How does “romanticism” differ from “classicism”? “Romanticism” as a change in aesthetic program and a change in lifestyle. The main features of “romanticism” and “classicism”
Grand Theatre in Warsaw.
Classicism(fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus- exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art(Aristotle, Horace).
Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.
How a certain direction was formed in France, in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence, freeing him from religious and church influence. Russian classicism not only adopted Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.
Painting
Nicolas Poussin. "Dance to the Music of Time" (1636).
Interest in art ancient Greece and Rome appeared back in the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and subjects of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael’s fresco “The School of Athens” (1511).
The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great artists of the Renaissance, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, formed the program of the Bolognese school late XVI century, most characteristic representatives which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.
At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was occupied by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, which provided unsurpassed examples of geometrically precise composition and thoughtful relationships between color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antique landscapes of the environs of the “eternal city”, organized the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.
Jacques-Louis David. "The Oath of the Horatii" (1784).
Poussin's coldly rational normativism won the approval of the Versailles court and was continued by court artists like Le Brun, who saw in classicist painting the ideal artistic language for praising the absolutist state of the "sun king." Although private clients favored various variants of Baroque and Rococo, the French monarchy kept classicism afloat by funding academic institutions such as the École des Beaux-Arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity.
The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art critic Winckelmann and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in views, in the second half of the 18th century breathed new breath into classicism (in Western literature This stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the “new classicism” was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution (“The Death of Marat”) and the First Empire (“The Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I”).
In the 19th century, classicist painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. artistic line David was successfully continued by Ingres, who, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, often turned to romantic subjects with oriental flavor(“Turkish Baths”); his portrait works are marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also filled works that were classic in form with the spirit of reckless romanticism; this combination was called academicism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. IN mid-19th century, the young generation, gravitating towards realism, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.
Sculpture
Antonio Canova. Cupid and Psyche(1787-1793, Paris, Louvre)
The impetus for the development of classicist sculpture in the mid-18th century was the writings of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. In France, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon vacillated on the verge of Baroque and Classicism. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, and Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.
Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize military valor and the wisdom of statesmen. Fidelity to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which conflicted with accepted moral norms. To resolve this contradiction, modern figures were initially depicted by classicist sculptors in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov as Mars, and Polina Borghese as Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the depiction of modern figures in ancient togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).
Bertel Thorvaldsen. "Ganymede Feeding Zeus' Eagle" (1817).
Private customers of the Classical era preferred to immortalize their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form contributed to the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classicist ideal, figures on tombstones are usually in a state of deep repose. The sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sudden movements and external manifestations of emotions such as anger.
Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a dryish pathos. Purity of lines, restraint of gestures, and dispassionate expressions are especially valued. In choosing role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Religious images are coming into fashion, which, in Thorvaldsen’s interpretation, produce a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. Tombstone sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality.
Architecture
An example of British Palladianism is the London mansion Osterley Park (architect Robert Adam).
Charles Cameron. Project for finishing the green dining room of the Catherine Palace in the Adam style.
The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity volumetric shape. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.
The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.
Andrea Palladio. Villa Rotonda near Vicenza
By that time, satiety with the “whipped cream” of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, Baroque thinned out into Rococo, mainly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decorating and arts and crafts. This aesthetics was of little use for solving large urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV (1715-74), urban planning ensembles were built in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble Laconism" is already becoming the main architectural direction.
The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.
Fragment of the ideal city of Arc-et-Senan (architect Ledoux).
The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of the Napoleonic Empire style and late classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflot. The French Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé went even further towards developing a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little demand; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by the modernists of the 20th century.
The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from majestic images military glory left behind by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carrousel and Vendôme Column. In relation to monuments of military greatness from the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term “imperial style” is used - Empire style. In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the empire style corresponds to the so-called. “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).
Valhalla is a repetition of the Athens Parthenon by the Bavarian architect Leo von Klenze.
The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the streamlining of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were redesigned in accordance with the principles of classical rationalism. To authentic museums of classicism under open air cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have become. A single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with albums of standard projects.
In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to coexist with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with Champollion's discoveries, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially clearly manifested in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel built up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque.
Artists:
Romanticism
Ideological and artistic direction in European and American spiritual culture con. 18 - 1st floor. 19th centuries As a style of creativity and thinking, it remains one of the main aesthetic and ideological models of the 20th century.
Origin. Axiology
Romanticism emerged in the 1790s. first in Germany and then spread throughout the Western European cultural region. His ideological basis was the crisis of rationalism of the Enlightenment, the artistic search for pre-romantic movements (sentimentalism, “sturmerism”), the Great French Revolution, and German classical philosophy. Romanticism is aesthetic revolution, which, instead of science and reason (the highest cultural authority for the Enlightenment), puts the artistic creativity of the individual, which becomes a model, a “paradigm” for all types of cultural activity. The main feature of romanticism as a movement is the desire to contrast the burgher, “philistine” world of reason, law, individualism, utilitarianism, atomization of society, naive faith in linear progress with a new system of values: the cult of creativity, the primacy of imagination over reason, criticism of logical, aesthetic and moral abstractions , a call for the emancipation of a person’s personal powers, following nature, myth, symbol, the desire for synthesis and discovery of the relationship of everything with everything. Moreover, quite quickly the axiology of romanticism goes beyond the scope of art and begins to determine the style of philosophy, behavior, clothing, as well as other aspects of life.
Paradoxes of Romanticism
Paradoxically, romanticism combined the cult of the personal uniqueness of the individual with a gravitation towards the impersonal, elemental, and collective; increased reflectivity of creativity - with the discovery of the world of the unconscious; play, understood as the highest meaning of creativity, with calls for the introduction of aesthetics into “serious” life; individual rebellion - with dissolution in the folk, tribal, national. This initial duality of romanticism is reflected by its theory of irony, which elevates into a principle the discrepancy between conditional aspirations and values with the unconditional absolute as a goal. To the main features romantic style we must include the playful element, which dissolved the aesthetic framework of classicism; heightened attention to everything original and non-standard (and the special was not simply given a place in the universal, as the baroque style or pre-romanticism did, but the very hierarchy of the general and the individual was inverted); interest in myth and even understanding of myth as an ideal romantic creativity; symbolic interpretation of the world; the desire for the utmost expansion of the arsenal of genres; reliance on folklore, preference for image over concept, aspiration over possession, dynamics over statics; experiments in the synthetic unification of the arts; aesthetic interpretation of religion, idealization of the past and archaic cultures, often resulting in social protest; aestheticization of life, morality, politics.
Poetry as the Philosopher's Stone
In polemics with the Enlightenment, romanticism formulates a program for the rethinking and reform of philosophy in favor of artistic intuition, in which at first it is very close to the early stage of German classical philosophy (cf. the theses of the “First Program of the System of German Idealism” - a sketch belonging to Schelling or Hegel: “The Highest Act of Reason is an aesthetic act. Poetry becomes the teacher of humanity; there will be no more philosophy. We must create a new mythology, this mythology must be the mythology of reason." Philosophy for Novalis and F. Schlegel, the main theoreticians of German romanticism, is a type of intellectual magic with the help of which genius, mediating nature and spirit, creates an organic whole from disparate phenomena. However, the absolute of romance thus restored is interpreted not as an unambiguous unitary system, but as a constantly self-reproducing process of creativity, in which the unity of chaos and space is each time achieved by an unpredictably new formula. The emphasis on the playful unity of opposites in the absolute and the inalienability of the subject from the picture of the universe constructed by him makes the romantics co-authors of the dialectical method created by German transcendentalism. Romantic “irony” with its method of “turning inside out” any positivity and the principle of denying the claims of any finite phenomenon to universal significance can also be considered a type of dialectic. From the same attitude follows the preference of romanticism for fragmentation and “Socraticism” as methods of philosophizing, which ultimately (along with criticism of the autonomy of reason) led to the demarcation of romanticism from German classical philosophy and allowed Hegel to define romanticism as the self-affirmation of subjectivity: “the true content of the romantic is the absolute inner life, and the corresponding form is spiritual subjectivity, comprehending its independence and freedom.”
A new look at the inner world
The rejection of the Enlightenment axiom of rationality as the essence of human nature led romanticism to a new understanding of man: the atomic integrity of the “I”, obvious to past eras, was called into question, the world of the individual and collective unconscious was discovered, the conflict of the inner world with man’s own “nature” was felt. The disharmony of personality and its alienated objectifications was especially richly thematized by symbols romantic literature(double, shadow, machine gun, doll, and finally - the famous Frankenstein, created by the imagination of M. Shelley).
Understanding past eras
In search of cultural allies, romantic thought turns to antiquity and gives its anti-classicist interpretation as an era of tragic beauty, sacrificial heroism and magical comprehension of nature, the era of Orpheus and Dionysus. In this respect, romanticism immediately preceded the revolution in the understanding of the Hellenic spirit carried out by Nietzsche. The Middle Ages could also be seen as a congenial, “romantic” culture par excellence (Novalis), but in general the Christian era (including modernity) was understood as a tragic split between ideal and reality , the inability to harmoniously reconcile with the finite world of this world. Closely connected with this intuition is the romantic experience of evil as an inescapable universal force: on the one hand, romanticism saw here the depth of the problem, from which the Enlightenment, as a rule, simply turned away, on the other, romanticism, with its poeticization of all things, partially loses the ethical immunity of the Enlightenment against evil. The latter explains the ambiguous role of romanticism in the emergence of totalitarian mythology of the 20th century.
Impact on science
Romantic natural philosophy, having updated the Renaissance idea of man as a microcosm and introducing into it the idea of similarity between the unconscious creativity of nature and the conscious creativity of the artist, played a certain role in the formation of natural science in the 19th century. (both directly and through scientists - adherents of early Schelling - such as Carus, Oken, Steffens). The humanities also receive from romanticism (from the hermeneutics of Schleiermacher, the philosophy of language of Novalis and F. Schlegel) an impulse that is significant for history, cultural studies, and linguistics.
Romanticism and religion
In religious thought, romanticism can be divided into two directions. One was initiated by Schleiermacher (Speeches on Religion, 1799) with his understanding of religion as an internal, pantheistically colored experience of “dependence on the infinite.” It significantly influenced the formation of Protestant liberal theology. The other is represented by the general tendency of late romanticism towards orthodox Catholicism and the restoration of medieval cultural foundations and values. (See the work of Novalis, programmatic for this trend, “Christianity, or Europe,” 1799.).
Stages
The historical stages in the development of romanticism were the birth in 1798-1801. the Jena circle (A. Schlegel, F. Schlegel, Novalis, Tieck, later Schleiermacher and Schelling), in whose bosom the basic philosophical and aesthetic principles of romanticism were formulated; the emergence after 1805 of the Heidelberg and Swabian schools of literary romanticism; publication of J. de Stael's book “On Germany” (1810), with which the European glory of romanticism began; the widespread spread of romanticism within Western culture in 1820-30; crisis stratification of the romantic movement in the 1840s, 50s. into factions and their fusion with both conservative and radical currents of “anti-burgher” European thought.
Romantic philosophers
The philosophical influence of romanticism is noticeable primarily in such a mental movement as the “philosophy of life.” The work of Schopenhauer, Hölderlin, Kierkegaard, Carlyle, Wagner theorist, and Nietzsche can be considered a unique branch of romanticism. The historiosophy of Baader, the constructions of the “lyubomudrov” and Slavophiles in Russia, the philosophical and political conservatism of J. de Maistre and Bonald in France were also nourished by the sentiments and intuitions of romanticism. The philosophizing of the late Symbolists was neo-romantic in nature. 19-beg. 20th centuries The interpretation of freedom and creativity in existentialism is also close to romanticism. The most important representatives of romanticism in art In the visual arts, romanticism was most clearly manifested in painting and graphics, less clearly in sculpture and architecture (for example, false Gothic). Most of the national schools of romanticism in the fine arts emerged in the struggle against official academic classicism. Romanticism in music developed in the 20s. 19th century under the influence of the literature of romanticism and developed in close connection with it, with literature in general (appeal to synthetic genres, primarily opera and song, instrumental miniatures and musical programming). The main representatives of romanticism in literature are Novalis, Jean Paul, E. T. A. Hoffman, W. Wordsworth, W. Scott, J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, V. Hugo, A. Lamartine, A. Mickiewicz, E. Poe, G. Melville, M. Yu. Lermontov, V. F. Odoevsky; in music - F. Schubert, K. M. Weber, R. Wagner, G. Berlioz, N. Paganini, F. Liszt, F. Chopin; in the fine arts - painters E. Delacroix, T. Gericault, F. O. Runge, K. D. Friedrich, J. Constable, W. Turner, in Russia - O. A. Kiprensky, A. O. Orlovsky. I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, M. P. Mussorgsky, M. S. Shchepkin, K. S. Stanislavsky.
Introduction
In the 19th century, painting was broader and deeper than other types visual arts solves complex and pressing worldview problems, plays an active role in public life, often being associated with social and national liberation movements; important V paintings of the 19th century century acquired a sharp criticism of social reality. At the same time, throughout the 19th century, academic canons that were far from life and abstract idealization of images were officially cultivated in painting; naturalistic tendencies arose that ignored the independent expression of the expressive means of painting. In the fight against the rationalism and abstraction of official salon-academic painting, the painting of romanticism with its emotional intensity, active interest in dramatic events of history and modernity, and the display of strong human passions, the energy of the pictorial language, the dynamics of construction, the contrast of light and shadow, the richness of color.
In connection with these trends, it became relevant to consider the work of a representative of these two styles at once, the Russian painter Karl Bryullov.
The object of study is the styles of classicism and romanticism in art.
The subject of the study is the work of Karl Bryullov.
The purpose of the study is to identify and describe the classical and romantic combination of styles in his work.
Research objectives:
1. Produce theoretical analysis on the research topic.
2. Compare existing style directions.
3. Characterize the work of Karl Bryullov.
4. Identify and analyze points of contact between two directions in the artist’s works.
The methodological basis of the work is the works of M. Alenov, E. Atsarkina, T.V. Balitskaya, I.N. Bocharova et al.
Work structure. The course work consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, a list of references (11 titles), and an appendix.
Chapter 1 is devoted to a description of the characteristic features of classicism and romanticism in painting.
Chapter 2 is devoted to the main stages of Karl Bryullov’s activities. Section 2.1 examines the stage of an artist’s training in classical art at the Academy of Arts. Section 2.2 traces the emergence of the Italian genre in the work of Karl Bryullov. Section 2.3 describes portraiture.
Chapter 3 is about identifying harmonious combination artistic movements using the example of the artist’s works.
In conclusion, the results of the study are presented.
Classicism and romanticism in painting
Classicism (from Latin classicus - exemplary) is a style and direction in literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, which turned to the ancient heritage as the norm and ideal model. developed in the 17th century. in France. In the 18th century classicism was associated with the Enlightenment; based on the ideas of philosophical rationalism, on ideas about the rational regularity of the world, about beautiful ennobled nature, he strove to express great social content, sublime heroic and moral ideals, to strict organization of logical, clear and harmonious images. Fine art is distinguished by the logical development of the plot, clarity, and balance of composition.
Romanticism (French romantisme from Latin romanum Roman from Roma - Rome) is one of two, along with Classicism, fundamental trends in artistic thinking.
Romanticism became the first artistic movement in which the awareness of creative personality as a subject artistic activity. The Romantics openly proclaimed the triumph of individual taste and complete freedom of creativity. Attaching the creative act itself decisive importance, destroying the obstacles that held back the artist’s freedom, they boldly equated the high and the low, the tragic and the comic, the ordinary and the unusual. Romanticism captured all spheres of spiritual culture: literature, music, theater, philosophy, aesthetics, philology and other humanities, plastic arts. But at the same time, it was no longer the universal style that classicism was. Unlike the latter, romanticism had almost no state forms of its expression (therefore, it did not significantly affect architecture, influencing mainly landscape architecture, the architecture of small forms and the direction of the so-called pseudo-Gothic). Being not so much a style as a social artistic movement, romanticism opened the way for the further development of art in the 19th century, which took place not in the form of comprehensive styles, but in the form of separate movements and trends.
Painting as an expressive artist dominant concepts about art, in all countries experienced different periods, changing its direction. But nowhere has the history of painting been characterized so clearly as in France in different eras, depending on life and aspirations modern society. In the past and present centuries, several different styles replace each other in France after a more or less prolonged struggle between two directions - the previous one and the one that replaces it. Such a struggle was not only a silent competition between paintings at exhibitions, but was accompanied by heated discussions in the press, worried society and changed its views on the relationship of art to reality.
Classicism, as one of the heirs of antiquity, of course, belonged to high genre paintings that were painted on historical and mythological subjects. They show quite clearly drama, sacrificing one’s personal interests for the sake of the common good.
Romanticism did not have specific, limiting and constraining rules, the individuality of artists was so free that some of them are even known only for their virtuosity, others took scenes simply from the works of the latest fashionable writers as their plots and lived on someone else’s fiction, at all costs.
Bryullov painting classicism romanticism
Classicism(from Latin “classicus” - exemplary) – one of the most important areas of art, an artistic style based on normative aesthetics, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules, canons and unities. The rules of classicism are designed to ensure main goal- to educate and instruct the public, turning them to sublime examples. The aesthetics of classicism reflected the desire to idealize reality, due to the refusal to depict a complex and multifaceted reality. Classicism dates back to the end of the 16th century. It existed until the beginning of the 19th century, until it was replaced by sentimentalism and romanticism.
Romanticism – ideological and artistic movement in European and American culture from the end of the 18th century to the first half of the 19th century. Born in Germany. It is characterized by the affirmation of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the depiction of strong and rebellious passions and characters, and a spiritualized and healing nature.
Philosophy of Romanticism. The category of the sublime is central to romanticism and was formulated by Kant in his work “Critique of Judgment.” Romanticism contrasts the educational idea of progress and the tendency to discard everything “outdated and outdated” with an interest in folklore, myth, fairy tales, the common man and a return to one’s roots and nature. Romantic works are characterized by a rejection of rationality and rigid literary rules.
The Romantics openly proclaimed the triumph of individual taste and complete freedom of creativity.
What is “surrealism”? cultural phenomenon? Surrealism and psychoanalysis. Basic techniques and ideology of surrealism, surrealists’ ideas about creativity. The ideological and functional-pragmatic significance of surrealism for the modern sociocultural situation.
Surrealism – a movement in art that was formed by the early 1920s in France. Distinctive features: the use of allusions and paradoxical combinations of forms. Bosch is considered the founder of surrealism.
Allusion- a stylistic figure containing an indication, analogy or allusion to some literary, historical, mythological or political fact, enshrined in textual culture or colloquial speech.
The main concept of surrealism is surreality - the combination of dream and reality. The surrealists proposed a controversial combination of naturalistic images through collage and technology. ready-made».
The term “ready-made” was first used in the context of fine art French artist Marcel Duchamp in 1913 to designate their works, which are everyday objects removed from the environment of their normal functioning and exhibited without any changes at an art exhibition as works of art, i.e. moving an object from a non-artistic space to an artistic one. Duchamp’s first “ready-made” - “Bicycle Wheel” (1913) “He took a standard household product, placed it in an unusual environment, so much so that its usual meaning disappeared in the new environment. With a new look and a new name, he created a new idea of the subject,” wrote Beatrice Wood.
For example, the poet Vera Pavlova rewrites a note from an encyclopedic dictionary in the form of a poem. This “borrowing” is called "found poetry"- found poetry.
What is “automatic writing” and “unconscious creativity”? “Automatic writing” within the framework of aesthetic and psychiatric ideas. "Unconscious creativity" as creative principle. The ideological and functional-pragmatic significance of surrealism for the modern sociocultural situation.
Main category of surreal aesthetics, main technical technique, the method of surrealism is automatic writing, i.e. creativity without consciousness control, when the speed of writing outstrips the speed of the author’s reflection. For surrealists, the subconscious is the only source of truth.
Automatic writing is high-speed writing “from dictation” of the unconscious, unconscious recording of everything that comes to mind, recording hallucinations, dreams, daydreams - any images of the imagination.
The main condition for automatic writing is writing speed and no corrections. Breton believed that automatic writing is not only reification, verbalization of thought, but “thought-speaking.”
The theory of automatic writing is associated with the special status of the poet: the poet as a neutral-external recording apparatus.
It should be noted that surrealist works often arose as a result of collective creativity.
1) orientation towards mythological creativity;
2) a consequence of automatism;
3) one of the working conditions is “the interests of the group are above the interests of the individual” and it was necessary to part with one’s own interests;
In formulating the principles of automatic writing, the theorists of surrealism relied on the teachings of the French intuitionist philosopher Henri Bergson and on the psychoanalysis of Freud and Jung. Automatic writing is based on the method of free association, first used by Freud in psychoanalytic sessions. The principle of psychoanalysis, developed by Freud, was based on the method of free association: when a person, starting from a word or image, expresses all, indiscriminately, the thoughts that come to his mind. A surreal work is born in the same way: it arises as a result of an arbitrary, from the point of view of logic, combination of various words and images in the text.
What is characteristic of the “Silver Age” of Russian culture? Social and ideological context of the “Silver Age” of Russian culture. Changing the status of the “creator” and “creativity” in Russia during the “Silver Age”.
During the “Silver Age” people are looking for new foundations for their spiritual and religious life.
The “Silver Age” is an age of oppositions. The main opposition of this period is the opposition of nature and culture. Vladimir Solovyov, a philosopher who had a huge influence on the formation of the ideas of the “Silver Age,” believed that the victory of culture over nature would lead to immortality, since “death is a clear victory of meaninglessness over meaning, chaos over space.”
In addition, the problems of death and love were closely connected. “Love and death become the main and almost the only forms of human existence, the main means of understanding him,” Solovyov believed.
Many people have strived to break out everyday life, in search of a different reality. They chased emotions, all experiences were considered good, regardless of their consistency and expediency. The lives of creative people were rich and full of experiences. However, the consequence of such an accumulation of experiences was often deep emptiness. Therefore, the fates of many people of the “Silver Age” are tragic. And yet, this difficult time of spiritual wandering gave birth to a beautiful and original culture.
In literature, the realistic trend at the turn of the 20th century was continued by L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov, who created their own best works, the theme of which was ideological quest intelligentsia and the “little” man with his everyday problems and concerns.
Russian literature of the early 20th century produced wonderful poetry. One of the directions of poetry of this time was symbolism. For symbolists (A. Blok, Z. Gippius), who believed in the existence of another world, the symbol was its sign and represented the connection between two worlds. Representatives of this movement believed that the “symbols” and “mystical contents” of works are the basis of new art.
Later, a new movement in poetry appeared, which was called “Acmeism”. This direction was formed in the “Workshop of Poets” circle. It included N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam and others. They focused on the intrinsic value reality. This direction of poetry is characterized by “wonderful clarity” of language, realism and accuracy of details, and the picturesque brightness of figurative and expressive means.
In the 1910s there is avant-garde movement in poetry, which was called “futurism”. Futurists denied the social content of art and cultural traditions. They are characterized by anarchic rebellion. In their collective program collections (“A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” “Dead Moon,” etc.) they challenged the so-called “public taste and common sense.” Also, representatives of this direction (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky) loved to experiment with words.
What is the difference between “psychology of perception”, “psychology of thinking”, “psychology of decision-making” and “psychology of creativity”? Basic principles and sections of classical, or “functional” psychology. Attempts to use “psychology of perception” and similar areas of psychology to analyze creativity and art.
Psychology of perception – a branch of psychology that studies the process of forming a subjective image of an integral object that directly affects analyzers. Unlike sensations, which reflect only individual properties of objects, in the image of perception the entire object, in the totality of its properties, is represented as a unit of interaction.
Psychology of thinking– a branch of psychology that studies thinking as one of the mental processes aimed at solving problem situations, tasks and consists in a generalized and indirect knowledge of reality. Thinking characterizes not the sensory (sensation, perception, idea), but the abstract-logical level of human cognitive activity. With the help of mental processes: analysis, synthesis, generalization, etc., mental operations (actions) and forms of thinking, sensory-perceptual data are processed. The result of such processing is the reflection of reality in concepts, judgments, theories, etc. One of the most important issues in the psychology of thinking is the description of the content of mental activity. IN modern psychology thinking is considered as a higher mental process. The content of thinking includes:
1) thought processes (analysis, synthesis, abstraction);
2) mental actions, operations (mathematical operations - addition, subtraction);
3) forms of thinking (concept, judgment, inference);
4) a system of knowledge and concepts that are interconnected and used by the subject when solving problems;
5) generalized personal characteristics that are updated in the course of thinking (motivation).
Making decisions Almost all psychologists recognize it as the central point of management. It is by this criterion that the main roles in the labor process are determined: the manager and the subordinate. Decision-making– this is a complex thought process that involves recognizing the problem, setting an adequate goal and choosing the means to implement it.
The psychology of managerial decision making is characterized by a number of psychological patterns:
1) for a decision maker individually:
· ability to make decisions in difficult conditions (limited time, high risk);
· limited rationality (when subjective biases limit the train of thought);
· Irvine phenomenon (overestimation of the significance and probability of obtaining desired result, and undesirable – understatement);
· analysis paralysis (when efforts to find a solution are concentrated on a certain stage for a long time);
· blindness by the decision (shift from the goal of the decision to the means of achieving it);
· the phenomenon of a favorite alternative (when a method is used that has previously achieved positive results).
2) For group decision making:
“grouping” (when people in a group have a deformed individual decision, and there is an illusion of innocence for a poor-quality decision);
unconditional faith in the norms of behavior professed by the group;
a stereotypical view of a group member (characterized by open pressure on those who think individually in the group).
Psychology of creativity(eng. psychology of creative activity) - a branch of psychology that studies the creation of new, original things by a person in various fields of activity, primarily in science, technology, art, as well as in everyday life. The psychology of creativity also deals with the formation, development and structure of human potential.
Basic sections psychology:
§ Social Psychology;
§ Labor psychology;
§ Psycholinguistics;
§ Differential psychology;
§ Psychometry;
§ Psychophysiology;
§ Psychology of management.
Functional psychology- a direction in psychology that considers mental life and human behavior from the point of view of its active and purposeful adaptation to conditions environment. (The fundamental ideas of functional psychology belong to the evolutionary doctrine developed by Charles Darwin and G. Spencer).
The crisis of classicism was a natural consequence of the historical situation that developed in Europe in the first decades of the 19th century. At the beginning of the century, wars raged in Europe, causing a surge of high patriotic feelings. The victory over Napoleonic France did not bring peace: the rise of national liberation movements, alternating periods of revolutions and restorations contributed to widespread ferment of minds.
“The present century,” wrote the Decembrist P.I. Pestel, is marked by revolutionary thoughts from one thing! end of Europe to the other, from Portugal to Russia, and excluding not a single state... The spirit of transformation makes, so to speak, minds bubble everywhere.”
Awakened by revolutions and fueled by war, the intensity of passions under the conditions of reactionary political regimes established as a result of the restoration of the monarchy could not find worthy social application. Moreover, in the established legal order, the mind became quite clearly defined by its bourgeois essence. There was an abyss between it and those high ideals that were proclaimed by the enlightenment philosophers of the 18th century and inscribed on the banners of the French Revolution. This caused a critical reconsideration of the essence of many ideas and principles of the Enlightenment and their artistic representation. Therefore, it is quite natural that since the proclamation of the “kingdom of reason” by the rationalist philosophy of the Enlightenment was defeated, the artistic principles of classicism, in many aspects associated, as noted above, with the Enlightenment of the 18th century, were also questioned.
Caused by a huge upheaval in the social and spiritual life of Europe, romanticism reflected the complexly unstable state of that transitional era, when a struggle between two social formations unfolded: dying feudalism and young, growing capitalism. Hence, characteristic of romanticism, “a complex and always more or less unclear reflection of everything: shades, feelings and moods that embrace society in transitional eras, but its main note is the expectation of something new, anxiety before the new, a hasty, nervous desire to know this new” .
Classicism gravitated towards the expression of “eternal truths”, “eternal beauty”, towards balance and harmony. In contrast, the art of the era of romanticism sought to understand the world and man in all their diversity, to capture the variability of the world, the transition of states of nature, and the subtlest shades of the movements of the soul. Romanism greatly expanded both the thematic boundaries of art and the range of means artistic expression, the hierarchy of arts and artistic genres established by classicism changed, and those in which the aesthetics of romanticism found its most complete expression began to develop especially rapidly. The variety of genres, the search for new, more diverse, flexible and emotionally rich artistic forms became the most important features of the creative credo of romanticism.
Romanticism was a powerful ideological and artistic movement that covered all areas of spiritual life in Europe and was reflected in religion, philosophy, and politics. This movement was embodied especially fully and vividly in literature, music and painting, constituting an entire “era of romanticism” in their history. The dispute between the “romantics” and the “classics” that unfolded in the literary and artistic criticism of the 1820s and 11830s played an important role in the fate of literature and art, helping to overcome the outdated aesthetic norms of classicism and paving the way for new, progressive phenomena in artistic life.
IN various areas artistic creativity romantic tendencies manifested themselves in different ways. But the general “spirit of transformation” characteristic of romanticism was expressed in a persistent desire to overcome the canonical rigidity of the artistic techniques of classicism and create a more diverse and more flexible system of means of aesthetic expression. This militant “anti-canonism” of the romantics was reflected in those new architectural views that began to take shape in the 1830s.
The aesthetic program put forward by romanticism was completely different in its emotional and ideological orientation than the one professed by classicism. The ideals of “tranquility” and “noble simplicity”, the programmatic unification of the architectural language of classicism, the romantics perceived “scholasticism, which prescribes buildings to be ranked according to one standard and built according to one taste.”
“Architecture,” Gogol asserted, “should be as capricious as possible: take on a stern appearance, show a cheerful expression, breathe antiquity, shine with news, inspire horror, sparkle with beauty, be sometimes gloomy, like a day covered in a thunderstorm with thunder clouds, then clear, like morning in the sunshine."
Developing a romantic concept of the spiritual and emotional fullness of architecture. Gogol contrasts the “monotony” and “scholasticism” of classicism with the “inspired gloomy” Gothic architecture, which “gives more revelry to the artist,” and the architecture of the East, “which was created only by imagination, an eastern, hot, wonderful imagination.” Paying tribute to the works of architects Ancient Greece, full of “harmoniousness and simplicity,” he condemned the classicist architects for distorting the essence of Attic architecture, turning its techniques into fashion.
P. Ya. Chaadaev expressed similar thoughts. In one of his “philosophical letters,” published in 1832 in the journal Telescope, he contrasted the “Greek style” with the “Egyptian and Gothic style.” According to Chaadaev, the first “refers to the material needs of man”, the other two - “to his moral needs”, for they have “a common ideal character, very clearly manifested in some kind of uselessness or, better, in the exclusive idea of the monument, which is especially dominates them." Chaadaev, like Gogol, was attracted by the special spirituality and emotional intensity of the Gothic. “It seems to me that the Gothic tower is worthy of special attention, as one of the most beautiful creations of the imagination,” wrote the author of “Philosophical Letters,” “it, like a powerful and beautiful thought, alone strives for the sky, takes you away from the earth and takes nothing from the earth , belongs to a special order of ideas and does not stem from the earthly: a most wonderful vision, without beginning or cause on earth.”
The opposition of the “spiritual” to the “earthly”, so clearly felt in this excerpt from Chaadaev’s “philosophical letter”, is very characteristic of the aesthetics of romanticism, especially in final stage its development. According to one of the ideologists of romanticism, the German philosopher F.-W. Schelling, those were the years when “the human spirit was uninhibited, considered itself the right to oppose its real freedom to everything that exists and ask not about what is, but what is possible.”
The uninhibitedness of the human spirit and at the same time the desire to delve into the “secrets of the soul”, keen attention to the human personality, to the unique, individual both in human character and in the phenomena of life are the most important features aesthetic program romanticism. The heroes of Beethoven, Byron, Pushkin, Lermontov passionately assert their human individuality, your right and ability to resist society, the “crowd,” and fate itself. V. S. Turchin in the book “The Age of Romanticism in Russia” notes that “if late classicism acquired an increasingly state character, then young romanticism appealed to individual consciousness, being interested in the fate of a person who entered the new century.”
Romantic poets painfully felt the “narrowness of the limits of classicist poetry” and saw in “freedom of choice and presentation the primary goal of romantic poetry.” Similar statements were heard in the 1830s by architects and estheticians who, thinking about the fate of architecture, came to the conclusion that it was necessary to critically review the “five rules of Vignola” and other canons of classicism.
The pathos of romantic individualism was also reflected in architecture, but very indirectly, in accordance with the peculiarities of its artistic and figurative structure. The problem of the relationship between the general and the individual, translated into the language of architectural forms, turned into a relationship between the canonical norm and originality. In contrast to the normativity of classicism, romanticism put forward the principle of free choice of artistic techniques.
In the same year of 1834, when Gogol’s “Arabesques” were published, on May 8, at the ceremonial ceremony of the Moscow Palace Architectural School, the young architect M. D. Bykovsky made a speech “On the groundlessness of the opinion that Greek or Greco-Roman architecture can be universal and that the beauty of architecture is based on the five well-known orders,” that is, on the canons of the five orders developed by the architects of antiquity and the Renaissance.
The essence of the new views that Bykovsky expressed in his speech is clear from its very title. His theoretical position corresponds to the aesthetics of romanticism, which considered it unacceptable to restrict the freedom of artistic creativity by a system of canonical rules. “It will seem strange to everyone,” Bykovsky argued, “that the elegant can be subordinated to the same, universal and in no case unchangeable formulas,” although, he noted, such an opinion, “so false in its beginnings... has already taken root and solemnly gravitates over the most beautiful works of the human spirit." Bykovsky saw the reason for such an uncreative, mechanical repetition of the canonical forms of architecture of the past in a lack of understanding that “the history of the architecture of any people is closely connected with the history of its own philosophy.” Each era develops its own architectural style that meets its spiritual needs and customs of a given nation, therefore the repetition of compositional techniques of “one chosen century” is, according to Bykovsky, “a reckless intention to suppress the fine arts.” According to him, “equally inconsistent with common sense is the assessment of the dignity of the beauty of art by means of a linear measure and the idea that the columns of one order or another should determine all the dimensions of a building, the entire strength of its character.”
The most important feature of public consciousness in the first decades of the 19th century was historicism: the centuries-old path of development of society and culture began to be viewed as a single process in which each link had its own specific historical significance. Paying tribute to the ancient era, which created monuments of exceptional artistic perfection, historians and art critics of the new generation sought to explore and understand the significance of subsequent eras in general process development of world culture. Combining the ideological principles of historicism with a romantic fascination with antiquity and exoticism, the aesthetics of those years called on contemporaries to become spiritual heirs of all the riches of human culture created by both the West and the East. “Tired of the monotony of classicism,” the Moscow Telegraph magazine wrote in 1825, “the brave minds of Europeans dare to fly in all other directions... We want to know and comprehend the spirit of all humanity.”
The growing interest in antiquities and the Middle Ages led to the appearance of a number of buildings “in the Gothic style.” In Russian architecture, along with the romantic neo-Gothic, other trends arose associated with an appeal to architectural traditions ancient Russian architecture and the experience of folk, folk architecture. Characteristic of the artistic life of Russia and all of Europe early XIX centuries growing interest in art Ancient Egypt and the exoticism of the East caused the emergence of various kinds of “oriental” trends in architecture.
Just as in literature, music, and painting, romanticism sharply expanded thematic boundaries, “introduced medieval themes, exotic themes, folk themes,” in architecture it led to the emergence of a number of stylistic trends, significantly different in their artistic attitudes from the architecture of classicism.
The new artistic worldview born of romanticism, the desire to know and comprehend the “spirit of all humanity,” the growing consciousness that modern culture should become the heir to the culture of all previous eras, led to the conclusion that “all kinds of architecture, all styles."
Formulating new architectural principles from the standpoint of romantic aesthetics, N.V. Gogol, in the article cited above, argued that “a city must consist of diverse masses if we want it to give pleasure to the eye. Let it combine more diverse tastes. Let rise in the same street: the gloomy Gothic, and the oriental, burdened with the luxury of decoration, and the colossal Egyptian, and the Greek, imbued with harmonious size.” Romanticism played a very important role in the overall process of artistic evolution of architecture. Acting as an ideological opponent of aging classicism, romanticism actively contributed to the departure of architecture from the creative method that underlay classicism. On the other hand, the programmatic “anti-canonism” of the romantics and the new architectural concept they put forward, based on an appeal to the heritage of “all styles,” contributed to the development of a new creative method, which became leading in the architecture of the mid and second half of the 19th century, and determined the artistic and stylistic features eclecticism.
The result of the development of this new creative method was the formation in the architecture of the 1820-1830s of a number of style directions. One of them was the stylized neo-Gothic, which turned out to be perhaps the most consistent embodiment of the artistic ideals of romanticism in the architecture of that period.
(Symbol - from the Greek Symbolon - conventional sign)- The central place is given to the symbol*
- The desire for a higher ideal prevails
- A poetic image is intended to express the essence of a phenomenon
- Characteristic reflection of the world in two planes: real and mystical
- Sophistication and musicality of verse
Acmeism
(From the Greek “acme” - point, highest point). The literary movement of Acmeism arose in the early 1910s and was genetically connected with symbolism. (N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich and V. Narbut.) The formation was influenced by M. Kuzmin’s article “On Beautiful Clarity,” published in 1910. In the programmatic article of 1913 “The Legacy of Acmeism and Symbolism” N. Gumilyov called symbolism “ worthy father“, but emphasized that the new generation has developed a “courageously firm and clear outlook on life”- Focus on classical poetry of the 19th century
- Adoption earthly world in its diversity, visible concreteness
- Objectivity and clarity of images, precision of details
- In rhythm, the Acmeists used dolnik (Dolnik is a violation of the traditional regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. The lines coincide in the number of stresses, but stressed and unstressed syllables are freely located in the line.), which brings the poem closer to the living colloquial speech
Futurism
Futurism - from lat. futurum, future. Genetically, literary futurism is closely connected with the avant-garde groups of artists of the 1910s - primarily with the groups “ Jack of Diamonds", "Donkey's Tail", "Youth Union". In 1909 in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the article “Manifesto of Futurism.” In 1912, the manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste” was created by Russian futurists: V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov: “Pushkin is more incomprehensible than hieroglyphs.” Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.- Rebellion, anarchic worldview
- Denial of cultural traditions
- Experiments in the field of rhythm and rhyme, figurative arrangement of stanzas and lines
- Active word creation