European artists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Antique paintings

The formation of industrial civilization had a huge impact on European art. As never before, it was in close connection with social life, the spiritual and material needs of people. In the context of the growing interdependence of peoples, artistic movements and cultural achievements quickly spread throughout the world.

Painting

Romanticism and realism manifested themselves with particular force in painting. There were many signs of romanticism in the work of the Spanish artist Francisco Goya (1746-1828). Thanks to talent and hard work, the son of a poor artisan became a great painter. His work constituted an entire era in the history of European art. The artistic portraits of Spanish women are magnificent. They are written with love and admiration. We read self-esteem, pride and love of life on the faces of the heroines, regardless of their social origin.

The courage with which Goya, the court painter, depicted a group portrait of the royal family never ceases to amaze. Before us are not rulers or arbiters of the country’s destinies, but quite ordinary, even ordinary people. Goya's turn to realism is also evidenced by his paintings dedicated to the heroic struggle of the Spanish people against Napoleon's army.

A key figure in European Romanticism was the famous French artist Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863). In his work, he placed fantasy and imagination above all else. A milestone in the history of romanticism, and indeed of all French art, was his painting “Liberty Leading the People” (1830). The artist immortalized the revolution of 1830 on canvas. After this painting, Delacroix no longer turned to French reality. He became interested in the theme of the East and historical subjects, where a rebellious romantic could give free rein to his fantasy and imagination.

The largest realist artists were the French Gustave Courbet (1819-1877) and Jean Millet (1814-1875). Representatives of this trend strived for a truthful depiction of nature. The focus was on the daily life and work of man. Instead of historical and legendary heroes characteristic of classicism and romanticism, ordinary people appeared in their work: townspeople, peasants and workers. The names of the paintings speak for themselves: “Stone Crusher”, “Knitters”, “Gatherers of Ears”.

An officer of the mounted rangers of the imperial guard going into the attack, 1812. Theodore Gericault (1791-1824). The first artist of the romantic movement. The painting expresses the romance of the Napoleonic era

Courbet was the first to use the concept of realism. He defined the goal of his work as follows: “To be able to convey the morals, ideas, appearance of the people of the era in my assessment, to be not only an artist, but also a citizen, to create living art.”

In the last third of the 19th century. France becomes a leader in the development of European art. It was in French painting that impressionism was born (from the French impression - impression). The new movement became an event of European significance. Impressionist artists sought to convey on canvas momentary impressions of constant and subtle changes in the state of nature and man.

In a third class carriage, 1862. O. Daumier (1808-1879). One of the most original artists of his time. Balzac compared him to Michelangelo.
However, Daumier became famous for his political cartoons. "In a Third Class Car" presents an unidealized image of the working class

Reading woman. K. Corot (1796-1875). The famous French artist was especially interested in the play of light and was a predecessor of the Impressionists.
At the same time, his work bears the stamp of realism.

The Impressionists carried out a real revolution in painting techniques. They usually worked outdoors. Colors and light played a much larger role in their work than the drawing itself. Outstanding impressionist artists were Auguste Renoir, Claude Monet, Edgar Degas. Impressionism had a huge influence on such great masters of the brush as Vincent Van Gogh, Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin.

Impression. Sunrise, 1882.
Claude Monet (1840-1926) often painted the same objects at different times of day to explore the effects of light on color and shape.

Ia Orana Maria. P. Gauguin (1848-1903). The artist's dissatisfaction with the European way of life forced him to leave France and live in Tahiti.
Local artistic traditions and the diversity of the surrounding world had a huge influence on the formation of his artistic style.

Spanish painter who worked in France. Already at the age of ten he was an artist, and at the age of sixteen his first exhibition took place. Paved the way for cubism - a revolutionary movement in the art of the 20th century. The Cubists abandoned the depiction of space and aerial perspective. Objects and human figures are transformed into a combination of various (straight, concave and curved) geometric lines and planes. The Cubists said that they paint not as they see, but as they know

Like poetry, the painting of this time is full of anxious and vague forebodings. In this regard, the work of the talented French symbolist artist Odilon Redon (1840-1916) is very characteristic. His sensational in the 80s. The Spider drawing is an ominous omen of the First World War. The spider is depicted with a creepy human face. Its tentacles are in motion and aggressive. The viewer is left with the feeling of an impending catastrophe.

Music

Music has not undergone as significant changes as other forms of art. But it was also influenced by industrial civilization, national liberation and revolutionary movements that shook Europe throughout the century. In the 19th century music went beyond the palaces of nobles and church temples. It became more secular and more accessible to the wider population. The development of publishing contributed to the rapid printing of sheet music and the distribution of musical works. At the same time, new musical instruments were created and old ones were improved. The piano became an integral and everyday thing in the home of the European bourgeoisie.

Until the end of the 19th century. The dominant trend in music was romanticism. At its origins stands the gigantic figure of Beethoven. Ludwig von Beethoven (1770-1827) respected the classical heritage of the 18th century. If he made changes to the established rules of musical art, he did so carefully, trying not to offend his predecessors. In this he differed from many romantic poets, who often subverted everyone and everything. Beethoven was such a genius that, even being deaf, he could create immortal works. His famous Ninth Symphony and Moonlight Sonata enriched the treasury of musical art.

Romantic musicians drew inspiration from folk song motifs and dance rhythms. In their work they often turned to literary works - Shakespeare, Goethe, Schiller. Some of them showed a penchant for creating gigantic orchestral works, which was not even a thing in the 18th century. But this desire was so in keeping with the powerful march of industrial civilization! The French composer Hector Berlioz was especially striking in the grandeur of his plans. Thus, he wrote a composition for an orchestra consisting of 465 musical instruments, including 120 cellos, 37 basses, 30 pianos and 30 harps.

He possessed such a virtuoso technique that there were rumors that it was the devil himself who taught him to play the violin. In the middle of a musical performance, a violinist could break three strings and continue to play just as expressively on the only remaining string

In the 19th century many European countries have given the world great composers and musicians. In Austria and Germany, national and world culture was enriched by Franz Schubert and Richard Wagner, in Poland - Frederic Chopin, in Hungary - Franz Liszt, in Italy - Gioachino Rossini and Giuseppe Verdi, in the Czech Republic - Bedřich Smetana, in Norway - Edvard Grieg, in Russia - Glinka, Rimsky Korsakov, Borodin, Mussorgsky and Tchaikovsky.

Since the 20s XIX century In Europe, a craze for a new dance begins - the waltz. The waltz originated in Austria and Germany at the end of the 18th century, originating from the Austrian Ländler - a traditional peasant dance

Architecture

The development of industrial civilization had a huge impact on European architecture. Scientific and technological advances contributed to innovation. In the 19th century Large buildings of state and public importance were built much faster. Since then, new materials began to be used in construction, especially iron and steel. With the development of factory production, railway transport and large cities, new types of structures appeared - train stations, steel bridges, banks, large stores, exhibition buildings, new theaters, museums, libraries.

Architecture in the 19th century. was distinguished by its variety of styles, monumentality, and practical purpose.

Facade of the Paris Opera building. Built in 1861 -1867. Expresses an eclectic direction, inspired by the Renaissance and Baroque eras

Throughout the century, the neoclassical style was the most common. The building of the British Museum in London, built in 1823-1847, gives a clear idea of ancient (classical) architecture. Up until the 60s. The so-called “historical style” was fashionable, expressed in a romantic imitation of the architecture of the Middle Ages. At the end of the 19th century. there is a return to Gothic in the construction of churches and public buildings (neo-Gothic, i.e., new Gothic). For example, the Houses of Parliament in London. In contrast to neo-Gothic, a new direction, Art Nouveau (new art), emerged. It was characterized by sinuous smooth outlines of buildings, premises, and interior details. At the beginning of the 20th century. Another direction arose - modernism. Art Nouveau style is distinguished by practicality, rigor and thoughtfulness, and a lack of decoration. It was this style that reflected the essence of industrial civilization and is most associated with our time.

In its mood, European art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. was contrasting. On the one hand, optimism and overflowing joy of life. On the other hand, there is a lack of faith in the creative capabilities of man. And one should not look for contradictions in this. Art only reflected in its own way what was happening in the real world. The eyes of poets, writers and artists were sharper and more insightful. They saw what others did not and could not see.

THIS IS INTERESTING TO KNOW

“I prefer to paint people’s eyes rather than cathedrals... the human soul, even the soul of an unfortunate beggar... in my opinion, is much more interesting,” said Vincent Van Gogh. The great artist lived his entire life in poverty and deprivation, often did not have money for canvas and paint, and was practically dependent on his younger brother. Contemporaries did not recognize any merits in him. When Van Gogh died, only a few people followed the coffin. Only two or three dozen people in Europe could appreciate his art, which the great artist addressed to the future. But years have passed. In the 20th century The artist received well-deserved, albeit belated, fame. Colossal sums were now paid for Van Gogh's paintings. For example, the painting “Sunflowers” was sold at auction for a record amount of $39.9 million. But this achievement was also surpassed by the painting “Irises,” which sold for $53.9 million.

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhekhovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / World History of Modern Times XIX - early. XX century, 1998.

17.3 European painting of the 19th century.

17.3.1 French painting . The first two decades of the 19th century. in the history of French painting are designated as revolutionary classicism. Its outstanding representative was J.L. David (1748– 1825), the main works of which were created by him in the 18th century. Works of the 19th century. - this is work with court painter of Napoleon– “Napoleon at Saint Bernard Pass”, “Coronation”, “Leonidas at Thermopylae”. David is also the author of beautiful portraits, such as the portrait of Madame Recamier. He created a large school of students and predetermined the traits artistic from the Empire style.

David's student was J. O. Ingres (1780– 1867), who turned classicism into academic art and for many years opposed for romantics. Ingres - author of truthful acute portraits (“L. F. Bertin”, “Madame Rivière”, etc.) and paintings in the style of academic classicism (“Apotheosis of Homer”, “Jupiter and Themis”).

Romanticism of French painting of the first half of the 19th century– these are paintings by T. Gericault (1791 – 1824) (“The Raft of the Medusa” and “Epsom Derby, etc.”) and E. Delacroix (1798 – 1863), author of the famous painting “Liberty Leading the People”.

The realistic direction in painting of the first half of the century is represented by the works of G. Courbet (1819– 1877), author of the term “realism” and the paintings “Stone Crusher” and “Funeral in Ornans”, as well as the works of J. F. Millet (1814 – 1875), writer of everyday life of peasants and (“The Gatherers,” “The Man with the Hoe,” “The Sower”).

An important phenomenon of European culture in the second half of the 19th century. There was an artistic style called impressionism, which became widespread not only in painting, but in music and fiction. And yet it arose in painting.

In temporary arts, the action unfolds in time. Painting seems to be able to capture only one single moment in time. Unlike cinema, it always has one “frame”. How can it convey movement? One of these attempts to capture the real world in its mobility and variability was the attempt of the creators of a movement in painting called impressionism (from the French impression). This movement brought together various artists, each of whom can be characterized as follows. Impressionist is an artist who conveys his direct impression of nature, sees in it the beauty of variability and inconstancy, in creates a visual sensation of bright sunlight, play of colored shadows, using a palette of pure unmixed colors, from which black and gray have been removed.

In the paintings of such impressionists as C. Monet (1840-1926) and O. Renoir (1841-1919), in the early 70s of the XIX century. airy matter appears, possessing not only a certain density that fills space, but also mobility. Sunlight streams and vapor rises from the damp earth. Water, melting snow, plowed earth, swaying grass in the meadows do not have clear, frozen outlines. Movement, which was previously introduced into the landscape as an image of moving figures, as a result of the action of natural forces– the wind, driving the clouds, swaying the trees, is now replaced by peace. But this peace of inanimate matter is one of the forms of its movement, which is conveyed by the very texture of painting - dynamic strokes of different colors, not constrained by the rigid lines of the drawing.

The new style of painting was not immediately accepted by the public, who accused the artists of not knowing how to draw and throwing paints scraped from the palette onto the canvas. Thus, Monet’s pink Rouen cathedrals seemed implausible to both viewers and fellow artists.– the best of the artist’s painting series (“Morning”, “With the first rays of the sun”, “Noon”). The artist is not tried to represent the cathedral on canvas at different times of the day– he competed with the masters of Gothic to absorb the viewer in the contemplation of magical light and color effects. The façade of Rouen Cathedral, like most Gothic cathedrals, hides the mystical spectacle of people coming to life. x from the sunlight of the bright colored stained glass windows of the interior. The lighting inside the cathedrals changes depending on which side the sun is shining from, cloudy or clear weather. The sun's rays, penetrating through the intense blue and red color of the stained glass glass, are colored and fall in colored highlights on the floor.

The word “impressionism” owes its appearance to one of Monet’s paintings. This painting was truly an extreme expression of the innovation of the emerging painting method and was called “Sunrise in Le Havre.” The compiler of the catalog of paintings for one of the exhibitions suggested that the artist call it something else, and Monet, crossing out “in Le Havre”, put “impression”. And several years after the appearance of his works, they wrote that Monet “reveals a life that no one before him was able to grasp, which no one even knew about.” In Monet's paintings they began to notice the disturbing spirit of the birth of a new era. Thus, “serialism” appeared in his work as a new phenomenon of painting. And she focused on the problem of time. The artist’s painting, as noted, snatches one “frame” from life, with all its incompleteness and incompleteness. And this gave impetus to the development of the series as sequentially replacing each other. In addition to the Rouen Cathedrals, Monet creates the Gare Saint-Lazare series, in which the paintings are interconnected and complement each other. However, it was impossible to combine the “frames” of life into a single tape of impressions in painting. This became the task of cinema. Cinema historians believe that the reason for its emergence and widespread distribution was not only technical discoveries, but also the urgent artistic need for a moving image. And the paintings of the Impressionists, in particular Monet, became a symptom of this need. It is known that one of the plots of the first cinema show in history, organized by the Lumière brothers in 1895, was “The Arrival of a Train.” Steam locomotives, a station, and rails were the subject of a series of seven paintings, “Gare Saint-Lazare” by Monet, exhibited in 1877.

An outstanding impressionist artist was O. Renoir. To his works (“Flowers”, “Young man walking with dogs in the forest of Fontainebleau”, “Vase of flowers”, “Bathing in the Seine”, “Lisa with an umbrella”, “Lady in a boat”, “Riders in the Bois de Boulogne” , “The Ball at Le Moulin de la Galette”, “Portrait of Jeanne Samary” and many others) the words of the French artist E. Delacroix “The first virtue of every picture” are quite applicable- to be festive m for the eyes." Renoir's name- a synonym for beauty and youth, that time of human life when mental freshness and the flourishing of physical strength are in complete harmony. Living in an era of acute social conflicts, he left them outside his canvases, focusing awakening to the beautiful and bright sides of human existence. And in this position he was not alone among artists. Two hundred years before him, the great Flemish artist Peter Paul Rubens painted pictures of a huge life-affirming principle (“Perseus and Andromeda”). Such pictures give a person hope. Every person has the right to happiness, and the main meaning of Renoir’s art is that each of his images affirms the inviolability of this right.

At the end of the 19th century, post-impressionism emerged in European painting. Its representatives- P . Cezanne (1839 – 1906), V. Van Gogh (1853 – 1890), P. Gauguin (1848 – 1903), taking from impressionists purity of color, we were searching constant principles of existence, generalizing painting methods, philosophical and symbolic aspects of creativity. Cezanne's paintings– these are portraits (“Smoker”), landscapes (“Banks of the Marne”), still lifes (“Still Life with a Basket of Fruit”).

Van Gogh paintings- “The Huts”, “Over After the Rain”, “Prisoners’ Walk”.

Gauguin has the features of worldview romanticism. In the last years of his life, captivated by the life of the Polynesian tribes, who, in his opinion, preserved their primitive purity and integrity, he left for the islands of Polynesia, where he created several paintings, the basis of which was the primitivization of form, the desire to get closer to the artistic traditions of the natives (“Woman holding a fruit ", "Tahitian Pastoral", "Wonderful Spring").

A remarkable sculptor of the 19th century. was O. Rodin (1840– 1917), who combined in his work impressionistic romanticism and expressionism with realistic searches. The vitality of images, drama, expression of intense inner life, gestures that continue in time and space (what are It is not possible to set this sculpture to music and ballet), capturing the instability of the moment- all this together creates an essentially romantic image and entirely impressionistic vision . The desire for deep philosophical generalizations (“Bronze Age”, “ Citizens of Calais", a sculpture dedicated to the hero of the Hundred Years' War, who sacrificed himself to save the besieged city, works for the "Gates of Hell", including "The Thinker") and the desire to show moments of absolute beauty and happiness ("Eternal Spring", "Pas de -de")– the main features of this artist's work.

17.3.2 English painting. Fine art of England in the first half of the 19th century.- this is landscape painting, bright representatives which were J. Constable (1776 – 1837), English predecessor impressionists(“Hay cart crossing a ford” and “Rye field”) and U. Turner (1775 – 1851), whose paintings such as Rain, Steam and Speed, "Shipwreck", is distinguished by a passion for colorful phantasma.

In the second half of the century, F. M. Brown created his works (1821– 1893), who was rightly considered the “Holbein of the 19th century.” Brown is known for his historical works (Chaucer at the Court of Edward III and Lear and Cordelia), as well as his paintings of the act traditional everyday themes (“Last Look at England”, “Labor”).

The creative association “Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood” (“Pre-Raphaelites”) arose in 1848. Although the unifying core was a passion for the works of artists of the early Renaissance (before Raphael), each member of this brotherhood had its own theme and its own artistic credo. The theorist of brotherhood was the English cultural scientist and esthetician J. Ruskin, who outlined the concept of romanticism in relation to the conditions of mid-century England.

Ruskin, linking art in his works with the general level of culture of the country, seeing in art the manifestation of moral, economic and social factors, sought to convince the British that the prerequisites for beauty are modesty, justice, honesty, purity and unpretentiousness.

The Pre-Raphaelites created paintings on religious and literary subjects, designed books artistically and developed decorative art, and sought to revive the principles of medieval crafts. Understanding the dangerous trend for decorative art- its depersonalization by machine production, English artist, poet and public figure W. Morris (1834 – 1896) organized artistic and industrial workshops for the production of tapestries, fabrics, stained glass and other household items, the drawings for which were used completed by himself and the Pre-Raphaelite artists.

17.3.3 Spanish painting. Goya . Works of Francisco Goya (1746– 1828) belongs to two centuries – XVIII and XIX. It was of great importance for the formation of European romanticism. Creative us The artist's life is rich and varied: paintings, portraits, graphics, frescoes, engravings, etchings.

Goya uses the most democratic themes (robbers, smugglers, beggars, participants in street fights and games- characters in his paintings). Having received in 1789 title of Pridv Oral artist, Goya performs a huge number of portraits: the king, queen, courtiers (“Family of King Charles IV”). The artist’s deteriorating health caused a change in the themes of his works. Thus, paintings characterized by fun and whimsical fantasy (“Carnival”, “The Game of Blind Man’s Bluff”) are replaced by canvases full of tragedy (“Inquisition Tribunal”, “Madhouse”). And they are followed by 80 etchings “Capriccios”, on which the artist worked for over five years. The meaning of many of them remains unclear to this day, while others were interpreted in accordance with the ideological requirements of their time.

Using symbolic, allegorical language, Goya paints a terrifying picture of the country at the turn of the century: ignorance, superstition, narrow-mindedness of people, violence, obscurantism, evil. Etching “The sleep of reason gives birth to monsters”– terrible monsters surround a sleeping person, bats, owls and other evil spirits. The artist himself gives the following explanation for his works: “Convinced that criticism humanvicesAndmisconceptions, AlthoughAndseemsfield of oratory and poetry, can also be the subject of a living description, the artist chose for his work from the many extravagances and absurdities inherent in any civil society, as well as from common prejudices and superstitions, legitimized by custom, ignorance or self-interest, those that he considered especially suitable for ridicule and at the same time for exercising one’s imagination.”

17.3.4 Modern – final style European painting XIX V . The most famous works created in European painting of the 19th century. in the Art Nouveau style, there were works by the English artist O. Beardsley (1872– 1898). HeillustratedworkABOUT. Wilde ("Salome"), createdelegantgraphicfantasy, enchantedwholegenerationEuropeans. OnlyblackAndwhiteweretoolsegabout labor: a sheet of white paper and a bottle of black ink and a technique similar to the finest lace (“The Secret Rose Garden”, 1895). Beardsley's illustrations are influenced by Japanese prints and French Rococo, as well as the decorative mannerism of Art Nouveau.

Art Nouveau style, which emerged around 1890– 1910 yy., characterizedavailabilitywindinglines, reminiscentcurlshair, stylizedflowersAndplants, languagesflame. StylethiswaswidecommonAndVpaintingAndVarchitecture. ThisillustrationsEnglishmanByordsley, posters and playbills by the Czech A. Mucha, paintings by the Austrian G. Klimt, lamps and metal products by Tiffany, architecture by the Spaniard A. Gaudi.

Another outstanding phenomenon of fin-de-siècle modernism– NorwegianartistE. Munch (1863 – 1944). FamouspaintingMunch« Scream (1893)– compositeParthisfundamentalcycle"Friezelife", abovewhichartisthave workedlongyears. Subsequentlywork"Scream"MunchrepeatedVlithographs. Painting"Scream"transmitsstateextremeemotionalvoltageperson, sheolitscreates the despair of a lonely person and his cry for help that no one can provide.

The largest artist in Finland A. Galen-Kallela (1865– 1931) Vstylemodernillustratedepic"Kalevala". Onlanguageempiricalrealityit is forbiddentellabout the legendary old man– blacksmithIlmarinen, whichforgedsky, put togetherfirmament, shackledfromfireeagle; OmothersLemminkäinen, resurrectedhiskilledson; OsingerVäinämöinene, which"hummedgoldChristmas tree", Gallel- Kallelamanagedhand overnarone power of ancient Karelian runes in the language of modernity.

In the first half of the 19th century. painting took precedence in the art of Western Europe. The representative of neoclassicism was Jacques Louis David (1748-1825). The painting “The Oath of the Horatii” (1784), commissioned by the state, brought him fame. After the revolution, David was elected to the Convention, and then became involved in revolutionary politics in the field of art. The most famous painting of the revolutionary era, “The Death of Marat” (1793), belongs to David’s brush. Jean Paul Marat was one of the leaders of the Jacobin coup. He was killed by Charlotte Corday. In the painting, David depicted the murdered Marat. David was so impressed by the tragic death of Marat that he completed the painting in three months and it was hung first in the Louvre, where thousands of people walked past it, and then in the meeting room of the Convention.

During the reign of Napoleon, David carried out orders from the court. Napoleon chose David as the first painter, wonderfully guessing the propaganda component of his talent. Portraits of Napoleon by David glorified the emperor as a new national hero (“Bonaparte’s Crossing of the Saint-Bernard Pass”, “Portrait of Napoleon”). The remarkable portrait of Madame Recamier is distinguished by perfection, testifying to the author’s commitment to classicism.

David's student was Antoine Gros (1771-1835). In the painting “Napoleon on the Arcole Bridge,” the artist captured one of the most heroic moments in the life of the future emperor. The young General Bonaparte personally led the attack, picking up the fallen banner, and the battle was won. Gro created a whole series of paintings about the emperor, glorifying his fearlessness, nobility and mercy (for example, “Bonaparte visiting the plague-stricken in Jaffa”).

Jean Aposte Dominique Ingres (1780-1867) was also a supporter of classical ideals. As an artist, he worked a lot for private individuals, but also carried out government orders. Ingres studied with David and remained a champion of classicism all his life. In his works, Ingres achieved high skill and artistic persuasiveness, and embodied a deeply individual idea of beauty.

The artist Theodore Gericault (1791-1824) was a master whose name is associated with the first brilliant successes of romanticism in France. Already in his early canvases (portraits of military men, depictions of horses), ancient ideals receded and a deeply individual style emerged. Gericault's painting "The Raft of the Medusa" became a symbol of contemporary France for the artist. People fleeing a shipwreck experience both hope and despair. The picture not only tells the story of the last effort of people in distress, but becomes a symbol of France in those years, which was also moving from despair to hope.

The head of French romanticism in painting was Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863). The artist created a whole range of images: a scene from Dante’s Inferno, heroes from the works of Byron, Shakespeare and Goethe, the struggle of the Greeks against Turkish rule, which then worried all of Europe. In 1830, the main political event was the July Revolution, which ended in the defeat and restoration of the monarchy in France. In 1830, Delacroix painted the painting “Liberty Leading the People (July 28, 1830).” The woman who raised the tricolor flag of the French Republic represents freedom. Liberty leads the rebels as they rise to the barricade. An episode of street fighting becomes an epic picture, and the image of Freedom on the barricades becomes the personification of the struggle. For many generations of French people, Delacroix's painting became a monument to the courage of the people, a symbol of the republic.

In Germany, the representative of romanticism was Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840). His nature paintings introduced the Romantic movement to the German public for the first time. The main theme in his work is the tragic loss of man in the world. A frequent motif of his landscapes were mountain peaks, the immensity of the sea, and bizarre trees. A constant character in his works is the romantic image of a wanderer, a dreamy contemplator of nature. The work of Caspar David Friedrich was truly appreciated only in the 20th century.

In Europe in the 19th century. artistic life is largely determined by the emergence of groups of artists whose views on art were very similar. In Germany, the Nazarenes, who imitated German and Italian painters of the 18th century, came into conflict with the neoclassicists. and those who turned to religious art and Christian piety. The central theme of Bieder-Meier painting (a special style in the art of Germany and Austria) was the daily life of a person, flowing in inextricable connection with his home and family. Biedermeier's interest not in the past, but in the present, not in the great, but in the small, contributed to the formation of a realistic tendency in painting.

In the second half of the 19th century. Realism becomes the leading principle in art. The French artist Camille Corot (1796-1875) chose the genre of landscape, which was not recognized in academic circles. Corot was especially attracted to the transitional states of nature, which made it possible to dissolve figures and trees in an airy haze.

A group of artists who settled in the village of Barbizon immortalized this name in the history of painting. Painters of the Barbizon school looked for simple subjects, often turned to landscapes and developed a special painting style, free and lyrical. They simply painted nature, but they did it by conveying subtle color transitions, depicting the play of light and air. In Barbizon painting, art historians see one of the sources of future impressionism, because the Barbizonians tried to convey living impressions of nature.

The paintings of Jean François Millet (1814-1875) and Gustave Courbet (1819-1877) can also be classified as naturalism. Millet's work was influenced by the Barbizons (it is no coincidence that at the end of his life he became so interested in landscapes). The main themes of his work were peasant life and nature. In the artist’s paintings we see characters who were previously considered unworthy of a painter’s brush: tired peasants, worn out by hard work, the poor and the humble. Millet develops a social theme in a completely new way, which was continued in Gustave Courbet. Courbet expressed his understanding of the role of art in the following words:

“To be able to express the morals, the appearance of the era in accordance with my own assessment, to be not only an artist, but also a person, in a word, to create living art - this is my task.” Courbet's position as a fighter for new art made him a participant in the events of the Paris Commune.

Naturalism as a painting style was reflected in the work of German painters such as Adolf von Menzel (1815-1905) and Wilhelm Leibl (1844-1900). The artists were interested in images of everyday life; in their work, for the first time, the industrial theme and the theme of the labor of peasants and their way of life were heard.

In the first half of the 19th century. The art of England reflected the trends of both neoclassicism and romanticism.

William Blake (1757-1827) was not only an artist, but also a poet. He worked in tempera and watercolor techniques, painted scenes from the Bible, from literary works, for example, Shakespeare, and created illustrations for Dante. In the history of English art, Blake's work stands apart. The artist died in poverty, recognition came to him only in the 20th century.

English landscape artists opened a new page in the history of painting. John Constable (1776-1837) painted sketches in oils, depicting places familiar to him from childhood. In his desire to convey the freshness of natural impressions, he abandoned carefully painted details. Constable's works were famous in France, influencing the development of French art; Theodore Gericault survived his passion for it.

The landscapes of William Turner (1775-1851) were romantically elevated. The artist loved to depict storms at sea, showers and thunderstorms. He worked in both watercolor and oil.

The dominant position in English painting was maintained by the academic school. The works of members of the Royal Academy of Arts, executed in a traditional manner, were popular with the public. However, in England an association of artists was created, called the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. They were attracted by the religious spirituality of the Proto-Renaissance masters (artists who worked before Raphael). In their work, the Pre-Raphaelites expressed a romantic orientation towards other eras (hence their fascination with the Middle Ages). The work of the Pre-Raphaelites was supported by John Ruskin (1819-1900), a writer and art critic who became the author of the book Modern Painters. The Pre-Raphaelites turned to New Testament subjects, painted a lot from life, and changed the traditional painting technique: their canvases were distinguished by bright and fresh tones.

Among the painters of the second half of the 19th century. Edouard Manet (1832-1883) stood out for his brilliant talent. The historical theme was familiar to him, but did not captivate the artist; he began to depict the many faces of Parisian life. Official criticism did not accept the artist; his innovative painting was condemned and caused protest. This is exactly what happened with Manet’s most famous paintings, Luncheon on the Grass and Olympia. The public found the image of a naked female body a challenge, and most importantly, the author’s manner of trying to convey the richness of sunlight. Paris becomes a constant motif in Manet's work: the city crowd, cafes and theaters, the streets of the capital. Manet's work preceded a new direction in painting - impressionism, but the artist himself did not join this movement, although he somewhat changed his creative style under the influence of the Impressionists. At the end of Manet's life, he received wide recognition and was awarded the Legion of Honor.

Edouard Manet's workshop, which for a time became the center of artistic life, united a whole group of artists who were impressed by the painting discoveries of its owner. The Salon jury rejected their paintings like Manet's paintings. They exhibited privately in the so-called “Salon of the Rejected” (that is, painters who were denied an exhibition by the jury of the official Salon). At the exhibition organized in the photo studio in 1874, in particular, Claude Monet’s painting “Impression. Sunrise". Based on this name, one of the critics called the participants impressionists (impression in French). Thus, from the ironic nickname the name of the artistic movement of the last third of the 19th century was born. Artists such as Claude Monet (1840-1926), Camille Pissarro (1830-1903), Pierre Haposte Renoir (1841-1919), Alfred Smeley (1839-1899), Edgar Degas (1834-1917) are traditionally classified as impressionists.

Like the Barbizonians, the Impressionists painted nature; in addition, they were the first to depict dynamic city life. The Barbizons painted their paintings in the studio, while the Impressionists went out into the open air, “in the open air.” They noticed that the same landscape changes under different lighting conditions in sunny and cloudy weather, at sunrise and sunset. They tried to preserve the freshness of the immediate impression in the film. They painted their paintings quickly, refused mixed colors and used pure bright colors, applying them in separate strokes.

Thus a new artistic direction was born. Its emergence was influenced not only by the achievements of previous European artists, but also by the invention of photography (there was no longer a need for primitive imitation of life), and acquaintance with oriental art (Japanese woodcuts, with their seriality, unusual perspective, and harmonious coloring, became a source of new artistic techniques).

Impressionism was not just another movement in painting; it found its development in sculpture, music and literature. Impressionism was a revolution in the perception of the world: the subjectivity of human perception was discovered and openly demonstrated. At the end of the 19th century. and in the 20th century. It is precisely the movements of art that represent diverse, often unexpected options for the artist’s perception of the world that will constitute truly modern art. Impressionists discover the relativity of human perception, its subjectivity. A little later, at the turn of the century, the same “relativity” will be discovered by theoretical physics. In a unique way, art reveals its ability to predict and express the trends of the times and changes in the consciousness of society.

Over 12 years, the Impressionists organized eight exhibitions. Rural and urban landscapes, portraits, everyday scenes - in all pictorial genres they made genuine artistic discoveries. The works of the Impressionists formed an innovative artistic movement; artists absorbed each other's best achievements.

The discoveries of the Impressionists were the basis for subsequent generations of artists. Representatives neo-impressionism became Georges Seurat (1859-1891) and Paul Signac (1863-1935). The Neo-Impressionists changed their painting style; their art was more intellectual.

At the end of the 19th century, four French artists: Paul Cezanne (1839-1906), Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890), Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901), without formally uniting into a group, However, they formed a new direction - post-impressionism(from Latin “post” - “after”). Post-Impressionists are close to the Impressionists. Disillusioned with their contemporary society, artists turned to depicting nature, but they no longer sought to capture instantaneous states, as the impressionists did, but to understand the true essence of things hidden under their appearance. In still lifes and portraits, Cézanne looked for stable geometric forms. Van Gogh's canvases, with their expressiveness and unusual color scheme, convey the artist's emotional state. Gauguin depicted the life of the natives of Tahiti, idealized by his imagination, life untouched by civilization, conveying exotic nature in fantastic color combinations. In the posters and lithographs of Toulouse-Lautrec, we see the life of Parisian bohemia. The work of the Post-Impressionists served as the starting point for the search for art of the 20th century. Fauvism, cubism, expressionism have their origins in the work of the impressionists.

In painting and graphics, symbolism and modernism appeared in the work of a whole group of European artists.

Aubrey Beardsley (1872-1898) lived only twenty-five years, but his work had a huge influence on the formation of the Art Nouveau style. He is known primarily as a book illustrator. Its graphics are stylish and sophisticated, enhanced by flexible, fancy movements. The main source of inspiration for the artist was literature. Beardsley's work embodied many ideas and principles of modernism. In general, modernity is characterized by improvisation on themes of various eras and styles, a bizarre combination of vice and spirituality.

The French artist Pierre Puvis de Chavannes (1824-1898) was able to transform a simple, unassuming subject into a symbolic composition. He was inspired by ancient images, using them in panels. His works were a stylization of antiquity, an interpretation of antiquity by man at the end of the 19th century.

The French painter Gustave Moreau (1826-1898) was associated with symbolism. He sought to amaze the viewer with the fantastic nature of the plots, the bright beauty of the colors, the expressive color scheme, and strong emotions.

The German painter Franz Xaver Winterhalter is best known for his portraits of beautiful ladies of the 19th century. He was born in 1805 in Germany, but after receiving his professional education he moved to Paris, where he was appointed court artist at the royal court. A whole series of portraits of a high society family made the artist incredibly popular.

And he became especially popular among society ladies, since he skillfully combined portrait likeness with the ability to “present” the object of his work. However, critics treated him very, very coolly, which, however, did not prevent him from becoming increasingly popular among ladies of high society not only in France, but throughout the world.

Alexandre Dumas said this about him

Ladies wait for months for their turn to get into Winterhalter's studio... they sign up, they have their serial numbers and wait - one for a year, another for eighteen months, the third for two years. The most titled ones have advantages. All ladies dream of having a portrait painted by Winterhalter in their boudoir...

Ladies from Russia did not escape the same fate.

Among his most famous works are portraits of Empress Eugenie (his favorite model).

and Empress Elisabeth of Bavaria (1865).
This is where we need to stop and pause...
How everything is connected in this world! The Habsburgs and the life of Elizabeth, her relationship with her mother-in-law, the fate of her son Rudolf and the film "Mayerling", the history of Austria-Hungary and the role of Ava Gardner, and me, a small provincial woman collecting portraits by Franz and intensely peering at the computer monitor...
I read in the encyclopedia about Sissy’s life, about her children, remembered the film and looked at portraits and photographs...
Indeed, painting is a window into the earthly world and into the world of knowledge...

Franz Xaver Winterhalter was born on April 20, 1805 in the small village of Mensenschwad in the Black Forest, Baden. He was the sixth child in the family of Fidel Winterhalter, a farmer and resin manufacturer, and his wife Eva Meyer, who came from the old Menzenschwand family. Of Franz's eight siblings, only four survived.

His father, although of peasant origin, had a significant influence on the artist's life.

Throughout his life, Winterhalter was closely associated with his family, especially his brother Hermann (1808–1891), who was also an artist.

After attending school at the Benedictine monastery in Blazin in 1818, the thirteen-year-old Winterhalter left Menzenschwand to study drawing and engraving.
He studied lithography and drawing in Freiburg in the studio of Karl Ludwig Schuler (1785-1852). In 1823, when he was eighteen years old, with the support of the industrialist Baron von Eichtal, he left for Munich.
In 1825, he was awarded a scholarship from the Grand Duke of Baden and began a course of study at the Munich Academy of Arts under the direction of Peter Cornelius, but the young artist did not like his teaching methods, and Winterhalter managed to find another teacher who could teach him secular portraiture, and this was Joseph Stieler.
At the same time, Winterhalter made a living as a lithographer.

Winterhalter's entry into court circles took place in 1828 in Karlsruhe, when he became the drawing teacher of Countess Sophia of Baden. A favorable opportunity to make himself known far from southern Germany came to the artist in 1832, when, with the support of Grand Duke Leopold of Baden, he had the opportunity to travel to Italy (1833-1834).

In Rome, he painted pictures of the romantic genre in the style of Louis-Leopold Robert and became close with the director of the French Academy, Horace Vernet.

Upon his return to Karlsruhe, Winterhalter painted portraits of Grand Duke Leopold of Baden and his wife and became the ducal court painter.

However, he left Baden and moved to France,

where at the exhibition of 1836 attention was attracted by his genre painting “Il dolce Farniente”,

and a year later, Il Decameron was also praised. Both works are academic paintings in the style of Raphael.
At the Salon of 1838 they presented a portrait of the Prince of Wagram with his young daughter.
The paintings were a success, and Franz’s career as a portrait artist was assured.

One year he painted Louise Marie d'Orléans, Queen of Belgium and her son.

Perhaps thanks to this painting, Winterhalter became known to Maria Amalia of Naples, Queen of France, mother of the Belgian queen.

So, in Paris, Winterhalter quickly became fashionable. He was appointed court artist to Louis Philippe, King of France, who entrusted him with the creation of individual portraits of his large family. Winterhalter had to complete more than thirty orders for him.

This success earned the artist a reputation as an expert in dynastic and aristocratic portraiture: masterfully combining accurate portrait likeness with subtle flattery, he depicted state pomp in a lively, modern manner. Orders followed one after another...

However, in artistic circles Winterhalter was treated differently.
The critics who had praised his debut at the 1936 Salon dismissed him as an artist who could not be taken seriously. This attitude persisted throughout Winterhalter's career and set his work apart in the hierarchy of painting.

Winterhalter himself viewed his first government commissions as a temporary stage before returning to object painting and restoring academic authority; he turned out to be a victim of his own success, and for his own peace of mind he had to work almost exclusively in the portrait genre. This was an area in which he was not only proficient and successful, but also managed to become rich.
But Winterhalter received international fame and the patronage of royalty.

Among his many royal models was Queen Victoria. Winterhalter first visited England in 1842 and returned there several times to paint portraits of Victoria, Prince Albert and their growing family, creating a total of about 120 works for them. Most of the paintings are in the Royal Collection and are open for display at Buckingham Palace and other museums.

Winterhalter also painted several portraits of representatives of the English aristocracy, most of whom were part of the court circle.

The fall of Louis Philippe in 1848 had no effect on the artist's reputation. Winterhalter moved to Switzerland and worked on orders in Belgium and England.
Paris remains the artist's hometown: a break in orders for portraits in France allowed him to return to thematic painting and turn to Spanish legends.

This is how the painting “Florinda” (1852, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) appeared, which is a joyful celebration of female beauty.
In this same year he proposed marriage, but was rejected; Winterhalter remained a bachelor, devoted to his work.

After Napoleon III's accession to the throne, the artist's popularity grew noticeably. From this time on, Winterhalter became the main portrait painter of the imperial family and the French court.

The beautiful Frenchwoman Empress Eugenie became his favorite model and treated the artist favorably.

In 1855, Winterhalter painted his masterpiece “Empress Eugenie surrounded by her ladies-in-waiting,” where she depicts her in a rural setting, picking flowers with her ladies-in-waiting. The painting was well received, exhibited for public viewing, and to this day remains perhaps the master’s most famous work.

In 1852 he travels to Spain to paint Queen Isabella II, working for the Portuguese royal family. Representatives of the Russian aristocracy who came to Paris were also glad to receive their portrait from the famous master.
As a royal artist, Winterhalter was in constant demand at the courts of Britain (since 1841), Spain, Belgium, Russia, Mexico, Germany and France.

17.3 European painting of the 19th century.

Van Gogh paintings- “The Huts”, “Over After the Rain”, “Prisoners’ Walk”.