Literary international competitions in a year. S-T-I-K-S Universe Novel Competition

Expressive means of vocabulary and phraseology
In vocabulary and phraseology, the main means of expression are trails(in translation from Greek - turn, image).
The main types of tropes include: epithet, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, paraphrase, hyperbole, litote, irony, sarcasm.
Epithet- a figurative definition that marks a feature that is essential for a given context in the depicted phenomenon. From simple definition the epithet is distinguished by artistic expressiveness and figurativeness. All colorful definitions, which are most often expressed by adjectives, belong to epithets.

Epithets are divided into general language (coffin silence), individually-author's (dumb peace (I.A. Bunin), touching charm (S.A. Yesenin)) and folk-poetic(permanent) ( red Sun, Kind Well done) .

The role of epithets in the text

Epithets are aimed at enhancing the expressiveness of the images of the depicted objects, at highlighting their most significant features. They convey the attitude of the author to the depicted, express author's assessment and the author's perception of the phenomenon, create a mood, characterize the lyrical hero. ("... Dead words smell bad" (N.S. Gumilyov); "... foggy and quiet azure over the sad orphan land" (F.I. Tyutchev))

Comparison- This is a pictorial technique based on the comparison of one phenomenon or concept with another.

Comparison Expression Ways:

form instrumental nouns:

stray nightingale

Youth flew by ... (A.V. Koltsov)

form comparative degree adjective or adverb:

These eyes greener sea ​​and cypresses darker. (A. Akhmatova)

Comparative turnovers with unions like, like, like, like and etc.:

How predatory beast, to a humble abode

The winner breaks in with bayonets ... (M.Yu. Lermontov)

With the help of words similar, similar:

Into the eyes of a cautious cat

Similar your eyes (A. Akhmatova)

With the help of comparative clauses:

Golden foliage swirled

In the pinkish water of the pond

Like a light flock of butterflies

With fading flies to the star. (S. Yesenin)

The role of comparisons in the text.

Comparisons are used in the text in order to enhance its figurativeness and figurativeness, to create more vivid, expressive images and highlighting, emphasizing any significant features of the depicted objects or phenomena, as well as for the purpose of expressing the author's assessments and emotions.

Metaphor- this is a word or expression that is used in a figurative sense based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena on some basis.

The metaphor can be based on the similarity of objects in shape, color, volume, purpose, sensations, etc.: a waterfall of stars, an avalanche of letters, a wall of fire, an abyss of grief and etc.

The role of metaphors in the text

Metaphor is one of the brightest and most powerful means of creating expressiveness and figurativeness of a text.

Through the metaphorical meaning of words and phrases, the author of the text not only enhances the visibility and clarity of the depicted, but also conveys the uniqueness, individuality of objects or phenomena. Metaphors serve as an important means of expressing the author's assessments and emotions.

personification- This is a kind of metaphor based on the transfer of signs of a living being to natural phenomena, objects and concepts.

The wind is sleeping and everything goes numb

Just to sleep;

The clear air itself is shy
Breathe in the cold. (A.A. Fet)

The role of personifications in the text

Personifications serve to create vivid, expressive and figurative pictures of something, they enliven nature, enhance the transmitted thoughts and feelings.

Metonymy- this is the transfer of the name from one subject to another on the basis of their adjacency. Adjacency can be a manifestation of a relationship:

I three plates ate (I.A. Krylov)

Scolded Homer, Theocritus,

But read Adam Smith(A.S. Pushkin)

Between action and instrument of action:

Their villages and fields for a violent raid

He doomed swords and fires(A.S. Pushkin)

Between the object and the material from which the object is made:

…not on silver, on gold ate (A.S. Griboedov)

Between a place and the people in that place:

The city was noisy, flags crackled ... (Yu.K. Olesha)

The role of metonymy in the text

The use of metonymy makes it possible to make the thought more vivid, concise, expressive, and gives the depicted object clarity.

Synecdoche- this is a kind of metonymy, based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them.

Most often, the transfer occurs:

From smallest to largest:

to him and bird does not fly

AND tiger won't come... (A.S. Pushkin)

Part to whole:

Beard why are you still silent?

The role of synecdoche in the text

Synecdoche enhances the expressiveness and expression of speech.

Paraphrase or paraphrase- (in translation from Greek - a descriptive expression) is a turnover that is used instead of a word or phrase.

Petersburg - Peter's creation, city of Petrov(A.S. Pushkin)

The role of paraphrases in the text

Paraphrases allow:

Highlight and emphasize the most significant features of the depicted;

Avoid unjustified tautology;

Paraphrases (especially expanded ones) allow you to give the text a solemn, sublime, pathetic sound:

O sovereign city,

Stronghold of the northern seas,

Orthodox crown of the fatherland,

The magnificent dwelling of kings,

Peter's sovereign creation!(P. Ershov)

Hyperbola- (translated from Greek - exaggeration) is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of any sign of an object, phenomenon, action:

A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper (N.V. Gogol)

Litotes- (in translation from Greek - smallness, moderation) - this is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant understatement of any sign of an object, phenomenon, action:

What tiny cows!

There is a right less pinhead. (I.A. Krylov)

The role of hyperbole and litotes in the text The use of hyperbole and litotes allows the authors of texts to sharply enhance the expressiveness of the depicted, to give thoughts unusual shape and bright emotional coloring, appraisal, emotional persuasiveness.

Hyperbole and litotes can also be used as a means of creating comic images.

Irony- (in translation from Greek - pretense) - this is the use of a word or statement in a sense opposite to the direct one. Irony is a type of allegory in which mockery is hidden behind an outwardly positive assessment:

breakaway, smart Are you delirious, head?

Perhaps the most confusing and most difficult topic for those who are not friends with literature and verbal figures. If you've never been impressed classic literature, and especially poetry, then, perhaps, acquaintance with this topic will allow you to look at many works through the eyes of the author, generate interest in the artistic word.

Trails - verbal turns

Paths make speech brighter and more expressive, more interesting and richer. These are the words and their combinations used in figuratively, which is why the very expressiveness of the text appears. Paths help convey various shades emotions, recreate true images and pictures in the mind of the reader, with their help, the master of the word evokes certain associations in the mind of the reader.

Along with the syntactic means of the language, tropes (relating to lexical means) are quite powerful weapon V literary field. It is worth paying attention to the fact that many trails have moved from literary language into colloquial speech. We have become so accustomed to them that we have ceased to notice the indirect meaning of such words, which is why they have lost their expressiveness. It is not uncommon: the tropes are so "beaten" with colloquial speech that they become clichés and clichés. The once expressive phrases "black gold", "brilliant mind", "golden hands" have become habitual and hackneyed.

Trail classification

In order to understand and clearly find out which words and expressions, in what context, are referred to as figurative and expressive means of the language, we turn to the following table.

trails	Definition	Examples
Epithet	Called to define something artistically (object, action), most often expressed by an adjective or adverb	Turquoise eyes, monstrous character, indifferent sky
Metaphor	In fact, this is a comparison, but hidden by transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another.	The soul sings, consciousness floats away, the head buzzes, an icy look, a sharp word
Metonymy	Rename. This is the transfer of the properties of one object, phenomenon to another on the basis of adjacency.	Brew chamomile (and not chamomile tea), the school went on a subbotnik (replacing the word "students" with the name of the institution), read Mayakovsky (replacing the work with the name of the author)
Synecdoche (is a type of metonymy)	Transferring the name of an object from part to whole and vice versa	Save a penny (instead of money), the berry has ripened this year (instead of the berry), the buyer is now demanding (instead of buyers)
Hyperbola	Trope based on excessive exaggeration (properties, sizes, events, meanings, etc.)	I told you a hundred times, stood in line all day, scared me to death
paraphrase	Semantically indivisible expression that figuratively describes any phenomenon, object, pointing to its feature (with a negative or positive meaning)	Not a camel, but a ship of the desert, not Paris, but the capital of fashion, not an official, but a clerical rat, not a dog, but a friend of man
Allegory	Allegory, expression of an abstract concept using a concrete image	Fox - cunning, ant - diligence, elephant - clumsiness, dragonfly - carelessness
Litotes	Same as hyperbole, only in reverse. Understatement of something in order to give expressiveness	How the cat cried, I earn my penny, thin as a reed
Oxymoron	Combination of incompatible, contrasting, contradictory	Loud silence, back to the future, hot cold, beloved enemy
Irony	Using a word in a sense completely opposite to its meaning for the purpose of ridicule	Come into my mansions (about a small apartment), it will cost you a pretty penny (big money)
personification	Transferring the properties and qualities of living beings to inanimate objects and concepts to which they are not inherent	The rain is crying, the foliage is whispering, the blizzard is howling, sadness has attacked
Antithesis	Trope based on a sharp opposition of any images or concepts	I was looking for happiness in this woman, And accidentally found death. S. Yesenin
Euphemism	An emotionally and semantic neutral word or combination of words used instead of unpleasant, rude, indecent expressions	Places are not so remote (instead of prison), it has a peculiar character (instead of bad, hard)

From the examples it becomes clear that the figurative means of expression language, namely tropes, are used not only in works of art, but also in live colloquial speech. It is not necessary to be a poet in order to have a competent, juicy, expressive speech. It is enough to have a good lexicon and the ability to express thoughts outside the box. Saturate your lexical pantries with reading quality literature, this is extremely useful.

Figurative means of phonetics

Paths are only part of the arsenal of artistic means of expression. That which is intended to act specifically on our hearing is called phonetic figurative and expressive means of language. Once having delved into the essence of the phonetic component of the artistry of the language, you begin to look at many things with different eyes. Understanding the play on words in poetry school curriculum, once studied "through force", the poetics and beauty of the syllable are revealed.

It is best to consider examples of the use of phonetic means of expression, relying on classical Russian literature, this is the richest source of alliteration and assonance, as well as other types of sound writing. But it would be wrong to think that examples of figurative and expressive means of language are not found in contemporary art. Advertising, journalism, songs and poems contemporary performers, proverbs, sayings, tongue twisters - all this is an excellent base for finding figures of speech and tropes, you just need to learn to hear and see them.

Alliteration, assonance and others

Alliteration is the repetition of identical consonants or their combinations in a poem, which gives the verse sound expressiveness, brightness, originality. For example, the sound [h] of Vladimir Mayakovsky in "A Cloud in Pants":

You entered

sharp, like "here!",

mucha suede gloves,

"You know -

I'm getting married".

or right there:

I'll get stronger.

See -

how calm!

Like the pulse of the dead.

Remember?...

And here is a modern example. From the singer Yuta ("Fall"):

I will smoke and eat bread,

Staring in the hallway at the dusty ceiling ...

Assonance - a specially organized repetition of consonant sounds (more often in a poetic text), which gives the verse musicality, harmony, song. Masterfully crafted phonetic technique can convey the atmosphere, setting, state of mind and even ambient sounds. Vladimir Mayakovsky's carefully crafted assonance bears a tinge of fluid hopelessness:

Your son is very sick!

He has a heart of fire.

Tell the sisters

Luda and Ole,—

he has nowhere to go.

In Vladimir Vladimirovich, in any poem, figurative and expressive means of a phonetic nature are combined with tropes and syntactic figures. This is the author's uniqueness.

Punning rhymes are combinations of words and sounds built on the similarity of sound.

The area of ​​rhymes is my element,

And I write poetry easily,

Without hesitation, without delay

I run to line from line

Even to the Finnish brown rocks

I'm dealing with a pun.

D. D. Minaev

Syntactic means of expression in the language

Epiphora and anaphora, inversion, parcellation and a number of other syntactic means help the master verbal art saturate your works with expressiveness, creating individual style, character, rhythm.

Some syntactic techniques enhance the expressiveness of speech, logically highlight what the author wants to emphasize. Others give the narrative dynamism, tension, or, conversely, make you stop and think, re-read and feel. Many writers and poets have their own individual style based precisely on syntax. Suffice it to recall A. Blok:

"Night, street, lamp, pharmacy"

or A. Akhmatov:

"Twenty-one. Night. Monday"

The individual author's style, of course, consists not only of syntax, there is a whole set of all components: semantic, linguistic, as well as rhythm and vision of reality. But still important role plays what figurative and expressive means of language the artist of the word prefers.

Syntax to help artistic expression

Inversion (permutation, reversal) is a reverse or non-standard word order in a sentence. In prose, it is used to semantic highlight any part of a sentence. IN poetic form sometimes necessary to create a rhyme, focusing on the most important points. In Marina Tsvetaeva's poem "Attempt at Jealousy", the inversion conveys an emotional strain:

How do you live - hello -

Maybe? Singing - how?

With a plague of immortal conscience

How are you, poor man?

A. S. Pushkin considered inversion almost main means poetic expressiveness, his poems are mostly inversion, which is why they are so musical, expressive, simple.

rhetorical question in artistic text it is one that does not require a response.

The day was innocent and the wind was fresh.

The dark stars went out.

- Grandmother! — This cruel rebellion

In my heart - is it not from you? ..

A. Akhmatova

In the lyrics of Marina Tsvetaeva, the favorite devices were a rhetorical question and a rhetorical exclamation:

I'll ask for a chair, I'll ask for a bed:

“For what, for what do I endure and suffer?”

I taught to live in the fire itself,

I threw it myself - into the icy steppe!

That's what you, dear, did to me!

My dear, what have I done to you?

Epiphora, Anaphora, Ellipse

Anaphora - the repetition of similar or identical sounds, words, phrases at the beginning of each line, stanza, sentence. A classic example is Yesenin's poems:

I did not know that love is an infection,

I didn't know love was a plague....

Ah, wait. I don't scold her.

Ah, wait. I don't curse her...

Epiphora - the repetition of the same elements at the end of phrases, stanzas, lines.

Foolish heart, don't beat!

We are all deceived by happiness

The beggar only asks for participation ...

Foolish heart, don't beat.

Both stylistic figures are more characteristic of poetry than prose. Such techniques are found in all types and genres of literature, including oral folk art, which is very natural, given its specificity.

Ellipse - a gap in the artistic text of any language unit(it is easy to restore), while the meaning of the phrase does not suffer.

The fact that yesterday is waist-deep,

Suddenly - to the stars.

(Exaggerated, that is:

In all - growth.)

M. Tsvetaeva

This gives dynamism, brevity, highlights the desired element in the sentence intonationally.

In order to clearly navigate in all the variety of linguistic figures and professionally understand the name of a visual and expressive means, experience, knowledge of theory and language disciplines are needed.

The main thing is not to overdo it

If we perceive the surrounding information through the prism language tools expressiveness, it can be concluded that even Speaking refers to them often enough. It is not necessary to know the name of the figurative-expressive means of the language in order to use it in speech. Rather, it happens unintentionally, imperceptibly. Another thing is when in the means mass media various figures of speech flow in a stream, to the place and not quite. Path abuse, stylistic devices, other means of expressiveness makes speech hard to perceive, oversaturated. Publicism and advertising are especially guilty of this, apparently because they deliberately use the power of language to influence the audience. The poet, in the impulse of the creative process, does not think about what figurative and expressive means to use, this is a spontaneous, "emotional" process.

Language is the strongest tool in the hands of the classics

Each era leaves its mark on the language and its visual means. Pushkin's language is far from the creative style of Mayakovsky. The poetics of Tsvetaev's legacy differs sharply from unique texts Vladimir Vysotsky. Poetic language A. S. Pushkin is riddled with epithets, metaphors, personifications, I. A. Krylov is a fan of allegory, hyperbole, irony. Each writer has his own style, created by him in creative process, in which his favorite pictorial

Means of speech expressiveness- this is one of the most important factors due to which the Russian language is famous for its wealth and beauty, which has been sung more than once in poetry and immortal works Russian classic writers. To this day, Russian is one of the most difficult languages ​​to learn. This contributes great amount means of expression that are present in our language, make it rich and multifaceted. To date, there is no clear classification of means of expression, but still two conditional types can be distinguished: stylistic figures and tropes.

Stylistic figures- these are speech turns that the author uses in order to achieve maximum expressiveness, which means that it is better to convey the necessary information or meaning to the reader or listener, and also to give the text an emotional and artistic coloring. Stylistic figures include such expressive means as antithesis, parallelism, anaphora, gradation, inversion, epiphora and others.

trails- these are speech turns or words that are used by the author in an indirect, allegorical sense. These facilities artistic expressiveness - an integral part of any work of art. Tropes include metaphors, hyperbolas, litotes, synecdoches, metonymies, etc.

The most common means of expression.

As we have said, there is a very a large number of means of lexical expressiveness in the Russian language, so in this article we will consider those that can most often be found not only in literary works, but also in Everyday life each of us.

1. Hyperbola(Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - this is a type of path, the basis of which is exaggeration. Through the use of hyperbole, meaning is enhanced and the desired impression is made on the listener, interlocutor or reader. For example: sea ​​of ​​tears; Ocean Love.
2. Metaphor(Greek metaphora - transfer) - one of the most important means of speech expressiveness. This trope is characterized by the transfer of the characteristics of one object, creature or phenomenon to another. This trope is similar to a comparison, but the words "as if", "as if", "as" are omitted, but everyone understands that they are implied: tarnished reputation; glowing eyes; seething emotions.
3. Epithet(Greek epitheton - application) is a definition that gives the most ordinary things, objects and phenomena an artistic color. Examples of epithets: golden summer; flowing hair; wavy fog.

   IMPORTANT. Not every adjective is an epithet. If the adjective indicates the clear characteristics of the noun and does not carry any artistic load, then it is not an epithet: green grass ; wet asphalt; bright sun.

4. Antithesis(Greek antithesis - opposition, contradiction) - another means of expression that is used to enhance the drama and is characterized by a sharp opposition of phenomena or concepts. Very often the antithesis can be found in verses: “You are rich, I am very poor; you are a prose writer, I am a poet ... ”(A.S. Pushkin).
5. Comparison - stylistic figure, whose name speaks for itself: when compared, one object is compared with another. There are several ways in which comparison can be represented:

   - noun ("... storm haze the sky covers…”).

   A speech turnover in which there are unions “as if”, “as if”, “like”, “like” (The skin of her hands was rough, like the sole of a boot).

   - subordinate clause (Night fell on the city and in a matter of seconds everything was quiet, as if there was not that liveliness in the squares and streets just an hour ago).

6. Phraseologisms- a means of lexical expressiveness of speech, which, unlike others, cannot be used by the author individually, since it is, first of all, set phrase or a turnover peculiar only to the Russian language ( neither fish nor fowl; fool around; how the cat cried).
7. personification- this is a trope that is characterized by endowing inanimate objects and phenomena with human properties (And the forest came to life - the trees spoke, the wind sang in the tops of the fir trees).

In addition to the above, there are the following means of expression, which we will consider in the next article:

• Allegory
• Anaphora
• gradation
• Inversion
• Alliteration
• Assonance
• Lexical repetition
• Irony
• Metonymy
• Oxymoron
• polyunion
• Litotes
• Sarcasm
• Ellipsis
• Epiphora etc.

TROPE

Trope is a word or expression used figuratively to create artistic image and achieve greater expressiveness. Pathways include techniques such as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes referred to as hyperbolas and litotes. No work of art is complete without tropes. art word- polysemantic; the writer creates images, playing with the meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound - all this is artistic possibilities word, which is the only tool of the writer or poet.
Note! When creating a trail, the word is always used in a figurative sense.

Consider different types trails:

EPITHET(Greek Epitheton, attached) - this is one of the tropes, which is an artistic, figurative definition. An epithet can be:
adjectives: gentle face (S. Yesenin); these poor villages, this meager nature ... (F. Tyutchev); transparent maiden (A. Blok);
participles: edge abandoned(S. Yesenin); frantic dragon (A. Blok); takeoff radiant(M. Tsvetaeva);
nouns, sometimes together with their surrounding context: Here he is, leader without squad(M. Tsvetaeva); My youth! My dove is swarthy!(M. Tsvetaeva).

Each epithet reflects the uniqueness of the author's perception of the world, therefore it necessarily expresses some kind of assessment and has a subjective meaning: a wooden shelf is not an epithet, so there is no artistic definition, wooden face - an epithet expressing the impression of the interlocutor speaking about the facial expression, that is, creating an image.
There are stable (permanent) folklore epithets: remote burly kind Well done, It's clear the sun, as well as tautological, that is, epithets-repetitions that have the same root with the word being defined: Oh you, grief is bitter, boredom is boring, mortal! (A. Blok).

IN work of art An epithet can perform various functions:

• characterize the subject: shining eyes, eyes diamonds;
• create atmosphere, mood: gloomy morning;
• convey the attitude of the author (narrator, lyrical hero) to the object being characterized: "Where will our prankster"(A. Pushkin);
• combine all previous functions in equal proportions (in most cases, the use of the epithet).

Note! All color terms in a literary text are epithets.

COMPARISON- this is an artistic technique (tropes), in which an image is created by comparing one object with another. Comparison differs from other artistic comparisons, for example, similes, in that it always has a strict formal feature: a comparative construction or a turnover with comparative conjunctions. as, as if, as if, exactly, as if and the like. Type expressions he looked like... cannot be considered a comparison as a trope.

Comparison examples:

Comparison also plays certain roles in the text: sometimes authors use the so-called extended comparison, revealing various signs phenomena or conveying their attitude to several phenomena. Often the work is entirely based on comparison, as, for example, V. Bryusov's poem "Sonnet to Form":

PERSONALIZATION- artistic technique (tropes), in which inanimate object, a phenomenon or concept is given human properties (do not confuse, it is human!). Personification can be used narrowly, in one line, in a small fragment, but it can be a technique on which the whole work is built (“You are my abandoned land” by S. Yesenin, “Mom and the evening killed by the Germans”, “Violin and a little nervously” by V. Mayakovsky and others). Personification is considered one of the types of metaphor (see below).

Impersonation task- correlate the depicted object with a person, make it closer to the reader, figuratively comprehend the inner essence of the object, hidden from everyday life. Personification is one of the oldest figurative means of art.

HYPERBOLA(Greek Hyperbole, exaggeration) is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative sense to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes. A technique opposite to hyperbole in content is LITOTES(Greek Litotes, simplicity) is an artistic understatement.

Hyperbole allows the author to show the reader in exaggerated form the most character traits depicted subject. Often, hyperbole and litotes are used by the author in an ironic vein, revealing not just characteristic, but negative, from the author's point of view, sides of the subject.

METAPHOR(Greek Metaphora, transfer) - a type of so-called complex trope, speech turnover, in which the properties of one phenomenon (object, concept) are transferred to another. Metaphor contains a hidden comparison, a figurative likening of phenomena through the use of figurative meaning words, what the object is compared with is only implied by the author. No wonder Aristotle said that "to compose good metaphors means to notice similarities."

Metaphor examples:

METONYMY(Greek Metonomadzo, rename) - type of trail: a figurative designation of an object according to one of its signs.

Examples of metonymy:

When studying the topic "Means of artistic expression" and completing tasks, pay special attention to the definitions of the above concepts. You must not only understand their meaning, but also know the terminology by heart. This will protect you from practical mistakes: knowing for sure that the comparison technique has strict formal features (see theory on topic 1), you will not confuse this technique with a number of others artistic techniques, which are also based on a comparison of several objects, but are not a comparison.

Please note that you must start your answer either with the suggested words (by rewriting them) or with your own version of the beginning of the full answer. This applies to all such assignments.

Recommended literature:

• Literary criticism: Reference materials. - M., 1988.
• Polyakov M. Rhetoric and Literature. Theoretical aspects. - In the book: Questions of Poetics and Artistic Semantics. - M.: Sov. writer, 1978.
• Dictionary literary terms. - M., 1974.

I linguistic means	Definition	Example
Anaphora (unity)	Repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence	Hands let gowhen a person reads one thing in the newspapers, but sees another in life. Hands let gofrom constant confusion, mismanagement, terry bureaucracy.Hands let gowhen you realize that no one around you is responsible for anything and that everything is “to the point”. That's what gives up! (R. Rozhdestvensky)
Antithesis (oppositions))	A sharp opposition of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of a sharp contrast	All world literature I divide into 2 types -literature at home and literature of homelessness. The literature of achieved harmony and the literature of longing for harmony. Mad unrestrainedDostoevsky-and powerful slow rhythmTolstoy. HowdynamicTsvetaeva and howstaticAkhmatova! (F. Iskander)
Hyperbola	Artistic exaggeration.	Russia is stricken with a grave ideological disease, which is more severe than H-bomb 20th century. The name of this disease is xenophobia (I. Rudenko).
gradation	A syntactic construction within which homogeneous expressive means are arranged in order of strengthening or weakening of a feature.	The Vedas and the truth: what is the use of courage, in fearlessness, in selfless courage, if there is no conscience behind them ?! It is not good, unworthy, stupid and disgusting to laugh at a person. (L. Panteleev)
Grotesque	Artistic exaggeration to the incredible, fantastic.	If some universal saboteurs were sent to destroy all life on Earth and turn it into a dead stone, if they carefully developed this operation of theirs, they could not act more intelligently and insidiously than we people living on Earth act. (V. Soloukhin)
Inversion	Reverse word order in a sentence. (In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, the agreed definition is before the word being defined, the inconsistent definition is after it, the addition is after the control word, the circumstances of the mode of action are before the verb. And with inversion, the words are arranged in a different order than is established by grammatical rules).	The month came out on a dark night, looking lonely from a black cloud at deserted fields, at distant villages, at nearby villages. (M. Neverov) A dazzlingly bright flame escaped from the furnace (N. Gladkov) I do not believe in the good intentions of today's new Russians. (D.Granin)
Irony	A type of other statement when a mockery is hidden behind an outwardly positive assessment.	Men's suits for sale, one style. And what are the colors? Oh what a great selection of colors! Black, black-gray, gray-black, blackish gray, slate, slate, emery, the color of transfer iron, coconut color, peat, earthen, garbage, cake color and the color that in the old days was called "robber's dream". In general, you yourself understand, there is only one color, pure mourning at a poor funeral. (I.Ilf, E.Perov)
Litotes	Artistic understatement.	We, with our ambitions, are less than forest ants. (V. Astafiev)
Metaphor (including expanded)	The transfer to an object or phenomenon of any sign of another phenomenon or object (an extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently carried out throughout a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole	good people there were, are and, I hope, will always be more than bad and evil, otherwise disharmony would set in in the world, it would be warped, ………tipped over and sank. It is cleansed, the soul is, and it seems to me, the whole world held its breath, this bubbling, formidable our world thought, ready to fall on its knees with me, to repent, to fall with a withered mouth to the holy spring of goodness .... (N. Gogol)
Metonymy	Transfer value (rename) based on the adjacency of phenomena.	Winter. Freezing. The village smokes cold clear sky gray smoke (V. Shukshin) Funeral Mozart sounded under the vaults of the cathedral (V. Astafiev). Black tailcoats were worn upright and in heaps here and there. (N. Gogol).
Personification (personification)	Item Assignment inanimate nature properties of living beings.	Hops, crawling along the ground, grabs on to oncoming grasses, but they turn out to be rather weak for him, and he crawls, crouching, farther and farther ... He must constantly look around and fumble around, looking for something to grab onto, on which to rely on a reliable earthly support. (V. Soloukhin)
a rhetorical question	Expression of the statement in interrogative form.	Who among us has not admired the sunrise, the summer herbs of the meadows, the raging sea? Who has not admired the shades of colors of the evening sky? Who hasn't been thrilled by the sight of a sudden valley in the mountain gorges? (V. Astafiev)
Rhetorical exclamation	Expression of a statement in exclamation form.	What magic, kindness, light in the word teacher! And how great is its role in the life of each of us! (V. Sukhomlinsky)
Rhetorical address	A figure of speech in which the attitude of the author to what is being said is expressed in the form of an address.	My dears! But who, besides us, will think about ourselves? (V. Voinovich) And you, mentally wretched vandals, also shout about patriotism? (P. Voshchin)
Sarcasm	Caustic irony.	And every time, frankly hacking at work (“it will do ..!”, blinding something at random (“it will grind ..!”), not thinking something up, not calculating, not checking (“come on, it will cost ..! ”), closing our eyes to our own negligence (“I don’t care ..!”), But we ourselves, with our own hands, with our own so-called labor, are building training grounds for the upcoming demonstration of mass heroism, we are preparing tomorrow’s accidents and disasters for ourselves! (R. Rozhdestvensky
Epithet	Artistic definition, that is, colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinctive properties in a certain word.	There is only my contemptuous, incorporeal soul, it oozes incomprehensible pain and tears of quiet delight .... Let the vaults of the cathedral collapse, and instead of an executioner about a bloody, criminally composed path, people will be carried away to the heart by the music of a genius, and the unanimal roar of a murderer. (V. Astafiev)
Epiphora	The same ending of several sentences, reinforcing the meaning of this image, concept, etc.	We know how the French influenced Pushkin. We know how Schiller influenced Dostoevsky. We know how Dostoevsky influenced all the latest world literature.

Test 1

Exercise:

1. Under it, a stream of lighter azure.

(M. Lermontov.)

2. A heroic horse jumps through the forest.

(Epic)

3. The golden stars dozed off.

(S. Yesenin.)

4. Ahead is a deserted September day.

(K. Paustovsky.)

5. Water is tired of singing, tired of flowing,

Shine, flow and shimmer.

(D. Samoilov.)

6. Sleep dandelions went to bed with us,

children, and stood up with us.

(M. Prishvin.)

7. She chirps and sings

On the eve of boron,

as if guarding the entrance

In forest burrows.

(B. Pasternak.)

8. Forests clad in crimson and gold.

(A. Pushkin.)

9. Autumn will wake up soon

and cry awake.

(K. Balmont.)

10. But it's still cold

And not to sing, but, like armor, to ring.

(D. Samoilov.)

Test 2 .

Exercise: Name the means of expression used by the author.

1. Life is a mouse run ...

What are you worrying me about? (A. Pushkin)

2. A boy with a finger.

3. The forest is like a painted tower. (I. Bunin)

4.When people….

Belinsky and Gogol

From the market will carry. (N. Nekrasov)

5. O Volga, my cradle! (N. Nekrasov)

6. It's snowy, it's snowy all over the earth,

To all limits.

The candle burned on the table

The candle was burning. (B.Pasternak)

7. They got along. Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire,

Not so different from each other. (A. Pushkin)

8. We have not seen each other for a hundred years!

9. Seahorses seemed much more interesting. (V. Kataev)

10. And punch flame blue. (A. Pushkin

Test #1Answers: 1. Comparison (simple). 2. Hyperbole.3. Personification. 4. Epithet. 5. Homogeneous members of the proposal. 6. Personification. 7. Comparison.8.Metaphor 9. Personifications 10. Comparison.

Test number 2 Answers: 1. Rhetorical question 2. Litota 3. Comparison 4. Metonymy 5. Appeal 6. Lexical repetition 7. Antithesis8. Hyperbole 9. Comparison10. Metaphor