2 or 3 voices with accompaniment. basso continuo. Unlike the oratorio, secular texts predominated in it. The most prominent masters of this genre are Carissimi and L. Rossi (one of the representatives of the Roman opera school). Like the oratorio, the cantata played means. role in the development of wok. forms that have become typical of Neapolitan opera.

In the field of religious music in the 17th century. dominated by the desire for external, ostentatious greatness, achieved ch. arr. due to quantities. effect. The principle of polychoricity, developed by the masters of the Venetian school, acquired hyperbolic. scale. In some productions. up to twelve 4-goal were used. choirs Gigantic choir. the compositions were supplemented by numerous. and diverse groups of instruments. This style of lush Baroque was especially developed in Rome, replacing the strict, restrained style of Palestrina and his followers. The most prominent representatives of the late Roman school are G. Allegri (author of the famous “Miserere”, recorded by ear by W. A. ​​Mozart), P. Agostini, A. M. Abbatini, O. Benevoli. At the same time, the so-called “concert style”, close to the arioso-recitative singing of early Italo. operas, examples of which are the spiritual concerts of A. Banchieri (1595) and L. Viadana (1602). (Viadana was credited, as it turned out later, without sufficient grounds, with the invention of the digital bass.) C. Monteverdi, Marco da Galliano, F. Cavalli, G. Legrenzi and other composers wrote in the same manner, transferring to the church. music elements of opera or chamber cantata.

Intensive search for new forms and means of music. expressiveness, dictated by the desire to embody a rich and versatile humanistic. content, conducted in the field of tools. music. One of the greatest masters of org. and keyboard music of the pre-Bach period was G. Frescobaldi, a composer of outstanding creativity. individuality, a brilliant virtuoso on the organ and harpsichord, famous in his homeland and in other Europe. countries. He brought into tradition. ricercar forms, fantasies, toccatas, features of intense expressiveness and freedom of feeling, enriched with melodicism. and harmonious language, developed polyphony. invoice. In his prod. classic crystallized. a type of fugue with clearly identified tonal relationships and completeness of the overall plan. Frescobaldi's creativity is the pinnacle of Italy. org. lawsuit His innovative achievements did not find outstanding followers in Italy itself; they were continued and developed by composers from other countries. In Italian instr. music from the 2nd half. 17th century The leading role passed to bowed instruments and, above all, to the violin. This was due to the flourishing of the violin performing arts and the improvement of the instrument itself. In the 17th-18th centuries. in Italy, dynasties of famous violin makers(Amati, Stradivari, Guarneri families), whose instruments have remained unsurpassed to this day. Outstanding violin virtuosos were, for the most part, also composers; in their work, new techniques for solo violin performance were consolidated, and new muses were developed. forms.

At the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. In Venice, the genre of trio sonata - a multi-part work - developed. for 2 solo instruments (usually a violin, but they could be replaced by other instruments of the corresponding tessitura) and a bass. There were 2 varieties of this genre (both belonged to the field of secular chamber music): “church sonata” (“sonata da chiesa”) - a 4-part cycle, in which slow and fast parts alternated, and “chamber sonata” (“sonata da camera"), consisting of several. plays dance character, close to the suite. It is especially important in the further development of these genres. The Bolognese school played a role, putting forward a brilliant galaxy of masters of violin art. Among its senior representatives are M. Caccati, G. Vitali, G. Bassani. An era in the history of violin and chamber ensemble music was marked by the work of A. Corelli (a student of Bassani). Mature period His activities were associated with Rome, where he created his own school, represented by such names as P. Locatelli, F. Geminiani, G. Somis. Corelli's work completed the formation of the trio sonata. He expanded and enriched the fulfillment. capabilities of bowed instruments. He also owns a cycle of sonatas for solo violin with op. harpsichord. This new genre, which arose in the late 17th century, marked the end. approval monodich. principle in instr. music. Corelli, along with his contemporary G. Torelli, created concerto grosso - the most important form of chamber-orchestral music-making until the mid-18th century.

K con. 17 - beginning 18th centuries increased international glory and authority I. m. Mn. foreign musicians flocked to Italy to complete their education and obtain certification, which ensured recognition in their homeland. As a teacher, he was especially famous for a musician of enormous erudition, comp. and theorist J.B. Martini (known as Padre Martini). His advice was used by K. V. Gluck, W. A. ​​Mozart, A. Gretry. Thanks to him, the Bologna Philharmonic. The academy has become one of the largest centers of music in Europe. education.

Italian composers of the 18th century basic attention was paid to opera. Only a few of them stayed away from opera theater, which attracted a wide audience from all walks of life. The operatic production of this century, gigantic in volume, was created by composers of various types. scale of talent, among whom there were many talented artists. The popularity of the opera was facilitated by high level vok.-perform. culture. The singers were preparing. arr. in conservatories - orphanages that arose back in the 16th century. In Naples and Venice - the main centers of Italy. opera life in the 18th century. there were 4 conservatories, in which there were muses. education was led by major composers. Singer and comp. F. Pistocchi founded a special company in Bologna (c. 1700). singer school. Outstanding wok. the teacher was N. Porpora, one of the most prolific opera composers Neapolitan school. Among the famous masters of bel canto art in the 18th century. - performers of the main husbands. roles in the opera seria were castrati singers A. Bernacchi, Caffarelli, F. Bernardi (nicknamed Senesino), Farinelli, G. Crescentini, who possessed a virtuoso vocal skills. technique combined with a soft and light timbre of voice; singers F. Bordoni, F. Cuzzoni, C. Gabrielli, V. Tesi.

Italian the opera enjoyed privileges. situation in most of Europe. capitals She will be attracted. strength was also manifested in the fact that many Composers from other countries created operas in Italian. texts in the spirit and traditions of the Neapolitan school. It was joined by the Spaniards D. Perez and D. Terradellas, the German I. A. Hasse, and the Czech J. Myslivecek. It means it flowed in line with the same school. part of the activities of G. F. Handel and K. W. Gluck. For Italian Opera scenes were written by Russians. composers - M. S. Berezovsky, P. A. Skokov, D. S. Bortnyansky.

However, already during the lifetime of the head of the Neapolitan opera school, A. Scarlatti, the creator of the opera seria, its inherent artistic qualities were revealed. contradictions, which served as a reason for harsh criticism. speaking out against her. In the beginning. 20s 18th century a satirist appeared. music pamphlet theorist B. Marcello, in whom the absurd conventions of opera librarians and the disdain of drama composers were ridiculed. the meaning of the action, the arrogant ignorance of prima donnas and castrati singers. For the lack of deep ethical content and abuse of external effects criticized modern. im opera ital. educator F. Algarotti in his “Essay on Opera” (“Saggio sopra l”opera in musica...”, 1754) and encyclopedist E. Arteaga in his work “Revolution of the Italian musical theater"("Le rivoluzioni del teatro musicale italiano dalla sua origine fino al presente", v. 1-3, 1783-86).

Librettist poets A. Zeno and P. Metastasio developed a stable structure of historical and mythological. opera seria, in which the nature of the dramas was strictly regulated. intrigue, number and relationships of characters, types of solo woks. numbers and their location on the stage. action. Following the laws of classicist drama, they gave the opera unity and harmony of composition, freeing it from the confusion of tragedy. elements with comedy and farce. At the same time, opera texts These playwrights are marked by aristocratic features. gallantry, written in artificial, mannered, refined language. Opera Seria, Spanish the cut was often timed to coincide with the advent. celebrations, had to end with an obligatory successful ending, the feelings of its heroes were conditional and implausible.

All R. 18th century There has been a tendency towards overcoming the established cliches of opera seria and a closer connection between music and drama. action. This led to an increased role of the accompanied recitative and an enrichment of the orc. colors, expansion and dramatization of the choir. scenes These innovative tendencies received the most vivid expression in the work of N. Jommelli and T. Traetta, who partially prepared Gluck’s operatic reform. In the opera “Iphigenia in Tauris,” Traetta managed, in the words of G. Abert, “to advance to the very gates of Gluck’s musical drama.” The so-called composers followed the same path. "New Neapolitan school" G. Sarti, P. Guglielmi and others. A. Sacchini and A. Salieri were staunch adherents and followers of Gluck's reform.

The strongest opposition is conditionally heroic. Opera Seria was compiled by a new democratic opera buffa genre. At 17 and beginning 18th centuries comic the opera was represented only by isolated examples. How they are independent. the genre began to take shape with the senior masters of the Neapolitan school L. Vinci and L. Leo. The first classic. an example of an opera buffa is Pergolesi’s “The Servant-Mistress” (originally used as an interlude between the acts of his opera-seria “The Proud Captive”, 1733). The realism of the images, the liveliness and poignancy of the music. characteristics contributed to the widest popularity of G.B. Pergolesi's interlude in many. countries, especially in France, where her post is. in 1752 served as the impetus for the emergence of a fierce aesthetic. polemics (see "War of the Buffons") and contributed to the formation of the French. national kind of comic operas.

Without losing touch with the people. roots, Italian opera buffa later developed more developed forms. Unlike the opera seria, the solo vocal was dominant. beginning, in comic Ensembles have become very important in opera. The most developed ensembles were placed in lively, rapidly unfolding finales, which were a kind of node of comedic intrigue. N. Logroshino is considered to be the creator of this type of effective final ensembles. C. Goldoni, a major Italian, had a fruitful influence on the development of opera buffa. comedian of the 18th century, who reflected the ideas of educational realism in his work. He was the author of a number of opera librarians, most of which had music written by one of the outstanding Italian masters. comic operas by the Venetian B. Galuppi. In the 60s 18th century in opera buffa sentimentalist tendencies appear (for example, N. Piccinni’s opera based on Goldoni’s text “Cecchina, or the Good Daughter”, 1760, Rome). Opera buffa approaches the type of “philistine drama” or “tearful comedy” that reflected morals. the ideals of the third estate the day before Great French. revolution.

The work of N. Piccinni, G. Paisiello and D. Cimarosa is the last, highest stage in the development of opera buffa in the 18th century. Their productions combine comedic elements with sensibilities. pathetic, melodic. richness with a variety of forms, liveliness, grace and mobility of music have been preserved in the operatic repertoire. In many ways, these composers approached Mozart and prepared the work of one of the greatest Italians. opera composers of the next century G. Rossini. Certain features of opera buffa were adopted by the later opera seria, which resulted in greater flexibility of its forms, simplicity and spontaneity of melodies. expressions.

Means. The contribution was made by Italian. composers of the 18th century in the development of various instrument genres music. In the field of violin making, the greatest master after Corelli was G. Tartini. Continuing, following his predecessors, to cultivate the genres of solo violin sonata and trio sonata, he filled them with new bright expressiveness, enriched the techniques of violin performance, and expanded the usual range of its sound at that time. Tartini created his own school, called Padua (named after the city of Padua, where he spent most of his life). His students were P. Nardini, P. Alberghi, D. Ferrari. In the 2nd half. 18th century unfolded masterfully and performed. and creative activities of G. Pugnani, the largest Italian. classical violinist era. Among its many. students, J.B. Viotti became especially famous, in whose work there is sometimes a sense of romanticism. trends.

In the orc genre. concerto grosso as bold and original. the innovative artist was A. Vivaldi. He dramatized this form, introduced along with dynamic. contrasting large and small groups of instruments (tutti and concertino) thematically. contrasts within the department parts, established a 3-part structure of the cycle, preserved in the classic. instr. concert. (Vivaldi’s violin concertos were highly valued by J. S. Bach, who arranged some of them for the clavier and also for the organ.)

In the trio sonatas of G.B. Pergolesi, pre-classical features are noticeable. "gallant" style. Their light, transparent texture is almost entirely homophonic, the melody is distinguished by soft melodiousness and grace. One of the composers who directly prepared the flowering of classical music. instr. music, was G. Sammartini (author of 78 symphonies, many sonatas and concertos for different instruments), in terms of the nature of his creativity, close to representatives of the Mannheim and early Viennese schools. L. Boccherini combined in his work elements of gallant sensitivity with pre-romanticism. excited by pathos and closeness to the people. sources. They will notice. cellist, he enriched solo cello literature, was one of the creators of classical music. type of bow quartet.

The artist is alive and richly creative. fantasy, D. Scarlatti expanded and updated the figurative structure and means of expressiveness of clavier music. His sonatas for harpsichord (the author called them “exercises” - “Essercizi per gravicembalo”), striking in their diversity of character and presentation techniques, are a kind of encyclopedia of clavier art of that era. Scarlatti's sonatas, clear and concise in form, focus on thematic issues. contrasts are clearly defined. sections of the sonata exposition. After Scarlatti, the keyboard sonata was developed in the works of B. Galuppi, D. Alberti (whose name is associated with the definition of Albertian basses), G. Rutini, P. Paradisi, D. Cimarosa. M. Clementi, having mastered certain aspects of D. Scarlatti’s manner (which was expressed, in particular, in his creation of 12 sonatas “in the style of Scarlatti”), then became close to the masters of developed classical music. style, and sometimes comes to the origins of the romantic. virtuosity.

A new era in the history of violin making was opened by N. Paganini. As a performer and composer, he was a typically romantic artist. warehouse His playing made an irresistible impression with its combination of enormous virtuosity with fiery imagination and passion. Mn. prod. Paganini ("24 Caprices" for solo violin, concertos for violin and orchestra, etc.) still remain unsurpassed examples of virtuoso violin literature. They influenced not only the entire subsequent development of violin music in the 19th century, but also the work of the largest representatives of the Romantic movement. pianism - F. Chopin, R. Schumann, F. Liszt.

Paganini was the last of the great Italians. masters working in the field of tools. music. In the 19th century the attention of composers and the public was almost entirely focused on the opera. At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. Opera in Italy was going through a period of known stagnation. Traditional the types of opera seria and opera buffa had already exhausted their capabilities by that time and could not develop. Creativity of the largest Italian. opera composer of this time G. Spontini took place outside Italy (in France and Germany). Attempts by S. Mayr (German by nationality) to support the traditions of opera seria (by grafting certain borrowed elements) turned out to be eclectic. F. Paer, who gravitated toward opera buffa, did not contribute anything significantly new to this genre compared to the work of Paisiello and Cimarosa. (In the history of music, the name of Paer has been preserved as the author of the opera based on the text by J. Bouilly “Leonora, or Conjugal Love”, which served as a source for the librarian “Fidelio” by Beethoven.)

High flourishing of Italy. operas in the 19th century was associated with the activities of G. Rossini, a composer gifted with inexhaustible melodicism. ingenuity, lively, ebullient temperament and unmistakable dramaturgy. instinct. His work reflected the general rise of Italy. culture caused by the growth of patriotic. national liberation aspirations. Deeply democratic, people. According to its origins, Rossini's operatic work was addressed to to a wide circle listeners. He revived the national type of opera buffa and breathed new life into it, sharpening and deepening the characteristics of the action. persons, bringing them closer to reality. His "The Barber of Seville" (1816) is the pinnacle of Italian. comic operas. Rossini combines the comedic beginning with the satirical, libre. Some of his operas contain direct allusions to societies. and political the situation of that time. In operas there are heroic dramas. character, he overcame the frozen cliches of opera seria, in particular, attaching special importance to the chorus. the beginning. Narratives are being widely developed. scenes in Rossini's last opera "William Tell" (1829) on the national liberation. the plot interpreted in a romantic way. plan.

Romanticism gets a vivid expression. trends in the work of V. Bellini and G. Donizetti, whose activities began in the 30s. 19th century, when the national movement Renaissance (Risorgimento) in Italy entered a decisive stage of the struggle for unity and political. independence of the country. In Bellini's operas "Norma" (1831) and "The Puritans" (1835), national liberation is clearly heard. motives, although the main emphasis was placed by the composer on the personal drama of the characters. Bellini was a master of expression. romantic cantilena, which aroused the admiration of M. I. Glinka and F. Chopin. Donizetti has a desire for strong dramas. effects and acute situations sometimes resulted in stilted melodrama. Therefore, his great romanticism. operas ("Lucretia Borgia", according to V. Hugo, 1833; "Luciadi Lammermoor", according to V. Scott, 1835) turned out to be less viable than the production. comedy genre ("Elisir of Love", 1832; "Don Pasquale", 1843), in which traditions. Italian type opera buffa acquired new features: the importance of the genre background increased, the melody was enriched with the intonations of everyday romance and song.

The work of J. S. Mercadante, G. Pacini and some other composers of the same period did not differ independently. individual traits, but reflected the general tendency towards dramatization of the operatic form and enrichment of musical expression. funds. In this regard they were direct. predecessors of G. Verdi - one of the greatest operatic playwrights not only in Italy, but also in world music. t-ra.

Verdi's early operas, which appeared on stage in the 40s. 19th century, not yet completely independent stylistically (“Nabucco”, “Lombards in the first crusade", "Ernani"), aroused the ardent enthusiasm of the audience with their patriotic pathos, romantic elation of feelings, the spirit of heroism and love of freedom. In the works of the 50s ("Rigoletto", "Il Trovatore", "La Traviata") he achieved great psychological depth of images, strength and truthfulness of the embodiment of acute, intense mental conflicts. Verdi's vocal writing was freed from external virtuosity, passage ornamentation, becoming an organically integral element of the melodic line, acquired expressive meaning. In the operas of the 60-70s ( "Don Carlos", "Aida"), he strives to further identify broad layers of dramatic action in music, strengthen the role of the orchestra, enrich the musical language. In one of his last operas - "Othello" (1886) Verdi came to the creation of complete music dramas, in which the music is inextricably linked with the action and flexibly conveys all its psychological shades.

Followers of Verdi, incl. A. Ponchielli, the author of the popular opera La Gioconda (1876), was unable to enrich his operatic principles with new creatures. achievements. At the same time, Verdi's work met with opposition from adherents of Wagnerian music-dramas. reforms. However, Wagnerism did not have deep roots in Italy, the influence of Wagner was felt among some composers not so much in the principles of operatic dramaturgy, but in the techniques of harmonics. and orc. letters. Wagnerian tendencies were reflected in the opera “Mephistopheles” by Boito (1868), who subsequently moved away from the extremes of his passion for Wagner.

In con. 19th century Verism became widespread in Italy. The enormous success of Mascagni's operas "Honor Rusticana" (1890) and "Pagliacci" by Leoncavallo (1892) contributed to the establishment of this movement as dominant in Italy. operatic creativity. Verism was supported by U. Giordano (among his works the most famous is the opera André Chénier, 1896) and F. Cilea.

The work of the largest Italian was also connected with this trend. opera composer after Verdi - G. Puccini. His prod. usually dedicated drama ordinary people, shown against a colorful everyday background. At the same time, Puccini's operas are free from the naturalistic nature inherent in verism. features, they are distinguished by greater psychological subtlety. analysis, soulful lyricism and elegance of writing. Being true to the best Italian traditions. bel canto, Puccini sharpened the declamation. expressiveness of the wok. melodics, strived for a more detailed reproduction of speech nuances in singing. Colorful harmonious and orc. the language of his operas contains certain elements of impressionism. In their first mature productions. ("La Boheme", 1896; "Tosca", 1900) Puccini is also associated with Italy. operatic tradition of the 19th century, later his style became more complex, his means of expression acquired greater sharpness and concentration. A peculiar phenomenon in Italy. opera art - the work of E. Wolf-Ferrari, who tried to modernize the classic. type of opera buffa, combining its traditions. forms with stylistic using the means of late romanticism ("Curious Women", 1903; "Four Tyrants", 1906, based on Goldoni's stories). R. Zandonai, following mainly the path of verism, became close to some of the new muses. currents of the 20th century.

High achievements in Italy. operas at 19 - early 20th centuries were associated with the brilliant flowering of vocal performers. culture. Italian traditions Bel canto, which developed in the 19th century, is further developed in the art of several. generations of singers who enjoyed worldwide fame. At the same time, their performance acquires new features, becoming more lyrical and dramatically expressive. The last outstanding representative of a purely virtuoso style who sacrificed drama. content for the sake of sound beauty and technicality. voice mobility, was A. Catalani. Among the masters is Italian. wok schools 1st half 19th century, formed on the basis of the operatic work of Rossini, Bellini and Donizetti - singers Giudita and Giulia Grisi, G. Pasta, singers G. Mario, G. B. Rubini. In the 2nd half. 19th century a galaxy of “Verdi” singers is emerging, including singers A. Bosio, B. and C. Marchisio, A. Patti, singers M. Battistini, A. Masini, G. Anselmi, F. Tamagno, E. Tamberlik and others In the 20th century glory to Italy the opera was supported by singers A. Barbi, G. Bellincioni, A. Galli-Curci, T. Dal Monte, E. and L. Tetrazzini, singers G. De Luca, B. Gigli, E. Caruso, T. Skipa, Titta Ruffo and etc.

From the end 19th century the significance of opera in Italian creativity. composers is weakening and there is a tendency to move the center of attention to the field of instruments. genres. The revival of active creativity. interest in tools music was promoted by the activities of G. Sgambati (received recognition in Europe as a pianist and conductor) and G. Martucci. But the work of both composers, which developed under the influence of F. Liszt and R. Wagner, was not independent enough.

As a harbinger of new aesthetics. ideas and stylistic principles have a great influence on the development of the whole of Europe. music of the 20th century rendered by F. Busoni, one of the greatest pianists of his time, a major composer and art theorist. He put forward the concept of “new classicism”, which he contrasted, on the one hand, with impressionistic. the fluidity of images, the elusiveness of shades, on the other hand, the “anarchy” and “arbitrariness” of Schoenberg’s atonalism. Your creativity Busoni implemented the principles in such works as “Contrapuntal Fantasy” (1921), “Improvisation on a Bach Chorale Theme” for 2 fp. (1916), as well as the operas “Harlequin, or Window”, “Turandot” (both post. 1917), in which he abandoned the developed wok. style of their Italians. predecessors and sought to get closer to the type of ancient people. comedy or farce.

Italian creativity developed in line with neoclassicism. composers, sometimes united under the name. "groups of the 1880s" - I. Pizzetti, J. F. Malipiero, A. Casella. They sought to revive the traditions of the great national. music past, turning to forms and stylistics. Italian techniques Baroque and melodic Gregorian chant. Promoter and researcher of early music, Malipiero publ. collection works by C. Monteverdi, instr. prod. A. Vivaldi and the forgotten heritage of many. Italian composers of the 17th-18th centuries. In his work, he uses the forms of the ancient Baroque sonata, ricercar, etc. His operas, main. on express. wok declamation and stingy means of orc. con., reflect what came in the 20s. reaction against verism. The neoclassical tendencies of Casella’s work manifested themselves in “Partita” for fp. with orchestra (1925), suite "Scarlattiana" (1926), some music theater. prod. (for example, chamber opera "The Tale of Orpheus", 1932). At the same time, he turned to Italian. folklore (rhapsody for orchestra "Italy", 1909). Its colorful orc. the letter was developed to a large extent under the influence of Russian. and French schools (a tribute to the passion for Russian music was the orchestration of Balakirev’s “Islamey”). Pizzetti introduced religious and moralizing elements into his operas and saturated the muses. language with the intonations of Gregorian chant, without at the same time breaking with the traditions of Italo. opera school of the 19th century Several A special place in this group of composers is occupied by the work of O. Respighi, master of orc. sound recording (the formation of his creativity was influenced by classes with N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov). In the symphony Respighi's poems ("Roman Fountains", 1916; "Pineas of Rome", 1924) give vivid pictures of people. life and nature. Neoclassical tendencies were only partly reflected in his later work. A noticeable role in I. m. 1st half. 20th century played by F. Alfano, the most prominent representative of the veristic movement (the opera “Resurrection” based on the novel by L.N. Tolstoy, 1904), who then evolved to impressionism; M. Castelnuovo-Tedesco and V. Rieti, who in the beginning. 2nd World War 1939-45 according to political reasons left their homeland and settled in the United States.

At the turn of the 40s. 20th century noticeable stylistic shifts occur in I. m. The trends of neoclassicism are replaced by trends that develop in one form or another the principles of a new Viennese school. Creative creativity is indicative in this regard. evolution of G. Petrassi, who, having experienced the influence of A. Casella and I. F. Stravinsky, moved first to the position of free atonality, and then to strict dodecaphony. The largest composer of this period I.M. is L. Dallapiccola, whose work attracted wide attention after the 2nd World War. In his prod. 40's and 50's features of expressionism and kinship appear. creativity of A. Berg. The best of them embody humanism. protest against tyranny and cruelty (choral triptych "Songs of Prisoners", 1938-1941; opera "Prisoner", 1944-48), which gave them a certain anti-fascist orientation.

Among the composers of the younger generation that emerged after World War II, L. Berio, S. Bussotti, F. Donatoni, N. Castiglioni, B. Maderna, R. Malipiero and others became famous. Their work is associated with various. currents of avant-gardeism - post-Weberian serialism, sonorism (see Serial music, Sonorism), aleatorism, and is a tribute to the formal search for new sound means. Berio and Maderna base. in 1954 in Milan the "Studio of Phonology", which conducted experiments in the field of electronic music. At the same time, some of these composers strive to combine the so-called. new means of expressiveness for music. avant-garde with genre forms and techniques of music of the 16th-17th centuries.

A special place in modern times. I. m. belongs to the communist composer and active fighter for peace L. Nono. In his work, he addresses the most pressing topics of our time, trying to embody the ideas of international. brotherhood and solidarity of workers, protest against imperialism. oppression and aggression. But the means of avant-garde art, which Nono uses, are often in conflict with his desire for immediacy. propaganda impact on the broad masses of listeners.

Standing aside from avant-garde tendencies is G.C. Menotti - Italian. composer living and working in the USA. In his work, associated primarily with opera, elements of verism acquire a certain expressionist coloring, while the search for truthful speech intonation leads him to a partial rapprochement with M. P. Mussorgsky.

In music Opera continues to play an important role in the life of Italy. One of the outstanding opera companies in the world is La Scala in Milan, which has existed since 1778. The oldest opera houses in Italy also include San Carlo in Naples (founded in 1737), Fenice in Venice ( founded in 1792). Large art. The Roman Opera Theater gained importance (opened in 1880 under the name Costanzi Theater; since 1946 - the Roman Opera). Among the most prominent modern Italian opera artists - singers G. Simionato, R. Scotto, A. Stella, R. Tebaldi, M. Freni; singers G. Becky, T. Gobbi, M. Del Monaco, F. Corelli, G. Di Stefano.

Great influence on the development of opera and symphony. culture in Italy was influenced by the activities of A. Toscanini, one of the greatest conductors of the 20th century. Prominent representatives of music performing The artists are conductors P. Argento, V. De Sabata, G. Cantelli, T. Serafin, R. Fasano, V. Ferrero, C. Zecchi; pianist A. Benedetti Michelangeli; violinist J. DeVito; cellist E. Mainardi.

From the beginning 20th century Music research has received intensive development in Italy. and critical thought. Means. contribution to the study of music. heritage was contributed by musicologists G. Barblan (president of the Italian Society of Musicology), A. Bonaventura, G. M. Gatti, A. Della Corte, G. Pannain, G. Radiciotti, L. Torchi, F. Torrefranca and others M. Zafred and M. Mila work primarily. in the field of music. critics. A number of muses are published in Italy. magazines, incl. "Rivista Musicale italiana" (Turin, Milan, 1894-1932, 1936-1943, 1946-), "Musica d"oggi" (Milan, 1919-40, 1958-), "La Rassegna Musicale" (Turin, 1928-40 ; Rome, 1941-1943, 1947-62), "Bolletino Bibliografico Musicale" (Milan, 1926-33, 1952-), "Il Convegno Musicale" (Turin, 1964-), etc.

A number of encyclopedias have been published, dedicated to. music and t-ru, incl. "Enciclopedia della musica" (v. 1-4, Mil., 1963-64), "Enciclopedia dello spettacolo" (v. 1-9, Roma, 1954-62).

Among the special music uch. The largest institutions are the conservatories: "Santa Cecilia" in Rome (founded in 1876 as a music lyceum, since 1919 - a conservatory); the name of G. B. Martini in Bologna (since 1942; founded in 1804 as a musical lyceum, since 1914 received the status of a conservatory); them. Benedetto Marcello in Venice (since 1940, founded in 1877 as a musical lyceum, since 1916 equal to higher school); Milanskaya (founded in 1808, in 1901 named after G. Verdi); them. L. Cherubini in Florence (founded in 1849 as a music institute, then a music school, Academy of Music, and from 1912 - a conservatory). Prof. musicians are also trained by the institutes of music history at universities, the Pontifical Ambrosian Institute of Sacred Music, etc. In these schools. institutions, as well as at the Institute for the study of Verdi’s legacy, musicology is conducted. Job. The International was founded in Venice. Italian propaganda center music, which annually organizes summer courses (“Musical Vacations”) on the study of ancient Italian. music. The Ambrosian Library and the library of the Milan Conservatory have an extensive collection of sheet music and books on music. The repositories of ancient instruments, sheet music and books are widely known (concentrated in the library of the Bologna Philharmonic Academy, in the library of G.B. Martini and in the Archives of the Chapel of San Petronio in Bologna). The richest materials on Italian history. music have the National. Marciana Library, D. Cini Foundation Library and the Museum of Music. instruments at the Conservatory in Venice.

In Italy there are numerous. music organization and execution. teams. Regular symphonies concerts are given by: orchestras of La Scala and Fenice, National. Academy "Santa Cecilia", Italy. radio and television in Rome, the orchestra of the "Afternoon Music Playing" ("Rommerigi musicali") society, which performs primarily. from Spanish modern music, chamber orchestras "Angelicum" and "Virtuosi of Rome", the "Ambrosian Polyphony" society, which promotes the music of the Middle Ages, Renaissance and Baroque, as well as the orchestra of the Bologna theater "Comunale", Bolognese chamber orchestra and other groups.

Numerous events are held in Italy. music festivals and competitions: Int. modern festival music (since 1930, Venice), "Florentine Musical May" (since 1933), "Festival of Two Worlds" in Spoleto (since 1958, founded by G.C. Menotti), "Week of New Music" (since 1960, Palermo), piano competition named after F. Busoni in Bolzano (since 1949, annually), music and dance competition named after. G. B. Viotti in Vercelli (since 1950, annually), competition named after. A. Casella in Naples (since 1952, every 2 years, until 1960 pianists participated, since 1962 - also composers), violin competition. N. Paganini in Genoa (since 1954, annually), orchestra competition. conductors in Rome (since 1956, every 3 years, established by the National Academy "Santa Cecilia"), piano competition. E. Pozzoli in Seregno (since 1959, every 2 years), competition for young conductors. G. Cantelli in Novara (since 1961, every 2 years), vocal competition "Verdi Voices" in Busseto (since 1961, annually), choir competition. collectives named after Guido d'Arezzo in Arezzo (founded in 1952 as national, since 1953 - international; annually, also known as "Polyfonico"), G. Casado cello competition in Florence (since 1969, every 2 years).

Among the Italians music society - Corporation of New Music (section of the International Society of Contemporary Music; founded in 1917 as the National Music Society, in 1919 transformed into the Italian Society of Contemporary Music, since 1923 - Corporation), Music Association libraries, Society of Musicology, etc. A lot of work is being done in Italy. music publishing house and trading company "Ricordi and Co." (founded in 1808), which has branches in many places. countries.

Literature: Ivanov-Boretsky M.V., Musical-historical anthology, vol. 1-2, M., 1933-36; his, Materials and documents on the history of music, vol. 2, M., 1934; Kuznetsov K. A., Musical and historical portraits, ser. 1, M., 1937; Livanova T., History of Western European music until 1789, M. - L., 1940; Gruber R.I., General history of music, part one, M., 1956, 1965; Khokhlovkina A., Western European Opera. The end of the 18th - first half of the 19th century. Essays, M., 1962; History of European art history: from antiquity to the end of the 18th century, M., 1963; History of European art history. First half of the 19th century, M., 1965.

The oral folk art of Italians is rich in works of various genres. In the northern regions of the country, lyric-narrative poems are common. Italian folklorists believe that these poems originate from the Celtic epic.

Central and Southern Italy are characterized by lyric poems - strambotti . This type of oral folk art first originated in Sicily, and therefore such poems are also called Sicilians. On the same island they are common religious stories and poems (in octaves) with moralizing content, and performances of the folk puppet theater have been preserved to this day ( opera del pupi ). Their themes are taken mainly from the French epic.

In all regions of the country there are folk tales (fiabe ), short stories (gassop- ti ), proverbs ( proverbi ) and riddles ( indovinelli ).

Italian folk songs are very melodic, the rhythm, melody and content of which vary from region to region. In the north and north-west of the country, epic-lyrical songs called canzones are common. They are especially typical of Piedmont. It is possible that Piedmont was the area from which canzone from France spread to the rest of Italy. The regions of Trentino, Veneto and Friuli are characterized by one-strophe lyrical songs villotti , consisting of two quatrains.

The whole world knows the songs of the Venetian gondoliers - barcarolles, distinguished by their smooth melody and rhythm corresponding to the strokes of the oars.

Sicilian songs are very diverse - marinara, furnarian, vicariot, etc.

In the southern regions, especially in Campania, mainly lyrical songs are widespread - stornelles, consisting, as a rule, of two rhymed eleven-syllable verses. The name of this entire genre - “Neapolitan cesni” - comes from the main city of the Campagna, Naples. On the outskirts of Naples - Piedigrotta - a competition for the best song is held annually. Participants and listeners come here from all over the country.

On the island of Sardinia, lyrical monostrophic songs are very common, having much in common both in form and content with Spanish lyrics.

The main genre of oral folk art of the inhabitants of Umbria is the so-called religious poetry, mainly songs that tell about episodes from the life of Christ.

In many areas of Italy, very melodic lullabies are sung.

IN last decades Italian folk songs, under the influence of music broadcasts broadcast on the radio, have largely lost their traditionality: both the nature of their melody and vocabulary are changing. Thus, for half a century, in folk lyrical songs, especially in those where they sing about parting, the railway and the steamship have appeared, and in recent years even the airplane. The songs lose their allegorical language. The vocabulary of epic-lyrical songs also changed, for example, instead of sabers and guns, pistols and machine guns appeared in them.

Dancing. Musical instruments

In some places, Italian folk dances are still danced, distinguished by their variety, beauty and temperament of performance. Just a few decades ago, the tarantella (a dance probably of ancient origin) was very popular among southerners, the performance of which was usually accompanied by beating a tambourine. In Lazio there was a dance with a very fast tempo - saltarello,

It was danced in pairs, accompanied by a guitar. In the Lombard provinces they still dance the so-called Bergamasca, and in the Venetian provinces they still dance a dance of Friulian origin - the Furlana. Sicily is characterized by a slow dance - siciliana. In some areas of Sardinia a dance of very ancient (probably Greek) origin, called duru - duru , or ballo in tondo (dance in a round dance). It is usually accompanied by jumping and screaming.

In some places in the south, ritual pantomime dances have been preserved, performed on certain days religious holidays. The peasants of some villages in Calabria, Sicily and Basilicata perform a pantomime known as the "ship". Twelve people form a pyramid: six of them stand on the ground, four on their shoulders and two at the very top. The pyramid moves rhythmically, surrounded by a crowd of singing peasants.

Traditional songs and dances used to be performed to the accompaniment of folk instruments. In the northern regions the guitar was most common; in Tuscany, Lazio and Campania, bagpipes were most often found. On the island of Sardinia, songs and dances were accompanied by playing a three-barreled pipe called launedda . In the villages of all regions of the country they played the single-barreled pipe, harmonica and ordinary harmonica, and in the cities - the mandolin.

Recently, especially in the post-war period, ancient folk dances are increasingly giving way to modern ones, which are danced to a record player or tape recorder.

Folk applied arts

Almost every region of Italy is famous for some type of folk decorative art, which has been practiced here for centuries, passing on skills and feeling beauty from generation to generation.

Ceramics

The products of ceramic masters are extremely colorful. This production has a centuries-old tradition in Italy. Already in the Vlll - VII centuries. BC e. Greek ceramics also penetrated into the southern part of the Apennine Peninsula along with Greek colonists. From the 6th century BC e. Greek black-figure and red-figure ceramics became widespread. IN Roman time Dishes with floral patterns appeared, most often in relief, coated with red varnish with a metallic sheen.

During the early Middle Ages, pottery, like many other areas of folk craftsmanship, fell into decline.

A new powerful rise in Italian ceramic art began in the 15th century. The centers for the production of artistic ceramics in the Middle Ages were Faenza, Siena, Caffaggiolo, Castel Durante and some others.

From the first quarter of the 16th century. At the head of the Italian ceramic production was the city of Faenza, from whose name the international word “clayans” originated, in the narrow sense meaning products made of white baked clay with a finely porous shard. Faience is also often called glazed ceramics - majolica, which was also produced in large numbers and continues to be produced in Faenza. The name “majolica” comes from one of the Balearic Islands - Majorca (in Italian - Majolica), from where in 1115 the Genoese first brought Spanish-Moorish ceramic vessels and glazed slabs to the Apennine Peninsula, which became models for Italian potters.

During the heyday of majolica production (XV-XVII centuries), yellowish and whitish clay was used, and instead of engobe and lead glaze, it was covered with a non-porous, opaque glaze made from a mixture of lead and tin oxides. The vessel was fired at high temperature, the glaze fused with the painting applied to it and turned into a uniform shiny layer that firmly adhered to the clay base of the product.

What is now called majolica in Italy includes all kinds of ceramic products made from red clay ( terra cotta ) and from white, with a large-pored shard, covered with transparent glaze ( vernice ) or opaque enamel ( smalto ). Modern Faenza ceramists not only imitate famous models of the past, but also create new models, master new technology. Nowadays, many Faenza craftsmen produce vessels of abstract shapes, decorated with paintings, the motifs of which are drawn from modern abstract painting.

The State Institute of Ceramics is located in Faenza. Ceramists from different countries come here to improve their skills. There is also the International Museum of Ceramics, where collections of Italian artistic ceramics are concentrated. Every year the city hosts a ceramics exhibition.

In modern Italy, ceramic production is developed, however, mainly in the southern and island regions: Apulia, Sicily, Abruzzo, Molise, Calabria, Sardinia, Marche and some others. Workshops and small factories in these regions produce, in addition to household ceramics (tableware and kitchen vessels bought mainly by peasants), decorative items (dishes, vases, figurines), often exported or sold to foreign tourists.

Common forms of vessels, common to all southern regions of the country: bowl; boccale - a large mug for water or wine; bgossa - a large spherical vessel, with a spout and one or two handles, in which wine is most often stored; all kinds of flasks for water and wine: spherical with a short neck and with one handle; similar to them, but without a handle; elongated shape with two handles; flat without handles, with loops for threading rope; pretzel-shaped, etc.

All these vessels are usually covered with colorful enamels and glazes and painted with overglaze or underglaze paints, and sometimes decorated with relief figures.

Many regions of Italy, and often individual centers of ceramic production, have characteristics both in the choice of vessel shapes and in their artistic decoration.

The main center of Sicilian ceramic production is Caltad-Girone. A lot of ceramics also come out of the workshops of Terranova, Licata, Ajira, Partinico, Canicatti and Schiatta.

Very colorful are already known in early middle ages Sicilian flower vases - grace . They are often made in the shape of a human head. The body of Sicilian flasks is often made in the same form. Often the vessels have the shape of a full-length human figure. These are the polychrome bottles ( fiaschetti ) and lamps ( lucerni ). In Caltagirone, in addition (from the 17th century to this day), unfired clay figurines of saints are made - presepi , which are customary to be placed in the corner of the room on religious holidays, imitating scenes from the life of Jesus Christ.

In addition to artistic ceramics, they produce a variety of household vessels, such as large quartare for water delivery, soup bowls, small cannate for water and wine and much more.

The largest centers of artistic pottery production in Sardinia are Oristano, Sassari and Cagliari. The most famous throughout the country are the Oristan vases. Their shape and ornaments go back to pottery Ancient Greece(analogues to these vases were discovered during excavations in Canosa in Apulia). These are watering vessels large sizes, decorated with relief images of flowers, animals or people.

In the commune of Dorgali (Sassari) traditional look pottery - making vessels from red clay in the shape of figures of domestic animals: jugs for washing in the form of a rooster, hen, goose, etc. They are usually finished with a scratched pattern (graffiti) and covered with multi-colored enamels. In Cagliari, as in Sicily, vessels are made in the shape of human figures, most often depicting women in local folk costumes.

In Puglia there are several large centers of pottery production: Grottaglie, Rutigliano, Sansevero, Cerintola and some others. Grottaglie's polychrome-glazed terracotta art pieces are distributed throughout the country; Medieval traditions are preserved in their manufacturing technique and decoration. Various vessels (boccali, broccoli, etc.) are covered with polychrome painting (predominant floral ornaments) on white engobe. Grottaglie supplies all areas of the south with tableware and kitchen utensils.

In Puglia they also make vessels decorated with relief imitating embroidery. This area is also famous for the production of toys coated with multi-colored enamels. Most often these are whistles in the shape of different animals: birds, cockerels, dogs, snakes, etc.

In Abruzzo, traditional are flat and ring-shaped flasks, dishes and brocchi with colorful paintings on white engobe. Ceramics from Palena are distinguished by bright colors and very shiny enamels. Three-blade mugs, squat flasks with a small neck, flat pretzel-shaped flasks are painted on top of the engobe, most often with garlands of flowers. At Kastelli, vessels are often coated with yellow, blue or green enamel. Many of them, especially figurines or lamps in the form of human figures, are close to Sicilian.

The main centers of ceramic production in Calabria are Seminara, Rende, Visignano, Terranova di Sibari, Corigliano Calabro, Vibo Valentina, Squillace, S. Andrea Ionico. In the Seminar, terracotta vessels (most often pretzel-shaped flasks) are decorated with relief images of flowers, birds and animals. The predominant colors of watering are green, yellow and orange. Fish-shaped flasks made at the Seminar and elegant toys made of red clay, covered with multi-colored glaze, are very popular in the country.

Main modern centers ceramic production in Umbria - Deruta and Gubbio - produces copies of medieval and even Etruscan samples, as well as workshops in other centers in this area: Assisi, Ficulle, etc.

In Tuscany, the main center of ceramic production is Monte San Savino. Large dishes are made here, copying medieval majolica. They are usually covered with white engobe, on top of which painting is applied.

In the Marche region of Pesaro, ceramists make a variety of household vessels covered with very shiny enamels of dark colors (black, chestnut or coffee): hand warmers, frying pans, soup bowls for reapers, bottles for delivering wine to the field, drinking vessels.