Everyday life of medieval Rus' (based on moralizing literature). Daily life of the French during the time of Napoleon Bonaparte He wrote about daily life

The history of everyday life today is a very popular area of historical and generally humanitarian knowledge. It was designated relatively recently as a separate branch of historical knowledge. Although the main subjects of the history of everyday life, such as life, clothing, work, leisure, customs, have been studied in certain aspects for a long time, currently in historical science there is an unprecedented interest in the problems of everyday life. Everyday life is the subject of a whole complex of scientific disciplines: sociology, psychology, psychiatry, linguistics, art theory, literary theory and, finally, philosophy. This theme often dominates philosophical treatises and scientific studies, the authors of which address certain aspects of life, history, culture and politics.

The history of everyday life is a branch of historical knowledge, the subject of study of which is the sphere of human everyday life in its historical-cultural, political-event, ethnic and confessional contexts. The focus of the history of everyday life, according to modern researcher N.L. Pushkareva, is reality, which is interpreted by people and has subjective significance for them as an integral life world, a comprehensive study of this reality (life world) of people of different social classes, their behavior and emotional reactions to events.

The history of everyday life originated in the middle of the 19th century, and as an independent branch of the study of the past in the humanities it emerged in the late 60s. XX century During these years, there was an interest in research related to the study of man, and in this regard, German scientists were the first to begin to study the history of everyday life. The slogan sounded: “From the study of public policy and analysis of global social structures and processes, let’s turn to the small worlds of life, to the everyday life of ordinary people.” The direction “history of everyday life” or “history from below” arose.

It can also be noted that the surge of interest in the study of everyday life coincided with the so-called “anthropological revolution” in philosophy. M. Weber, E. Husserl, S. Kierkegaard, F. Nietzsche, M. Heidegger, A. Schopenhauer and others proved that it is impossible to describe many phenomena of the human world and nature while remaining in the positions of classical rationalism. For the first time, philosophers drew attention to the internal relationships between various spheres of human life, which ensure the development of society, its integrity and uniqueness at each time stage. Hence, research into the diversity of consciousness, internal experience, and various forms of everyday life is becoming increasingly important.

We are interested in what was and is understood by everyday life and how scientists interpret it?

To do this, it makes sense to name the most important German historians of everyday life. The historical sociologist Norbert Elias is considered a classic in this area with his works “On the Concept of Everyday Life,” “On the Process of Civilization,” and “Court Society.” N. Elias says that in the process of life a person absorbs social norms of behavior and thinking and, as a result, they become the mental appearance of his personality, and also that the form of human behavior changes in the course of social development.

Elias also tried to define the “history of everyday life.” He noted that there is no precise, clear definition of everyday life, but he tried to give a certain concept through the contrast to non-everyday. To do this, he compiled lists of some ways of applying this concept that are found in the scientific literature. The result of his work was the conclusion that in the early 80s. The history of everyday life is so far “neither fish nor fowl”.

Another scholar who worked in this direction was Edmund Husserl, a philosopher who shaped a new attitude toward the “ordinary.” He became the founder of the phenomenological and hermeneutic approaches to the study of everyday life and was the first to draw attention to the significance of the “sphere of human everyday life,” everyday life, which he called the “life world.” It was his approach that was the impetus for scientists in other fields of humanities to study the problem of defining everyday life.

Among Husserl's followers, one can pay attention to Alfred Schutz, who proposed focusing on the analysis of the “world of human spontaneity,” i.e. on those feelings, fantasies, desires, doubts and reactions to immediate private events.

From the point of view of social feminology, Schutz defines everyday life as “a sphere of human experience, characterized by a special form of perception and understanding of the world, arising on the basis of work activity, which has a number of characteristics, including confidence in the objectivity and self-evidence of the world and social interactions, which, in fact, and there is a natural attitude."

Thus, followers of social feminology come to the conclusion that everyday life is that sphere of human experience, orientations and actions, thanks to which a person carries out plans, affairs and interests.

The next step towards separating everyday life into a branch of science was the emergence of modernist sociological concepts in the 60s of the 20th century. For example, the theories of P. Berger and T. Luckmann. The peculiarity of their views was that they called for studying “face-to-face meetings of people,” believing that such meetings” (social interactions) are “the main content of everyday life.”

Later, within the framework of sociology, other theories and authors began to appear, who tried to provide an analysis of everyday life. Thus, this led to its transformation into an independent direction in the social sciences. This change, of course, affected the historical sciences.

Representatives of the Annales school - Marc Bloch, Lucien Febvre and Fernand Braudel - made a huge contribution to the study of everyday life. "Annals" in the 30s. XX century turned to the study of the working man, the subject of their study becomes the “history of the masses” as opposed to the “history of the stars”, a history visible not “from above”, but “from below”. According to N.L. Pushkareva, they proposed to see in the reconstruction of the “everyday” an element of recreating history and its integrity. They studied the peculiarities of consciousness not of outstanding historical figures, but of the mass “silent majority” and its influence on the development of history and society. Representatives of this direction explored the mentality of ordinary people, their experiences, and the material side of everyday life. A. Ya. Gurevich noted that this task was successfully carried out by their supporters and successors, grouped around the journal “Annals” created in the 1950s. The history of everyday life appeared in their works as part of the macro-context of life in the past.

A representative of this direction, Mark Blok turns to the history of culture, social psychology and studies it, based not on an analysis of the thoughts of individual individuals, but in direct mass manifestations. The historian's focus is on man. Blok hastens to clarify: “not a person, but people - people organized into classes, social groups. In Blok’s field of vision are typical, mainly mass-like phenomena in which repeatability can be detected.”

One of Blok’s main ideas was that a historian’s research begins not with collecting material, but with posing a problem and asking questions to the source. He believed that “a historian, by analyzing the terminology and vocabulary of surviving written sources, is able to make these monuments say much more.”

The French historian Fernand Braudel studied the problem of everyday life. He wrote that one can experience everyday life through material life - “these are people and things, things and people.” The only way to experience the daily existence of a person is to study things - food, housing, clothing, luxury items, tools, money, plans of villages and cities - in a word, everything that serves a person.

Continuing the “Braudel line”, French historians of the second generation of the Annales School scrupulously studied the relationships between people’s lifestyles and their mentalities, everyday social psychology. The use of the Braudelian approach in the historiographies of a number of Central European countries (Poland, Hungary, Austria), which began in the mid-second half of the 70s, was conceptualized as an integrative method of understanding man in history and the “spirit of the times.” According to N.L. Pushkareva, it has received the greatest recognition among medievalists and specialists in the history of early modern times and is practiced to a lesser extent by specialists studying the recent past or the present.

Another approach to understanding the history of everyday life arose and still prevails in German and Italian historiography.

In the form of the German history of everyday life, an attempt was made for the first time to define the history of everyday life as a kind of new research program. This is evidenced by the book “The History of Everyday Life. Reconstruction of Historical Experience and Way of Life,” published in the late 1980s in Germany.

According to S.V. Obolenskaya, German researchers called for studying the “microhistories” of ordinary, ordinary, invisible people. They believed that it was important to provide a detailed description of all the poor and disadvantaged, as well as their emotional experiences. For example, one of the most common research topics is the lives of workers and the labor movement, as well as working families.

A large part of the history of everyday life is the study of women's everyday life. In Germany, many works are published on the women's issue, women's work, and the role of women in public life in different historical eras. A center for research on women's issues has been created here. Particular attention is paid to the lives of women in the post-war period.

In addition to the German “historians of everyday life,” a number of researchers in Italy were inclined to interpret it as a synonym for “microhistory.” In the 1970s, a small group of such scientists (K. Ginzburg, D. Levy, etc.) rallied around the journal they created, starting the publication of the scientific series “Microhistory”. These scientists made worthy of the attention of science not only the common, but also the unique, accidental and particular in history, be it an individual, an event or an incident. The study of the random - argued the supporters of the microhistorical approach - should become the starting point for work on recreating multiple and flexible social identities that arise and are destroyed in the process of functioning of a network of relationships (competition, solidarity, association, etc.). In doing so, they sought to understand the relationship between individual rationality and collective identity.

The German-Italian school of microhistorians expanded in the 1980s and 90s. It was replenished by American researchers of the past, who a little later joined the study of the history of mentalities and unraveling the symbols and meanings of everyday life.

Common to the two approaches to the study of the history of everyday life - both those outlined by F. Braudel and microhistorians - was a new understanding of the past as “history from below” or “from within”, which gave a voice to the “little man”, a victim of modernization processes: both the unusual and the most ordinary . The two approaches in the study of everyday life are also united by connections with other sciences (sociology, psychology and ethnology). They equally contributed to the recognition that the person of the past is not similar to the person of today; they equally recognize that the study of this “otherness” is the path to understanding the mechanism of socio-psychological changes. In world science, both understandings of the history of everyday life continue to coexist - both as reconstructing the mental macrocontext of event history, and as the implementation of methods of microhistorical analysis.

N. L. Pushkareva made a significant contribution to the development of the history of everyday life. The main result of Pushkareva’s research work is the recognition of the direction of gender studies and women’s history (historical feminology) in domestic humanities.

Most of the books and articles written by Pushkareva N.L. are devoted to the history of women in Russia and Europe. The Association of American Slavists recommended N. L. Pushkareva’s book as a textbook in US universities. The works of N. L. Pushkareva have a high citation index among historians, sociologists, psychologists, and cultural experts.

The works of this researcher identified and comprehensively analyzed a wide range of problems in the “history of women” both in pre-Petrine Russia (X - XVII centuries) and in Russia of the 18th - early 19th centuries.

N.L. Pushkareva pays direct attention to the study of issues of private life and everyday life of representatives of various classes of Russian society of the 18th - early 19th centuries, including the nobility. She established, along with the universal features of the “female ethos,” specific differences, for example, in the upbringing and lifestyle of provincial and metropolitan noblewomen. Attaching particular importance when studying the emotional world of Russian women to the relationship between the “general” and the “individual,” N. L. Pushkareva emphasizes the importance of moving “to the study of private life as the history of specific individuals, sometimes not at all famous or exceptional. This approach makes it possible” get to know them through literature, office documents, and correspondence.

The last decade has demonstrated a growing interest among Russian historians in everyday history. The main directions of scientific research are formed, well-known sources are analyzed from a new angle, and new documents are introduced into scientific circulation. According to M. M. Krom, in Russia the history of everyday life is now experiencing a real boom. As an example, we can cite the series “Living History. Everyday Life of Humanity” published by the Molodaya Gvardiya publishing house. Along with translated works, books by A. I. Begunova, E. V. Romanenko, E. V. Lavrentieva, S. D. Okhlyabinin and other Russian authors were published in this series. Many studies are based on memoirs and archival sources; they describe in detail the life and customs of the characters in the story.

Reaching a fundamentally new scientific level in the study of the everyday history of Russia, which has long been in demand by researchers and readers, is associated with the intensification of work on the preparation and publication of documentary collections, memoirs, republication of previously published works with detailed scientific comments and reference apparatus.

Today we can talk about the formation of separate directions in the study of the everyday history of Russia - this is the study of everyday life of the period of the empire (XVIII - early XX centuries), the Russian nobility, peasants, townspeople, officers, students, the clergy, etc.

In the 1990s - early 2000s. The scientific problem of “everyday Russia” is gradually being mastered by university historians, who have begun to use new knowledge in the process of teaching historical disciplines. Historians of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov even prepared a textbook “Russian Everyday Life: from the Origins to the Middle of the 19th Century,” which, according to the authors, “allows us to supplement, expand and deepen knowledge about the real life of people in Russia.” Sections 4-5 of this publication are devoted to the daily life of Russian society in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. and cover a fairly wide range of issues from almost all segments of the population: from the urban lower classes to the secular society of the empire. One cannot but agree with the authors’ recommendation to use this publication as an addition to existing textbooks, which will expand the understanding of the world of Russian life.

The prospects for studying Russia's historical past from the perspective of everyday life are obvious and promising. Evidence of this is the research activity of historians, philologists, sociologists, cultural experts, and ethnologists. Due to its “worldwide responsiveness,” everyday life is recognized as a sphere of interdisciplinary research, but at the same time it requires methodological accuracy in approaches to the problem. As culturologist I. A. Mankevich noted, “in the space of everyday life, the “life lines” of all spheres of human existence converge..., everyday life is “everything that is ours interspersed with something that is not ours at all...”

Task No. 22. Look at the drawings and imagine that you have come to a museum, to a hall where clothes are displayed. The museum staff have not yet had time to place signs near the exhibits with the names of the era and an indication of the time to which these exhibits belong. Place the signs yourself; compose a text for the guide, which would reflect the reasons for the change in fashion

Fashion of the early 19th century was shaped by the French Revolution. The Rococo era passed away along with the French monarchy. Women's outfits of a simple cut made of light, light fabrics and a minimum of decoration are in fashion. The men's clothing shows a "military style", but the costume still has 18th century features. With the end of the Napoleonic era, fashion seems to remember the forgotten. Fluffy women's dresses with crinolines and deep necklines are returning. But the men's suit becomes more practical and finally moves on to a tailcoat and an indispensable headdress - a top hat. Further, under the influence of changes in everyday life, women's clothing is narrowing, but corsets and crinolines are still widely used. Men's clothing remains virtually unchanged. At the beginning of the 20th century, women's clothing began to get rid of corsets and crinolines, but the dress became extremely narrow. The men's suit finally turns into a classic three-piece suit

Task No. 23. Russian physicist A. G. Stoletov wrote: “Never since the times of Galileo has the world seen so many amazing and varied discoveries that came out of one head, and it is unlikely that it will soon see another Faraday...”

What discoveries did Stoletov have in mind? List them

1. Discovery of the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction

2. Discovery of gas liquefaction

3. Establishment of the laws of electrolysis

4. Creation of the theory of polarization of dielectrics

What do you think caused the high assessment of Pasteur’s work given by the Russian scientist K. A. Timiryazev?

“Future generations, of course, will complement Pasteur’s work, but... no matter how far they go forward, they will follow the path paved by him, and even a genius cannot do more than this in science.” Write down your point of view

Pasteur is the founder of microbiology - one of the foundations of modern medicine. Pasteur discovered methods of sterilization and pasteurization, without which it is impossible to imagine not only modern medicine, but also the food industry. Pasteur formulated the principles of vaccination and is one of the founders of immunology

English physicist A. Schuster (1851-1934) wrote: “My laboratory was flooded with doctors bringing in patients who suspected that they had needles in different parts of the body.”

What discovery in physics do you think made it possible to detect foreign objects in the human body? Who is the author of this discovery? Write down your answer

The discovery by the German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen of rays, which were later named after him. Based on this discovery, an X-ray machine was created

The European Academy of Natural Sciences established the Robert Koch Medal. What discovery do you think made Koch immortalize his name?

Discovery of the causative agent of tuberculosis, named after the scientist “Koch’s bacillus”. In addition, the German bacteriologist developed medications and preventive measures against tuberculosis, which was of great importance, because at that time this disease was one of the main causes of mortality

The American philosopher and educator J. Dewey said: “A truly thinking person draws no less knowledge from his mistakes than from his successes”; “Every great success of science has its source in a great audacity of imagination.”

Comment on the statements of J. Dewey

The first statement is consonant with the statement that a negative result is also a result. Most discoveries and inventions were made through repeated experiments, most of them unsuccessful, but giving researchers knowledge that ultimately led to success

The philosopher calls the “great audacity of imagination” the ability to imagine the impossible, to see something that goes beyond the usual understanding of the world around us.

Task No. 24. Vivid images of romantic heroes are embodied in the literature of the early 19th century. Read fragments from the works of the romantics (remember the works of that time, familiar to you from literature lessons). Try to find something in common in the descriptions of such different characters (appearance, character traits, behavior)

Excerpt from J. Byron. "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage"

Excerpt from J. Byron's "Corsair"

Excerpts from V. Hugo “Notre Dame Cathedral”

What reasons do you think can explain the fact that these particular literary heroes personified the era? Write down your thoughts

All these heroes are united by a rich inner world, hidden from others. The heroes seem to withdraw into themselves, are guided more by their hearts than by their minds, and they have no place among ordinary people with their “base” interests. They seem to be above society. These are typical features of romanticism, which arose after the collapse of the ideas of enlightenment. In a society very far from justice, romanticism portrayed a beautiful dream, despising the world of rich shopkeepers

Here are illustrations for literary works created by the romantics. Did you recognize the heroes? What helped you? Sign under each drawing the name of the author and the title of the literary work for which the illustration was made. Come up with a name for each

Task No. 25. In O. Balzac’s story “Gobsek” (written in 1830, final edition - 1835), the hero, an incredibly rich moneylender, sets out his view of life:

“What is admired in Europe is punished in Asia. What is considered a vice in Paris is recognized as a necessity in the Azores. There is nothing lasting on earth, there are only conventions, and they are different in each climate. For one who, willy-nilly, was applied to all social standards, all your moral rules and beliefs are empty words. Only one single feeling is unshakable, embedded in us by nature itself: the instinct of self-preservation... When you live with me, you will find out that Of all earthly blessings, there is only one that is reliable enough for a person to pursue it.. Is this gold. All the forces of humanity are concentrated in gold... And as for morals, man is the same everywhere: everywhere there is a struggle between the poor and the rich, everywhere. And it is inevitable. So It's better to push yourself than to let others push you»

Underline the sentences in the text that, in your opinion, most clearly characterize Gobsek’s personality

A person devoid of sympathy, concepts of goodness, alien to compassion in his desire for enrichment, is called a “guzzler.” It's hard to imagine what exactly could have made him like this. A hint, perhaps, is in the words of Gobsek himself that a person’s best teacher is misfortune, only it helps a person learn the value of people and money. The difficulties, misfortunes of his own life and the society surrounding Gobsek, where gold was considered the main measure of everything and the greatest good, made Gobsek a “crawfisher”

Based on the conclusions you have drawn, write a short story - the life story of Gobsek (childhood and youth, travel, meetings with people, historical events, sources of his wealth, etc.), told by himself

I was born into the family of a poor artisan in Paris and lost my parents very early. Once on the street, I wanted one thing - to survive. Everything boiled in your soul when you saw the magnificent outfits of aristocrats, gilded carriages rushing along the pavements and forcing you to press into the wall so as not to be crushed. Why is the world so unfair? Then... the revolution, the ideas of freedom and equality, which turned everyone’s head. Needless to say, I joined the Jacobins. And with what delight I received Napoleon! He made the nation proud. Then there was restoration and everything that they had fought against for so long returned. Once again gold ruled the world. They no longer remembered freedom and equality, and I left for the south, to Marseille... After many years of hardship, wandering, and danger, I managed to get rich and learn the main principle of modern life - it is better to push yourself than to be crushed by others. And here I am in Paris, and those whose carriages I once had to shy away from come to me to ask for money. Do you think I'm happy? Not at all, this confirmed me even more in the opinion that the main thing in life is gold, only it gives power over people

Task No. 26. Here are reproductions of two paintings. Both artists wrote works primarily on everyday themes. Examine the illustrations, paying attention to the time they were created. Compare both works. Is there anything in common in the portrayal of the characters and the authors’ attitude towards them? Perhaps you were able to notice something different? Write down your observations in your notebook

General: Everyday scenes from the life of the third estate are depicted. We see the artists' affection for their characters and their knowledge of the subject

Various: Chardin depicted calm, intimate scenes in his paintings, full of love, light and peace. In Mülle we see endless fatigue, hopelessness and resignation to a difficult fate

Task No. 27. Read fragments of a literary portrait of the famous writer of the 19th century. (author of the essay - K. Paustovsky). In the text, the writer's name is replaced by the letter N.
Which writer did K. Paustovsky talk about? To answer, you can use the text of § 6 of the textbook, which gives literary portraits of writers.

Underline phrases in the text that, from your point of view, allow you to accurately determine the name of the writer

The stories and poems of N, a colonial correspondent who himself stood under bullets, communicated with soldiers, and did not disdain the company of the colonial intelligentsia, were understandable and visual for a wide circle of writers.

About everyday life and work in the colonies, about the people of this world - English officials, soldiers and officers who create an empire far away from his native farms and cities lying under the blessed sky of old England, N. narrated. He and writers close to him in the general direction glorified the empire as a great Mother, never tired of dispatching new and new generations of her sons across the distant seas.

Children from different countries read the “Jungle Books” of this writer. His talent was inexhaustible, his language was precise and rich, his invention was full of plausibility. All these properties are enough to be a genius, to belong to humanity

About Joseph Rudyard Kipling

Task No. 28. The French artist E. Delacroix traveled a lot in the countries of the East. He was fascinated by the opportunity to depict vivid exotic scenes that excited the imagination

Come up with several “oriental” subjects that you think might interest the artist. Write down the stories or their titles

The death of the Persian king Darius, Shahsei-Wahsei among the Shiites with self-torture to the point of bleeding, bride kidnapping, horse racing among nomadic peoples, falconry, hunting with cheetahs, armed Bedouins riding camels.

Give names to Delacroix's paintings shown on p. 29-30

Try to find albums with reproductions of works by this artist. Compare the names you have given with the real ones. Write down the titles of other Delacroix paintings about the East that interested you

1. “Algerian women in their chambers”, 1834

2. “Lion hunt in Morocco”, 1854

3. “Moroccan saddling a horse”, 1855

Other paintings: “Cleopatra and the Peasant”, 1834, “Massacre on Chios”, 1824, “The Death of Sardanapalus” 1827, “Duel of the Giaur with the Pasha”, 1827, “Fight of Arab Horses”, 1860 ., "Fanatics of Tangier" 1837-1838.

Task No. 29. Contemporaries rightly considered Daumier’s caricatures to be illustrations for the works of Balzac

Consider several of these works: “The Little Clerk”, “Robert Macker - Stock Player”, “Legislative Womb”, “The Action of Moonlight”, “Representatives of Justice”, “Lawyer”

Write signatures under the paintings (use quotes from Balzac's text for this). Write the names of the characters and the titles of Balzac's works, illustrations for which could be Daumier's works

1. “The Little Clerk” - “There are people like zeros: they always need numbers in front of them.”

2. “Robert Macker - stock exchange player” - “The character of our era, when money is everything: laws, politics, morals”

3. “Legislative Womb” - “Arrogant hypocrisy inspires respect in people accustomed to serving”

4. “The Effect of Moonlight” - “People rarely flaunt their flaws - most try to cover them up with an attractive cover.”

5. “Lawyers” - “The friendship of two saints does more evil than the open enmity of ten scoundrels”

6. “Representatives of Justice” - “If you speak alone all the time, you will always be right”

Can serve as illustrations for the following works: “Officials”, “The Case of Guardianship”, “Dark Affair”, “The Banker's House of Nucingen”, “Lost Illusions”, etc.

Task No. 30. Artists of different eras sometimes turned to the same subject, but interpreted it differently

In the 7th grade textbook, look at reproductions of David’s famous painting “The Oath of the Horatii,” created during the Enlightenment. Do you think this story could have interested a romantic artist who lived in the 30s and 40s? XIX century? What would the piece look like? Describe it

The plot could be of interest to romantics. They sought to portray heroes at moments of highest tension of spiritual and physical strength, when the inner spiritual world of a person is exposed, showing his essence. The piece could look the same. You can replace the costumes, bringing them closer to modern times

Task No. 31. At the end of the 60s. XIX century Impressionists burst into the artistic life of Europe, defending new views on art

In the book JI. Volynsky “The Green Tree of Life” is a short story about how one day C. Monet, as always in the open air, painted a picture. For a moment the sun hid behind a cloud, and the artist stopped working. At that moment he was caught by G. Courbet, who became interested in why he was not working. “Waiting for the sun,” Monet replied. “You could paint the background landscape for now,” Courbet shrugged.

What do you think the impressionist Monet answered him? Write down possible answers

1. Monet’s paintings are permeated with light, they are bright, sparkling, joyful - “space needs light”

2. Probably waiting for inspiration - “I don’t have enough light”

Before you are two portraits of women. When looking at them, pay attention to the composition of the work, details, and features of the image. Place the date of creation of the works under the illustrations: 1779 or 1871.

What features of the portraits did you notice that allowed you to complete this task correctly?

In clothing and in the manner of writing. “Portrait of the Duchess de Beaufort” by Gainsborough - 1779. “Portrait of Jeanne Samary” by Renoir - 1871. Gainsborough’s portraits were mostly made to order. Coldly aloof aristocrats were portrayed in a sophisticated manner. Renoir portrayed ordinary French women, young, cheerful and spontaneous, full of life and charm. Painting techniques also differ

Task No. 32. The discoveries of the impressionists paved the way for the post-impressionists - painters who sought to capture their own unique vision of the world with maximum expressiveness

Paul Gauguin's canvas “Tahitian Pastorals” was created by the artist in 1893 during his stay in Polynesia. Try to write a story about the content of the painting (what is happening on the canvas, how Gauguin relates to the world captured on the canvas)

Considering civilization a disease, Gauguin gravitated towards exotic places and sought to merge with nature. This was reflected in his paintings, which depicted the life of the Polynesians, simple and measured. She emphasized the simplicity and manner of writing. The flat canvases depicted compositions that were static and contrasting in color, deeply emotional and at the same time decorative.

Examine and compare two still lifes. Each work tells about the time when it was created. Do these works have anything in common?

Still lifes depict simple everyday things and simple fruits. Both still lifes are distinguished by their simplicity and laconic composition.

Have you noticed a difference in the images of objects? What is she wearing?

Klas reproduces objects in detail, strictly maintains perspective and light and shade, and uses soft tones. Cezanne presents us with a picture from different points of view, uses a clear outline to emphasize the volume of the subject, and bright, saturated colors. The crumpled tablecloth does not look as soft as Klas's, but rather plays the role of a background and gives sharpness to the composition

Imagine and record an imaginary conversation between the Dutch artist P. Claes and the French painter P. Cezanne, in which they would talk about their still lifes. What would they praise each other for? What would these two still life masters criticize?

K.: “I used light, air and a single tone to express the unity of the objective world and the environment”

S.: “My method is hatred of the fantastic image. I write only the truth and want to hit Paris with carrots and apples."

K.: “It seems to me that you are not depicting objects in enough detail and incorrectly”

S.: “An artist should not be too scrupulous, or too sincere, or too dependent on nature; the artist is, to a greater or lesser extent, the master of his model, and mainly of his means of expression.”

K.: “But I like your work with color, I also consider this the most important element of painting”

S.: “Color is the point where our brain comes into contact with the universe”

State educational institution

higher professional education

"Kuzbass State Pedagogical Academy"

Department of National History

"Daily life of medieval Rus'

(based on moralizing literature)"

Performed

3rd year student, 1st group

Faculty of History full-time

Morozova Kristina Andreevna

Scientific adviser -

Bambizova K.V., Ph.D. n.

Departments of Russian History

Novokuznetsk, 2010

Introduction

Relevance The chosen research topic is due to the growing interest in society in studying the history of its people. Ordinary people, as a rule, are more interested in concrete manifestations of human life; it is they who make history not a dry abstract discipline, but visible, understandable and close. Today we need to know our roots, imagine how the everyday life of our ancestors went, and carefully preserve this knowledge for posterity. Such continuity contributes to the formation of national self-awareness and fosters the patriotism of the younger generation.

Let's consider degree of knowledge of the problem everyday life and customs of medieval Rus' in science. All literature devoted to everyday life can be divided into several groups: pre-revolutionary, Soviet and modern.

Pre-revolutionary domestic historiography is, first of all, represented by the works of N.M. Karamzina, S.V. Solovyov and V.O. Klyuchevsky, although it is not limited to these three big names. However, these venerable historians mainly showed the historical process, while, according to L.V. Belovinsky, “the historical process is, in a sense, an abstract thing, but the life of a people is concrete. This life takes place in its everyday life, in small matters, concerns, interests, habits, tastes of a particular person, who is a part of society. It is extremely diverse and complex. And the historian, trying to see the general, patterns, perspective, uses a large scale." Consequently, this approach cannot be included in the mainstream of the history of everyday life.

In the middle of the 19th century, a book by the famous scientist A.V. was published and almost immediately became a bibliographic rarity. Tereshchenko "Life of the Russian People" is the first attempt in Russia to scientifically develop ethnographic material. At one time, both specialists and ordinary people read it. The monograph contains a wealth of material describing homes, housekeeping rules, outfits, music, games (fun, round dances), pagan and Christian rituals of our ancestors (weddings, funerals, wakes, etc., common folk rituals, such as the meeting of the Red Spring, celebration of Red Hill, Ivan Kupala, etc., Christmastide, Maslenitsa).

The book was met with great interest, but when major shortcomings were discovered that made Tereshchenko’s material dubious, it began to be treated perhaps more strictly than it deserved.

A significant contribution to the study of life and customs of medieval Rus' was made by I.E. Zabelin. It is his books that can be considered the first attempt to address a person in history, his inner world. He was the first to speak out against historians’ passion for “loud, thundering wars, defeats, etc.,” and against reducing history only to “external facts.” Already in the middle of the century before last, he complained that “they forgot about man” and called for focusing on the everyday life of the people, from which, according to his concept, both religious institutions and political institutions of any society grew. The life of the people was supposed to take the place of “government officials” and “government documents”, which, according to Zabelin’s characterization, are “purely paper, dead material.”

In his works, the main one, undoubtedly, is “The Home Life of the Russian Tsars,” he created a vivid picture of the Russian everyday life of the 16th-17th centuries. Being a Westerner by conviction, he created an accurate and truthful, without idealization or discredit, image of pre-Petrine Rus'.

A contemporary of I.E. Zabelin was his St. Petersburg colleague Nikolai Ivanovich Kostomarov. The latter’s book, “Essay on the Home Life and Morals of the Great Russian People in the 16th-17th Centuries,” was addressed not only and not so much to the learned public as to a wide range of readers. The historian himself explained in the introduction that he chose the essay form in order to convey historical knowledge to people “immersed in their studies” who have neither the time nor the strength to master “scientific” articles and “raw materials” similar to the acts of the Archaeographic commissions. In general, Kostomarov's work is much easier to read than Zabelin's work. Detail in it gives way to fluency of presentation and breadth of material coverage. It does not have the ponderous scrupulousness of Zabelin's text. Kostomarov pays more attention to the everyday life of the common people.

Thus, a review of classical historical literature on the topic of research leads us to the conclusion that the object of observation of scientists is either major historical processes of the past, or ethnographic details of the contemporary author’s folk life.

Soviet historiography on the topic of research is represented, for example, by the works of B.A. Romanova, D.S. Likhacheva and others.

Book by B.A. Romanov "People and customs of Ancient Rus': historical and everyday essays of the 11th-13th centuries." was written in the late 1930s, when its author, a St. Petersburg historian, archivist and museologist, accused of participating in a “counter-revolutionary conspiracy,” was released after several years in prison. Romanov had the talent of a historian: the ability to see, as he put it, “patterns of life” behind dead texts. And yet Ancient Rus' was not a goal for him, but a means “to collect and put in order his own thoughts about the country and the people.” At first, he really tried to recreate the everyday life of pre-Mongol Rus', without leaving the circle of canonical sources and traditional methods of working with them. However, “the historian soon realized that this was impossible: such a “historical canvas” would consist of continuous holes.”

In the book by D.S. Likhachev's "Man in the Literature of Ancient Rus'" examines the features of the depiction of human character in works of ancient Russian literature, with Russian chronicles becoming the main material for the study. At the same time, the monumental style that dominated the literature of that time in depicting a person leaves the details of the life of ordinary Russians beyond the attention of the researcher.

We can conclude that in the books of Soviet historians there is no targeted study of medieval everyday life.

Modern research is represented by the works of V.B. Bezgina, L.V. Belovinsky, N.S. Borisova and others.

In the book by N.S. Borisov's "Daily Life of Medieval Rus' on the Eve of the End of the World" takes 1492 as the main starting point - the year when the end of the world was expected (many ancient prophecies pointed to this date for the beginning of the Last Judgment). Based on chronicle sources, works of ancient Russian literature, testimonies of foreign travelers, the author examines the key moments of the reign of Ivan III, describes some features of monastic life, as well as everyday life and customs of the Russian Middle Ages (wedding rites, peculiarities of behavior of a married woman, marital relations, divorce). However, the period under study is limited only to the 15th century.

Separately, it is worth highlighting the work of the emigrant historian, student of V.O. Klyuchevsky, Eurasian G.V. Vernadsky. Chapter X of his book “Kievan Rus” is entirely devoted to a description of the life of our ancestors. Based on archaeological and ethnographic, as well as folklore and chronicle sources, the author describes the homes and furniture, clothing, food of different segments of the population, and the main rituals associated with the life cycle of Russian people. Confirming the thesis put forward that “there are many similarities between Kievan Rus and Tsarist Russia of the late period,” the author of the monograph often draws conclusions about the existence of medieval Russians based on analogies with the way of life and way of life of Russians at the end of the nineteenth century.

Thus, modern historians pay attention to the history of everyday life in Rus', however, the main object of study is either Tsarist Russia, or the period under study is not fully, partially covered. In addition, it is obvious that none of the scientists uses moralizing sources as research material.

In general, we can conclude that at present no scientific research has been undertaken in which the study of the history of everyday life in medieval Rus' would be carried out on the basis of an analysis of texts from moralizing sources.

Purpose of the study: based on medieval moralizing sources, analyze the daily life of a medieval person.

Research objectives:

To trace the origin and development of such a direction as the “history of everyday life”, to highlight the main approaches.

Analyze historical literature on the topic of research and texts from moralizing sources and highlight the main areas of everyday life: weddings, funerals, meals, holidays and entertainment, and the role and place of women in medieval society.

Working methods. The course work is based on the principles of historicism, reliability, and objectivity. Among the scientific and specific historical methods used are: analysis, synthesis, typology, classification, systematization, as well as problem-chronological, historical-genetic, comparative-historical methods.

The historical-anthropological approach to the study of the topic involves, firstly, fixing attention on micro-objects in order to give their detailed description; secondly, a shift in emphasis from the general to the specific, individual. Thirdly, the key concept for historical anthropology is “culture” (and not “society” or “state”), accordingly, an attempt will be made to comprehend its meaning, to decipher a certain cultural code that underlies the words and actions of people. It is from here that there is an increased interest in the language and concepts of the era being studied, in the symbolism of everyday life: rituals, manner of dressing, eating, communicating with each other, etc. The main tool for studying the chosen culture is interpretation, that is, “such a multi-layered description when everything, even the smallest details, gleaned from sources, adds up, like pieces of smalt, forming a complete picture.”

Characteristics of sources. Our research is based on a complex of historical sources.

Moral literature is a unique type of spiritual writing that has a practical, religious and moral purpose associated with edification in useful rules, instruction in everyday affairs, teaching in life wisdom, exposure of sins and vices, etc. In accordance with this, moralizing literature is as close as possible to real life situations. This finds its expression in such genres of moralizing literature as “Words”, “Teachings”, “Messages”, “Admonitions”, “Sayings”, etc.

Over time, the nature of moralizing literature changed: from simple moral sayings it evolved to moralizing treatises. By the XV-XVI centuries. in the Words and Messages the author's position is increasingly visible, based on a certain philosophical foundation.

Moral teachings are distinguished by a peculiar property associated with the peculiarities of ancient Russian consciousness: maxims, maxims, proverbs, teachings are built on the basis of a sharp opposition of opposing moral concepts: good - evil, love - hate, truth - lies, happiness - unhappiness, wealth - poverty, etc. . The educational literature of Ancient Rus' was a unique form of moral experience.

As a literary genre, moralizing literature, on the one hand, comes from the Old Testament wisdom, the Proverbs of Solomon, the Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, the Gospel; on the other hand, from Greek philosophy in the form of short sayings with a pronounced ethical orientation.

In terms of the degree of use and prevalence in the Middle Ages and earlier modern times, moralizing literature took second place, coming immediately after liturgical literature. In addition to the independent works of authorship with a moral and edifying orientation, didactic collections of the 11th-17th centuries, created by collective or unknown authors, had a significant distribution and influence on the formation of national character and the uniqueness of spiritual culture.

Their common features (besides anonymity) are theocentrism, the handwritten nature of existence and distribution, traditionalism, etiquette, and the abstract and generalized nature of moral teachings. Even those collections that were translated were certainly supplemented with original Russian material, reflecting the worldview of the compiler and customers.

In our opinion, it is moralizing texts, on the one hand, that set moral models; they reveal the ideal ideas of the people about how to behave, how to live, how to act in a given situation, on the other hand, they reflect real existing traditions and customs, signs of everyday life of different layers of medieval society. It is these features that make moralizing sources indispensable material for studying the history of everyday life.

The following moral sources were selected for analysis:

Izbornik 1076;

"The Lay of Hops" by Kirill, Slovenian philosopher;

"The Tale of Akira the Wise";

"The Wisdom of the Wise Menander";

"The righteous standard";

"The Word about Evil Wives";

"Domostroy";

"Overseer."

"Izbornik 1076" is one of the oldest dated manuscripts of religious and ideological content, a monument to the so-called moral philosophy. The existing opinion that the Izbornik was compiled by order of the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich seems unfounded to most scientists. The scribe John, who copied the Bulgarian collection for Prince Izyaslav, may have prepared the manuscript in question for himself, although he used materials from the prince’s library for it. The Izbornik includes brief interpretations of St. Scriptures, articles on prayer, fasting, reading books, “Teachings to Children” by Xenophon and Theodora.

“The Lay of Hops” by Kirill, the Slovenian philosopher, is directed against drunkenness. One of the earliest copies of the work dates back to the 70s. XV century and made by the hand of the monk of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery Efrosin. The text of “The Lay” is interesting not only for its content, but also for its form: it is written in rhythmic prose, sometimes turning into rhymed speech.

"The Tale of Akira the Wise" is an Old Russian translated story. The original story was written in Assyro-Babylonia in the 7th-5th centuries. BC. The Russian translation goes back to either the Syriac or the Armenian prototype and may have been carried out already in the 11th-12th centuries. The story tells the story of Akira, a wise adviser to the Assyrian king Sinagrippa, slandered by his nephew, saved from execution by a friend and, thanks to his wisdom, saved the country from a humiliating tribute to the Egyptian pharaoh.

"The Wisdom of the Wise Menander" - collections of short sayings (monostiches) selected from the works of the famous ancient Greek playwright Menander (c.343 - c.291). The time of their Slavic translation and appearance in Rus' cannot be precisely determined, but the nature of the relationships between the texts in the older copies allows us to consider the date of translation to be the 14th or even the 13th century. The themes of the sayings are varied: glorification of kindness, temperance, intelligence, hard work, generosity, condemnation of treacherous, envious, deceitful, stingy people, themes of family life and glorification of “good wives”, etc.

"Bee" is a translated collection of sayings and short historical anecdotes (i.e. short stories about the actions of famous people), known in ancient Russian literature. It is found in three varieties. The most common one contains 71 chapters; it was translated no later than the 12th-13th centuries. From the titles of the chapters (“On Wisdom”, “On Teaching and Conversation”, “On Wealth and Squalor”, etc.) it is clear that the sayings were selected by topic and mainly concerned issues of morality, norms of behavior, and Christian piety.

"The Righteous Standard", a legal collection of Ancient Rus', created in the 12th-13th centuries, as a manual for judges. Preserved in manuscripts of the XIV-XVI centuries. Consists of two parts. The first part contains original and translated “words” and teachings about righteous and unrighteous courts and judges; in the second - the ecclesiastical and secular laws of Byzantium, borrowed from Kormcha, as well as the most ancient monuments of Slavic and Russian law: “Russian Truth”, “The Law of Judgment for the People”, “The Lawful Rule about Church People”.

“The Tale of Evil Wives” is a complex of interrelated works on one topic, widespread in ancient Russian manuscript collections. The texts of the “word” are mobile, which allowed the scribes to both separate them and combine them, supplement them with extracts of sayings from the Proverbs of Solomon, excerpts from the Bee, from the “Word” of Daniel the Zatochnik. They are found in ancient Russian literature already from the 11th century; they are included in the Izbornik of 1073, Zlatostroy, Prologue, Izmaragd, and numerous collections. Among the texts with which ancient Russian scribes supplemented their writings “about evil wives,” noteworthy are the peculiar “worldly parables” - small plot narratives (about a husband crying about an evil wife; about selling children from an evil wife; about an old woman looking in the mirror ; o who married a rich widow; o a husband who pretended to be sick; o who whipped his first wife and asked for another for himself; o a husband who was invited to a spectacle of monkey games, etc.). The text of the Word "about evil wives" is published according to the list of "Golden Matitsa", dated by watermarks to the second half of the 70s - the beginning of the 80s. XV century

"Domostroy", that is, "household arrangement", is a literary and journalistic monument of the 16th century. This is a chapter-by-chapter code of norms of religious and social behavior of a person, rules of upbringing and life of a wealthy city dweller, a set of rules that every citizen had to follow. The narrative element in it is subordinated to edifying purposes; each position is argued here with references to the texts of the Holy Scriptures. But it differs from other medieval monuments in that sayings of folk wisdom are cited to prove the truth of this or that position. Compiled by a well-known figure from Ivan the Terrible’s inner circle, Archpriest Sylvester, “Domostroy” is not only a work of moralizing and family life type, but also a kind of set of socio-economic norms of civil life of Russian society.

"The Monitor" goes back through Polish media to the Latin work of Peter Crescentius and dates back to 16th century. The book provides practical advice on choosing a site for a house, describes the intricacies of preparing building materials, growing field, garden, and vegetable crops, cultivating arable land, vegetable gardens, orchards, vineyards, contains some medical advice, etc.

The work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a list of sources and literature.

Chapter 1. The origin and development of the direction of history of everyday life in Western and domestic historical science

History of everyday life- a branch of historical knowledge, the subject of study of which is the sphere of human everyday life in its historical-cultural, political-event, ethnic and confessional contexts. The focus is on the history of everyday life, according to modern researcher N.L. Pushkareva, reality, which is interpreted by people and has subjective significance for them as an integral life world, a comprehensive study of this reality (life world) of people of different social strata, their behavior and emotional reactions to events.

We are interested in what was and is understood by everyday life and how scientists interpret it?

Representatives of the Annales school - Marc Bloch, Lucien Febvre and Fernand Braudel - made a huge contribution to the study of everyday life. "Annals" in the 30s. XX century turned to the study of the working man, the subject of their study becomes the “history of the masses” as opposed to the “history of the stars”, a history visible not “from above”, but “from below”. According to N.L. Pushkareva, they suggested seeing in the reconstruction of the “everyday” an element of recreating history and its integrity. They studied the peculiarities of consciousness not of outstanding historical figures, but of the mass “silent majority” and its influence on the development of history and society. Representatives of this direction explored the mentality of ordinary people, their experiences, and the material side of everyday life. AND I. Gurevich noted that this task was successfully carried out by their supporters and successors, grouped around the Annaly magazine created in the 1950s. The history of everyday life was part of their works. macro context life of the past.

A representative of this direction, Mark Blok turns to the history of culture, social psychology and studies it, based not on an analysis of the thoughts of individual individuals, but in direct mass manifestations. The historian's focus is on man. Blok hastens to clarify: “not a person, but people - people organized into classes, social groups. In Blok’s field of vision there are typical, predominantly mass phenomena in which repeatability can be detected.”

Continuing the “Braudel line”, French historians of the second generation of the Annales School scrupulously studied the relationships between people’s lifestyles and their mentalities, everyday social psychology. The use of the Braudelian approach in the historiographies of a number of Central European countries (Poland, Hungary, Austria), which began in the mid-second half of the 70s, was conceptualized as an integrative method of understanding man in history and the “spirit of the times.” According to N.L. Pushkareva, it has received the greatest recognition among medievalists and specialists in the history of the early modern period and is practiced to a lesser extent by specialists studying the recent past or modernity.

Another approach to understanding the history of everyday life arose and still prevails in German and Italian historiography.

N.L. made a significant contribution to the development of the history of everyday life. Pushkareva. The main result of Pushkareva’s research work is the recognition of the direction of gender studies and women’s history (historical feminology) in domestic humanities.

Most of those written by Pushkareva N.L. books and articles are devoted to the history of women in Russia and Europe. The Association of American Slavists book by Pushkareva N.L. recommended as a textbook in US universities. Works by N.L. Pushkareva have a high citation index among historians, sociologists, psychologists, and cultural experts.

N.L. Pushkareva pays direct attention to the study of issues of private life and everyday life of representatives of various classes of Russian society of the 18th - early 19th centuries, including the nobility. She established, along with the universal features of the “female ethos,” specific differences, for example, in the upbringing and lifestyle of provincial and metropolitan noblewomen. Attaching particular importance to the relationship between the “general” and the “individual” when studying the emotional world of Russian women, N.L. Pushkareva emphasizes the importance of moving “to the study of private life as a history of specific individuals, sometimes not at all famous or exceptional. This approach makes it possible to “get to know” them through literature, office documents, and correspondence.

The last decade has demonstrated a growing interest among Russian historians in everyday history. The main directions of scientific research are formed, well-known sources are analyzed from a new angle, and new documents are introduced into scientific circulation. According to M.M. Moreover, in Russia the history of everyday life is now experiencing a real boom. As an example, we can cite the series “Living History. Everyday Life of Humanity” published by the Molodaya Gvardiya publishing house. Along with translated works, books by A.I. were published in this series. Begunova, E.V. Romanenko, E.V. Lavrentieva, S.D. Okhlyabinin and other Russian authors. Many studies are based on memoirs and archival sources; they describe in detail the life and customs of the characters in the story.

The prospects for studying Russia's historical past from the perspective of everyday life are obvious and promising. Evidence of this is the research activity of historians, philologists, sociologists, cultural experts, and ethnologists. Due to its “worldwide responsiveness,” everyday life is recognized as a sphere of interdisciplinary research, but at the same time it requires methodological accuracy in approaches to the problem. As culturologist I.A. noted. Mankiewicz, “in the space of everyday life, the “life lines” of all spheres of human existence converge... everyday life is “everything that is ours interspersed with something that is not ours at all...”.

Thus, I would like to emphasize that in the 21st century it is already recognized by everyone that the history of everyday life has become a noticeable and promising trend in historical science. Nowadays, the history of everyday life is no longer called, as it was before, “history from below,” and it is separated from the writings of non-professionals. Its task is to analyze the life world of ordinary people, to study the history of everyday behavior and everyday experiences. The history of everyday life is interested, first of all, in repeated events, the history of experience and observations, experiences and lifestyle. This is history reconstructed “from below” and “from within”, from the side of the person himself. Everyday life is the world of all people, in which not only material culture, food, housing, clothing, but also everyday behavior, thinking and experiences are explored. A special microhistorical direction of “history of everyday life” is developing, concentrating on single societies, villages, families, and autobiographies. Of interest are the little people, men and women, and their encounters with significant events such as industrialization, state formation or revolution. Historians have outlined the subject area of human everyday life and pointed out the methodological significance of his research, since the evolution of everyday life reflects the development of civilization as a whole. Studies of everyday life help to identify not only the objective sphere of human existence, but also the sphere of his subjectivity. A picture emerges of how the way of everyday life determines the actions of people that influence the course of history.

Chapter 2. Everyday life and customs of medieval Rus'

It seems logical to organize the study of the daily life of our ancestors in accordance with the main milestones of the human life cycle. The cycle of human life is eternal in the sense in which it is predetermined by nature. A person is born, grows up, gets married, gives birth to children and dies. And it is quite natural that he would like to properly celebrate the main milestones of this cycle. In these days of urbanized and mechanized civilization, rituals related to each stage of the life cycle are reduced to a minimum. This was not the case in ancient times, especially in the era of the clan organization of society, when the main milestones in the life of an individual were considered part of the life of the clan. According to G.V. Vernadsky, the ancient Slavs, like other tribes, celebrated milestones in their life cycle with complex rituals reflected in folklore. Immediately after the adoption of Christianity, the Church appropriated the organization of some ancient rites and introduced its own new rituals, such as the rite of baptism and the celebration of name days in honor of the patron saint of every man or woman.

Based on this, several areas of the daily life of a resident of Medieval Rus' and accompanying events were identified for analysis, such as love, weddings, funerals, meals, celebrations and entertainment. We also found it interesting to explore the attitude of our ancestors towards alcohol and women.

2.1 Wedding

Wedding customs in the era of paganism were observed among different tribes. Among the Radmichi, Vyatichi and Northerners, the groom had to kidnap the bride. Other tribes considered it normal to pay a ransom to the family for it. This custom probably developed from ransom payments for kidnappings. Eventually, outright payment was replaced by a gift to the bride from the groom or her parents (veno). Among the Polans, there was a custom that required that the parents or their representatives bring the bride to the groom's house, and her dowry should be delivered the next morning. Traces of all these ancient rituals can be clearly seen in Russian folklore, especially in wedding rituals of even later times.

After the conversion of Rus' to Christianity, the engagement and wedding were sanctioned by the Church. However, at first only the prince and the boyars cared about the church blessing. The bulk of the population, especially in rural areas, were content with the recognition of marriage by the respective clans and communities. Cases of evasion of church weddings by ordinary people were frequent until the 15th century.

According to Byzantine legislation (Eclogue and Prokeiron), in accordance with the customs of the peoples of the south, the lowest age requirements for future married couples were established. The 8th century Eclogue allows men to marry at age fifteen and women at age thirteen. In Prokeiron of the 9th century, these requirements are even lower: fourteen years for the groom and twelve for the bride. It is known that Ecloga and Prokeiron existed in Slavic translation and the legality of both manuals was recognized by Russian “jurists”. In medieval Rus', even the Sami did not always comply with Prokeiron's low age requirements, especially in princely families, where marriages were most often concluded for diplomatic reasons. There is at least one known case when a prince's son married at the age of eleven, and Vsevolod III gave his daughter Verkhuslava as a wife to Prince Rostislav when she was only eight years old. When the bride's parents saw her off, "they both cried because their beloved daughter was so young."

In medieval moralizing sources there are two points of view on marriage. The bottom of them is the attitude towards marriage as a sacrament, a sacred rite, expressed in the Izbornik of 1076. “Woe to the fornicator, for he defiles the clothes of the groom: let him be expelled from the kingdom of marriage in shame,” instructs Hesychius, presbyter of Jerusalem.

Jesus, the son of Sirach, writes: “Give your daughter in marriage and you will do a great thing, but only give her to a wise man.”

We see that, in the opinion of these church fathers, marriage, marriage, is called a “kingdom,” a “great thing,” but with reservations. The groom’s clothes are sacred, but only a worthy person can enter the “kingdom of marriage”. Marriage can become a “great thing” only if a “wise man” marries.

The sage Menander, on the contrary, sees only evil in marriage: “Marriage brings great bitterness to everyone,” “When you decide to get married, ask your neighbor who is already married,” “Don’t get married, and nothing bad will ever happen to you.”

“Domostroi” indicates that prudent parents began to prepare well in advance, from the birth of their daughter, to marry her off with a good dowry: “If someone gives birth to a daughter, a prudent father<…>from all profits he saves for his daughter<…>: either the animal is raised for her with the offspring, or from her share, whatever God sends there, she buys linens and canvases, and pieces of fabric, and trims, and a shirt - and all these years they put her in a special chest or in a box and a dress and headdress , and monista, and church utensils, and tin and copper and wooden dishes, always adding a little, every year...”

According to Sylvester, who is credited with the authorship of Domostroi, this approach allowed him to gradually collect a good dowry without “at a loss,” “and God willing, everything will be complete.” In the event of the death of a girl, it was customary to remember “her with a dowry, according to her liking, forty-one, and alms are distributed.”

“Domostroy” describes in detail the wedding ceremony itself, or, as they called it then, the “wedding ceremony.”

The wedding procedure was preceded by an agreement: the groom and his father or older brother came to his father-in-law’s yard, the guests were served “the best wines in cups”, then “after the blessing with the cross they will begin to speak and write contractual notes and a separate letter, agreeing on how much for the contract and what dowry”, after which, “having secured everything with a signature, everyone takes a cup of honey, congratulates each other and exchanges letters.” Thus, the conspiracy was an ordinary transaction.

Then gifts were presented: the father-in-law gave the son-in-law “the first blessing ~ an image, a cup or ladle, velvet, damask, forty sables.” After which they went to the bride’s mother’s half, where “the mother-in-law asks the groom’s father about his health and kisses him and the groom through a scarf, and the same with everyone.”

The next day, the groom’s mother comes to see the bride, “here they present her with damask and sables, and she will give the bride a ring.”

The wedding day was set, the guests were “signed up”, the groom chose their roles: the appointed father and mother, the invited boyars and noblewomen, the thousand and the poezzhans, groomsmen, matchmakers.

On the day of the wedding itself, a friend and his retinue arrived in gold, followed by a bed "in a sleigh with a front end, and in the summer - with the head of the sleigh, covered with a blanket. And in the sleigh there were two gray horses, and near the sleigh there were boyar servants in an elegant dress, on the sleigh The elder bed servant will stand in gold, holding the holy image." A matchmaker rode behind the bed, her outfit was prescribed by custom: “a yellow summer coat, a red fur coat, and also a scarf and a beaver mantle. And if it’s winter, then in a fur hat.”

Just from this episode alone it is clear that the wedding ceremony was strictly regulated by tradition; all other episodes of this ritual (preparing the bed, the arrival of the groom, the wedding, “resting” and “knowing”, etc.) were also strictly played out in accordance with the canon.

Thus, a wedding was an important event in the life of a medieval person, and the attitude towards this event, judging by moralizing sources, was ambiguous. On the one hand, the sacrament of marriage was exalted, on the other, the imperfection of human relationships was reflected in an ironic and negative attitude towards marriage (an example of this is the statements of the “wise Menander”). In fact, we are talking about two types of marriages: a happy and an unhappy marriage. It is generally accepted that a happy marriage is a marriage of love. In this regard, it seems interesting to consider how the issue of love is reflected in moralizing sources.

Love (in the modern sense) is love between a man and a woman; “The basis of marriage, judging by moralizing sources, did not exist in the minds of medieval authors. Indeed, marriages were not made out of love, but at the will of the parents. Therefore, in the case of fortunate circumstances, for example, if you came across a “good” wife, the sages advise to value and take care of this gift, otherwise - humble yourself and be on guard: “Do not leave your wife who is wise and kind: her virtue is more valuable than gold”; “if you have a wife you like, do not drive her away; if she hates you, do not trust her.” However, the word "love" is practically not used in these contexts (based on the results of the analysis of source texts, only two such cases were found). During the "wedding ceremony" the father-in-law punishes his son-in-law: "By the destinies of God, my daughter accepted the crown with you (name) and you should be honored and love her in a legal marriage, as the fathers and fathers of our fathers lived." Noteworthy is the use of the subjunctive mood (“to you would favor her and love"). One of Menander’s aphorisms says: “The great bond of love is the birth of a child.”

In other cases, love between a man and a woman is interpreted as evil, a destructive temptation. Jesus, the son of Sirach, warns: “Do not look at the maiden, otherwise you will be seduced by her charms.” “Avoid carnal and voluptuous deeds...” advises Saint Basil. “It is better to abhor voluptuous thoughts,” Hesychius echoes him.

In “The Tale of Akira the Wise,” instructions are given to his son: “... do not be seduced by the beauty of a woman and do not covet her with your heart: even if you give all your wealth to her, then you will not receive any benefit from her, you will only sin more before God.”

The word “love” on the pages of moralizing sources of medieval Rus' is mainly used in the contexts of love for God, Gospel quotes, love for parents, love of others: “... the merciful Lord loves the righteous”; “I remembered the words of the Gospel: “Love your enemies...,” “Love firmly those who gave birth to you”; " Democritus Wish to be loved during your lifetime, and not feared: for whom everyone fears, he himself fears everyone."

At the same time, the positive, ennobling role of love is recognized: “He who loves much is little angry,” said Menander.

So, love in moralizing sources is interpreted in a positive sense in the context of love for one’s neighbor and for the Lord. Love for a woman, according to the analyzed sources, is perceived by the consciousness of a medieval person as a sin, danger, temptation of unrighteousness.

Most likely, this interpretation of this concept is due to the genre uniqueness of the sources (instructions, moralizing prose).

2.2 Funeral

No less significant a rite than a wedding in the life of medieval society was the funeral rite. The details of the descriptions of these rituals reveal the attitude of our ancestors towards death.

Funeral rites in pagan times included funeral feasts held at the burial site. A high hill (mound) was built over the grave of a prince or some outstanding warrior and professional mourners were hired to mourn his death. They continued to perform their duties at Christian funerals, although the form of crying changed according to Christian concepts. Christian funeral rites, like other church services, were, of course, borrowed from Byzantium. John of Damascus is the author of the Orthodox requiem ("funeral" service), and the Slavic translation is worthy of the original. Christian cemeteries were created near churches. The bodies of prominent princes were placed in sarcophagi and placed in the cathedrals of the princely capital.

Our ancestors perceived death as one of the inevitable links in

chain of births: “Do not strive to have fun in this world: for all joys

this world ends in tears. And that crying itself is also vain: today they cry, and tomorrow they feast."

You must always remember about death: “Let death and exile, and troubles, and all visible misfortunes stand before your eyes at all days and hours.”

Death ends a person’s earthly life, but for Christians, earthly life is only a preparation for the afterlife. Therefore, special respect is shown to death: “Child, if there is grief in someone’s home, then, leaving them in trouble, do not go to a feast with others, but first visit those who are grieving, and then go to feast and remember that you too destined for death." The “Righteous Standard” regulates the norms of behavior at funerals: “Do not weep loudly, but grieve with dignity, do not indulge in grief, but do mournful deeds.”

However, in the minds of medieval authors of moralizing literature there is always the idea that the death or loss of a loved one is not the worst thing that can happen. Much worse is spiritual death: “Weep not over the dead, but over the unreasonable: for this one has a common path for all, but this one has his own will”; "Cry over the dead - he has lost the light, but cry over the fool - he has left his mind."

The existence of the soul in that future life must be ensured by prayers. To ensure the continuation of his prayers, a rich man usually bequeathed part of his property to the monastery. If for some reason he was unable to do this, then his relatives should have taken care of it. Then the Christian name of the deceased will be included in the synodik - a list of names remembered in prayers at every service or, at least, on certain days established by the church for commemorating the dead. The princely family usually kept its own synodikon in the monastery, whose donors were traditionally the princes of this family.

So, death in the minds of medieval authors of moralizing literature is the inevitable end of human life, one must be prepared for it, but always remember it, but for Christians death is the boundary of the transition to another, afterlife. Therefore, the grief of the funeral rite must be “worthy,” and spiritual death is much worse than physical death.

2.3 Power

By analyzing the statements of medieval sages about food, we can, firstly, draw a conclusion about the attitude of our ancestors to this issue, and secondly, find out what specific products they consumed and what dishes they prepared from them.

First of all, we can conclude that moderation and healthy minimalism are preached in the popular consciousness: “Many foods cause illness, and satiety will lead to sadness; many have died from gluttony - those who remember this will prolong their lives.”

On the other hand, the attitude towards food is reverent, food is a gift, a blessing sent from above and not for everyone: “When you sit at a rich table, remember the one who eats dry bread and cannot bring water when he is ill.” “And eating and drinking with gratitude will be sweet.”

The fact that the food was prepared at home and was varied is evidenced by the following entries in Domostroy: “And meat and fish food, all kinds of pies and pancakes, various porridges and jelly, bake and cook any dishes - the housewife herself could do everything.” so that she can teach the servants what she knows." The process of cooking and the consumption of food was carefully monitored by the owners themselves. Every morning it is recommended that “husband and wife consult about the household,” plan “when and what food and drink to prepare for guests and for themselves,” count the necessary products, after which “send to the cook what needs to be cooked, and to the baker, and for other preparations, send the goods as well."

"Domostroy" also describes in great detail what products are available on what days of the year, depending on the church calendar,

consume, there are many recipes for preparing dishes and drinks.

Reading this document, one can only admire the zeal and thrift of the Russian owners and be amazed at the wealth, abundance and variety of the Russian table.

Bread and meat were the two main foodstuffs in the diet of the Russian princes of Kievan Rus. In the south of Rus', bread was baked from wheat flour; in the north, rye bread was more common.

The most common types of meat were beef, pork and lamb, as well as geese, chickens, ducks and pigeons. They also consumed meat from wild animals and birds. Most often in "Domostroy" hare and swans are mentioned, as well as cranes, herons, ducks, black grouse, hazel grouse, etc.

The church encouraged the consumption of fish. Wednesdays and Fridays were declared fast days and, in addition, three fasts were established, including Lent. Of course, fish was already in the diet of Russian people before the Epiphany of Vladimir, and caviar too. "Domostroy" mentions white fish, sterlet, sturgeon, beluga, pike, char, herring, bream, minnows, crucian carp and other types of fish.

Lenten food included all dishes made from cereals with hemp oil, “and flour, and bakes all kinds of pies and pancakes and juicy dishes, and makes rolls, and various porridges, and pea noodles, and strained peas, and stews, and kundumtsy, both boiled and sweet porridges and dishes - pies with pancakes and with mushrooms, and with saffron milk caps, and with milk mushrooms, and with poppy seeds, and with porridge, and with turnips, and with cabbage, or nuts in sugar or butter pies with what God sent."

Among the legumes, the Russians grew and actively consumed beans and peas. They also actively consumed vegetables (this word meant all fruits and fruits). "Domostroy" lists radishes, watermelons, several varieties of apples, berries (blueberries, raspberries, currants, strawberries, lingonberries).

Meat was boiled or roasted on a spit, vegetables were eaten boiled or raw. Corned beef and stew are also mentioned in the sources. Supplies were stored "in the cellar, on the glacier and in the barn." The main type of preservation was pickles, salted “in barrels, and in tubs, and in measuring cups, and in vats, and in buckets”

They made jam from the berries, made fruit drinks, and also prepared levashi (butter pies) and marshmallows.

The author of Domostroy devotes several chapters to describing how to properly “saturate all kinds of honey,” prepare and store alcoholic beverages. Traditionally, during the era of Kievan Rus, alcohol was not distilled. Three types of drinks were consumed. Kvass, a non-alcoholic or slightly intoxicating drink, was made from rye bread. It was something reminiscent of beer. Vernadsky points out that it was probably a traditional drink of the Slavs, since it is mentioned in the records of the travel of a Byzantine envoy to the Hun leader Attila in the early fifth century, along with honey. Honey was extremely popular in Kievan Rus. It was brewed and drunk by both laymen and monks. According to the chronicle, Prince Vladimir the Red Sun ordered three hundred cauldrons of honey on the occasion of the opening of the church in Vasilevo. In 1146, Prince Izyaslav II discovered five hundred barrels of honey and eighty barrels of wine in the cellars of his rival Svyatoslav 73 . Several types of honey were known: sweet, dry, with pepper, and so on.

Thus, the analysis of moralizing sources allows us to identify such trends in nutrition. On the one hand, moderation is recommended, a reminder that after a fruitful year a hungry one may come. On the other hand, by studying, for example, Domostroy, one can draw conclusions about the diversity and richness of Russian cuisine, due to the natural resources of the Russian lands. Compared to modern times, Russian cuisine has not changed much. The basic set of products remained the same, but their variety was significantly reduced.

Some of the moralizing statements are devoted to how one should behave at a feast: “At a feast, do not criticize your neighbor and do not disturb him in his joy”; “... at the feast, do not philosophize recklessly, be like someone who knows but is silent”; “When you are invited to a feast, do not sit in the place of honor; suddenly, from among those invited, someone will be more respectful than you, and the owner will come up to you and say: “Give him your seat!” - and then you will have to move to the last place with shame.” .

After the introduction of Christianity in Rus', the concept of “holiday” first of all acquired the meaning of “church holiday”. In “The Tale of Akira the Wise” it is said: “On a holiday, do not pass by the church.”

From the same point of view, the church regulates aspects of the sexual life of parishioners. So, according to Domostroy, husband and wife were forbidden to cohabit on Saturdays and Sundays, and those who did this were not allowed to go to church.

So, we see that much attention was paid to holidays in moralizing literature. They prepared for them in advance, but modest, respectful behavior and moderation in food were encouraged at the feast. The same principle of moderation prevails in moralizing statements “about hops.”

Among similar works condemning drunkenness, “The Tale of Cyril, the Slovenian Philosopher” is widely distributed in ancient Russian manuscript collections. It warns readers against a harmful addiction to drunken drinking, depicts the misfortunes that threaten a drunkard - impoverishment, deprivation of a place in the social hierarchy, loss of health, excommunication. The Lay combines a grotesque address to the reader by Khmel himself with a traditional sermon against drunkenness.

This is how the drunkard is described in this work: “Need and poverty sit in his home, and illnesses lie on his shoulders, sadness and sorrow ring like hunger in his thighs, poverty has built a nest in his wallet, evil laziness has become attached to him, like a dear wife , and sleep is like a father, and groaning is like beloved children"; “His legs hurt from drunkenness, his hands tremble, the vision of his eyes fades”; “Drunkenness destroys the beauty of the face”; drunkenness “plunges good and equal people, and craftsmen into slavery”, “it causes quarrels between brothers, and separates a husband from his wife.”

Other moralizing sources also condemn drunkenness, calling for moderation. In “The Wisdom of the Wise Menander” it is noted that “wine, drunk in abundance, instructs little”; “The abundance of wine drunk also leads to talkativeness.”

The monument “The Bee” contains the following historical anecdote attributed to Diogenes: “This one was given a lot of wine at a feast, and he took it and spilled it. When the others began to reprimand him why he was ruining the wine, he answered: “If only the wine had not come from me.” died, I would have died from wine."

Hesychius, presbyter of Jerusalem, advises: “Drink honey little by little, and the less, the better: you won’t stumble”; “You need to refrain from drinking, because sobering up is followed by groans and repentance.”

Jesus, son of Sirach, warns: “A drunkard who works will not get rich”; "Wine and women will corrupt even the wise..." Saint Basil echoes him: “Wine and women seduce even the wise...”; "Avoid and drunkenness and sorrows of this life, do not speak deceitfully, never talk about anyone behind their back."

“When they invite you to a feast, do not drink yourself to the point of terrible intoxication...”, priest Sylvester, the author of “Domostroy,” instructs his son.

Particularly terrible, according to the authors of moralizing prose, is the effect of hops on a woman: This is what Hops says: “If my wife, no matter what she is, gets drunk with me, I will make her mad, and she will be worse than all people.

And I will stir up bodily lusts in her, and she will be a laughing stock among people, and she will be excommunicated from God and from the Church of God, so that it would be better for her not to have been born." no good in the world."

So, an analysis of the texts of moralizing prose shows that traditionally in Rus' drunkenness was condemned, a drunk person was strictly condemned by the authors of the texts, and, consequently, by society as a whole.

2.5 The role and place of women in medieval society

Many statements in moralizing texts are dedicated to women. Initially, a woman, according to the Christian tradition, is perceived as a source of danger, sinful temptation, and death: “Wine and women will corrupt even the wise, but he who attaches himself to harlots will become even more impudent.”

A woman is the enemy of the human race, therefore the sages warn: “Do not reveal your soul to a woman, for she will destroy your firmness”; “But most of all, a person should refrain from talking with women...” ; “Because of women, many people get into trouble”; “Beware of the kiss of a beautiful woman like snake venom.”

Whole separate treatises appear on “good” and “evil” wives. In one of them, dating back to the 15th century, an evil wife is likened to the “eye of the devil”, this is “the marketplace of hell, the queen of defilements, the commander of untruths, the arrow of Satan, striking the hearts of many.”

Among the texts with which ancient Russian scribes supplemented their writings “about evil wives,” noteworthy are the peculiar “worldly parables” - small plot narratives (about a husband crying about an evil wife; about selling children from an evil wife; about an old woman looking in the mirror ; about a man who married a rich widow; about a husband who pretended to be sick; about a man who whipped his first wife and asked for another for himself; about a husband who was invited to a spectacle of monkey games, etc.). They all condemn a woman as a source of voluptuousness and misfortune for a man.

Women are full of “feminine cunning”, frivolous: “Women’s thoughts are unstable, like a temple without a roof”, deceitful: “Rarely from a woman you will find out the truth" ; initially prone to vice and deception: “Girls do bad things without blushing, while others are ashamed, but secretly do worse.”

The original depravity of a woman is in her beauty, and an ugly wife is also perceived as torture. Thus, one of the jokes in “The Bee,” attributed to Solon, reads: “This one, asked by someone if he advised getting married, said, “No! If you take an ugly one, you will suffer; if you take a beautiful one, others will want to admire her."

“It is better to live in the desert with a lion and a snake than with a lying and talkative wife,” says Solomon.

Seeing the arguing women, Diogenes says: “Look! The snake is asking the viper for poison!” .

“Domostroy” regulates a woman’s behavior: she must be a good housewife, take care of the house, be able to cook and take care of her husband, receive guests, please everyone and not cause any complaints. Even the wife goes to church “in consultation with her husband.” Here is how the norms of a woman’s behavior in a public place are described - at a church service: “In church, she should not talk to anyone, stand silently, listen to the singing with attention and the reading of Holy Scripture, without looking back, not lean against a wall or a pillar , and do not stand with a staff, do not shift from foot to foot; stand with your hands folded on your chest in a cross shape, unshakably and firmly, with your bodily eyes downcast, and with your heart’s eyes towards God; pray to God with fear and trembling, with sighs and tears. Do not leave the church before the end of the service, and come at the very beginning"

The contradictions between the abstractness of the general laws of science (including history) and the concrete life of ordinary people served as the basis for the search for new approaches in historical knowledge. History reflects the general, abstracting from particulars, paying attention to laws and general development trends. There was no place left for the common man with his specific circumstances and details of life, with the peculiarities of his perception and experience of the world; he was absent. The individualized daily life of a person, the sphere of his experiences, and the specific historical aspects of his existence fell out of the field of view of historical scientists.

Historians have turned to the study of everyday life as one of the possible ways to resolve the above-mentioned contradiction. The current situation in history also contributes to this.

Modern historical science is undergoing a deep internal transformation, which is manifested in a change in intellectual orientations, research paradigms, and the very language of history. The current situation in historical knowledge is increasingly characterized as postmodern. Having experienced the “offensive of structuralism”, which became the “new scientism” in the 60s, and the “linguistic turn” or “semiotic explosion” in the 80s of the twentieth century, historiography could not help but experience the impact of the postmodern paradigm, which spread its influence to all areas of humanities. The situation of crisis, the peak of which Western historical science experienced in the 70s of the 20th century, is being experienced by domestic science today.

The very concept of “historical reality” is being revised, and with it the historian’s own identity, his professional sovereignty, the criteria for the reliability of the source (the boundaries between fact and fiction are blurred), faith in the possibility of historical knowledge and the desire for objective truth. Trying to resolve the crisis, historians are developing new approaches and new ideas, including turning to the category of “everyday life” as one of the options for overcoming the crisis.

Modern historical science has identified ways to approach the understanding of the historical past through its subject and bearer - the person himself. A comprehensive analysis of the material and social forms of a person’s daily existence - his life microcosm, stereotypes of his thinking and behavior - is considered as one of the possible approaches in this regard.

In the late 80s - early 90s of the XX century, following Western and domestic historical science, there was a surge of interest in everyday life. The first works appear that mention everyday life. A series of articles are published in the almanac “Odyssey”, where an attempt is made to theoretically comprehend everyday life. These are articles by G.S. Knabe, A.Ya. Gurevich, G.I. Zverevoy. Interests are also the reasoning of S.V. Obolenskaya in the article “A certain Joseph Schäfer, a soldier of Hitler’s Wehrmacht” about methods of studying the history of everyday life using the example of considering the individual biography of a certain Joseph Schäfer. A successful attempt at a comprehensive description of the everyday life of the population in the Weimar Republic is the work of I.Ya., published in 1990. Bisca. Using an extensive and varied source base, he quite fully described the daily life of various segments of the population of Germany during the Weimar period: socio-economic life, morals, spiritual atmosphere. He provides convincing data, specific examples, describes food, clothing, living conditions, etc. If in the articles of G.S. Knabe, A.Ya. Gurevich, G.I. Zvereva is given a theoretical understanding of the concept of “everyday life”, then the articles by S.V. Obolenskaya and monograph by I.Ya. Bisca are historical works where the authors, using specific examples, try to describe and define what “everyday life” is.

The initial turn of attention of domestic historians to the study of everyday life has diminished in recent years, as there are not enough sources and serious theoretical understanding of this problem. It should be remembered that one cannot ignore the experience of Western historiography - England, France, Italy and, of course, Germany.

In the 60-70s. XX century interest arose in research related to the study of man, and in this regard, German scientists were the first to begin to study the history of everyday life. The slogan sounded: “From the study of public policy and analysis of global social structures and processes, let’s turn to the small worlds of life, to the everyday life of ordinary people.” The direction “history of everyday life” (Alltagsgeschichte) or “history from below” (Geschichte von unten) arose. What was and is understood by everyday life? How do scientists interpret it?

It makes sense to name the most important German historians of everyday life. A classic in this field, of course, is such a historical sociologist as Norbert Elias with his works “On the Concept of Everyday Life”, “On the Process of Civilization”, “Court Society”; Peter Borscheid and his work “Conversations about the history of everyday life”. I would definitely like to name a historian dealing with issues of modern times - Lutz Neuhammer, who works at the University of Hagen, and very early, already in 1980, in an article in the journal “Historical Didactics” (“Geschichtsdidaktik”), he studied the history of everyday life. This article was called "Notes on the History of Everyday Life". His other work “Life Experience and Collective Thinking” is well known. Practice "Oral History".

And a historian like Klaus Tenfeld deals with both theoretical and practical issues of the history of everyday life. His theoretical work is called "Difficulties with the Everyday" and is a critical discussion of the everyday historical movement with an excellent list of references. The publication by Klaus Bergmann and Rolf Scherker, “History in Everyday Life - Everyday Life in History,” consists of a number of theoretical works. Also, the problem of everyday life is dealt with both theoretically and practically by Dr. Peukert from Essen, who has published a number of theoretical works. One of them is “New History of Everyday Life and Historical Anthropology”. The following works are known: Peter Steinbach “Daily Life and History of the Village”, Jurgen Kokka “Classes or Cultures? Breakthroughs and Dead Ends in Workers' History, as well as Martin Broszat's remarks on the work of Jürgen Kock, and her interesting work on problems of the history of everyday life in the Third Reich. There is also a general work by J. Kuscinski “The History of Everyday Life of the German People. 16001945" in five volumes.

A work such as “History in Everyday Life - Everyday Life in History” is a collection of works by various authors dedicated to everyday life. The following problems are considered: the everyday life of workers and servants, architecture as a source of the history of everyday life, historical consciousness in the everyday life of modern times, etc.

It is very important to note that a discussion on the problem of the history of everyday life was held in Berlin (October 3-6, 1984), which on the final day was called “History from below - history from the inside.” And under this title, the materials of the discussion were published under the editorship of Jürgen Kock.

Representatives of the Annales school became the spokesmen for the latest needs and trends in historical knowledge at the beginning of the 20th century - Marc Bloch, Lucien Febvre and, of course, Fernand Braudel. "Annals" in the 30s. XX century turned to the study of the working man, the subject of their study becomes the “history of the masses” as opposed to the “history of the stars”, a history visible not “from above”, but “from below”. “Human geography”, the history of material culture, historical anthropology, social psychology and other areas of historical research that had previously remained in the shadows were developed.

Marc Bloch was concerned with the problem of the contradiction between the inevitable schematism of historical knowledge and the living fabric of the real historical process. His activities were aimed at resolving this contradiction. He, in particular, emphasized that the focus of a historian should be on man, and immediately hastened to correct himself - not man, but people. In Blok’s field of vision there are typical, predominantly mass-like phenomena in which repeatability can be detected.

The comparative typological approach is the most important in historical research, but in history the regular appears through the particular, the individual. Generalization is associated with simplification, straightening, the living fabric of history is much more complex and contradictory, therefore Blok compares the generalized characteristics of a particular historical phenomenon with its variants, shows them in individual manifestations, thereby enriching the study, making it rich in specific variants. Thus, M. Blok writes that the picture of feudalism is not a set of features abstracted from living reality: it is confined to real space and historical time and is based on evidence from numerous sources.

One of Blok’s methodological ideas was that the historian’s research does not begin with the collection of material, as is often imagined, but with the formulation of the problem, with the development of a preliminary list of questions that the researcher wants to ask the sources. Not content with the fact that the society of the past, say the medieval one, decided to communicate about itself through the mouths of chroniclers, philosophers, and theologians, the historian, by analyzing the terminology and vocabulary of surviving written sources, is able to make these monuments say much more. We pose new questions to a foreign culture, which it has not asked itself, we look for answers to these questions in it, and the foreign culture answers us. In a dialogical meeting of cultures, each of them retains its integrity, but they are mutually enriched. Historical knowledge is such a dialogue of cultures.

The study of everyday life involves the search for fundamental structures in history that determine the order of human actions. This search begins with the historians of the Annales school. M. Blok understood that under the cover of phenomena understood by people, there lie hidden layers of deep social structure, which determines the changes occurring on the surface of social life. The task of the historian is to make the past “talk out”, that is, to say what it was not aware of or was not going to say.

Writing a story in which living people act is the motto of Blok and his followers. Collective psychology also attracts their attention because it expresses the socially determined behavior of people. A new issue for historical science at that time was human sensitivity. You cannot pretend to understand people without knowing how they felt. Outbursts of despair and rage, reckless actions, sudden mental breakdowns - cause a lot of difficulties for historians, who are instinctively inclined to reconstruct the past according to the schemes of the mind. M. Blok and L. Febvre saw their “reserved lands” in the history of feelings and ways of thinking and enthusiastically developed these themes.

M. Blok has outlines of the theory of “long time”, subsequently developed by Fernand Braudel. Representatives of the Annales school are primarily concerned with long-term time, that is, they study the structures of everyday life that change very slowly over time or actually do not change at all. At the same time, the study of such structures is the main task of any historian, since they show the essence of a person’s daily existence, the stereotypes of his thinking and behavior that regulate his daily existence.

The direct thematization of the problem of everyday life in historical knowledge is usually associated with the name of Fernand Braudel. This is quite natural, because the first book of his famous work “Material Economy and Capitalism of the 15th-18th Centuries.” It’s called: “Structures of Everyday Life: Possible and Impossible.” He wrote about how one can experience everyday life: “Material life is people and things, things and people. Studying things - food, housing, clothing, luxury items, tools, money, plans of villages and cities - in a word, everything that serves a person - this is the only way to experience his daily existence." And the conditions of everyday existence, the cultural and historical context against which a person’s life, his history unfolds, have a decisive influence on people’s actions and behavior.

Fernand Braudel wrote about everyday life: “The starting point for me was,” he emphasized, “everyday life - that side of life in which we find ourselves involved without even realizing it - habit, or even routine, these thousands of actions taking place and ending as if by themselves, the implementation of which does not require anyone’s decision and which, in truth, occurs almost without affecting our consciousness. I believe that more than half of humanity is immersed in this kind of everyday life. Countless actions, passed down by inheritance, accumulating without any order. Repeated ad infinitum, before we came into this world, help us live - and at the same time subjugate us, deciding a lot for us during our existence. Here we are dealing with impulses, impulses, stereotypes, techniques and modes of action, as well as various types of obligations that compel action, which sometimes, more often than one might assume, go back to the most immemorial times.

Further, he writes that this ancient past is pouring into modernity and he wanted to see for himself and show others how this past, a barely noticeable history - as if a compacted mass of everyday events - over the long centuries of previous history entered the flesh of the people themselves, for whom experience and the errors of the past have become commonplace and a daily necessity, escaping the attention of observers.

The works of Fernand Braudel contain philosophical and historical reflections on the marked routine of material life, on the complex interweaving of various levels of historical reality, on the dialectic of time and space. The reader of his works is faced with three different plans, three levels, in which the same reality is grasped in different ways, its substantive and spatio-temporal characteristics change. We are talking about fleeting event-political time at the highest level, much longer-term socio-economic processes at a deeper level, and almost timeless natural-geographical processes at the deepest level. Moreover, the distinction between these three levels (in fact, F. Braudel sees several more levels in each of these three) is not an artificial dissection of living reality, but a consideration of it in different refractions.

In the lowest layers of historical reality, as in the depths of the sea, permanence, stable structures dominate, the main elements of which are man, earth, and space. Time passes so slowly here that it seems almost motionless. At the next level - the level of society, civilization, the level that socio-economic history studies, time of average duration operates. Finally, the most superficial layer of history: here events alternate like waves in the sea. They are measured in short chronological units - this is political, diplomatic and similar “event” history.

For F. Braudel, the sphere of his personal interests is the almost motionless history of people in their close relationship with the land on which they walk and which feeds them; the history of a continuously repeating dialogue between man and nature, as persistent as if it were beyond the reach of the damage and blows inflicted by time. Until now, one of the problems of historical knowledge remains the attitude towards the statement that history as a whole can only be understood in comparison with this vast space of almost motionless reality, in identifying long-term processes and phenomena.

So what is everyday life? How can it be determined? Attempts to give an unambiguous definition have not been successful: everyday life is used by some scientists as a collective concept for the manifestation of all forms of private life, others understand by this the daily repetitive actions of the so-called “gray everyday life” or the sphere of natural unreflective thinking. German sociologist Norbert Elias noted in 1978 that there is no precise, clear definition of everyday life. The way this concept is used in sociology today includes a very diverse scale of shades, but they still remain unidentified and incomprehensible to us.

N. Elias attempted to define the concept of “everyday life”. He had been interested in this topic for a long time. Sometimes he himself was counted among those who dealt with this problem, since in his two works, “Courtly Society” and “On the Process of Civilization,” he examined issues that could easily be classified as problems of everyday life. But N. Elias himself did not consider himself a specialist in everyday life and decided to clarify this concept when he was invited to write an article on this topic. Norbert Elias has compiled preliminary lists of some of the uses of this concept that appear in the scientific literature.

Napoleon Bonaparte is the most controversial and interesting figure in French history. The French adore and idolize him as a national hero.

And it doesn’t matter that he lost the Patriotic War of 1812 in Russia, the main thing is that he is Napoleon Bonaparte!

For me personally, he is my favorite figure in French history. I always respected his talent as a commander - the capture of Toulon in 1793, victories in the battles of Arcola or Rivoli.

That is why today I will talk about the daily life of the French during the time of Napoleon Bonaparte.

You will say that it was possible to go chronologically and gradually reveal this topic, starting from time immemorial. And I will say that this is boring, and my blog will turn into a French history textbook, and then you will stop reading it. Therefore, I will talk, first of all, about the most interesting and not in order. It's more interesting this way! Is it true?

So how did people live during the time of Napoleon Bonaparte? Let's find out about this together...

About Sevres porcelain.

If we talk about French industry, glass, pottery and porcelain were the leading industries.

The porcelain products of the factory in Sèvres near Paris gained worldwide fame ( famous Sevres porcelain). This manufactory was transferred from the castle in Vincennes in 1756.

When Napoleon became emperor, classicist tendencies began to prevail in porcelain making. Sèvres porcelain began to be decorated with exquisite ornaments, which were most often combined with a colored background.

After the conclusion of the Peace of Tilsit (1807), a few months later, Napoleon presented the Russian Emperor Alexander I with a magnificent Olympic service (pictured). Napoleon also used Sèvres porcelain on the island of St. Helena.

About workers.

Gradually, industry in France moved towards machine production. The metric system of measures was introduced. And in 1807, the Commercial Code was created and promulgated.

But, nevertheless, France did not become a leader in the world market, but workers' wages gradually increased, and mass unemployment was avoided.

In Paris, a worker earned 3-4 francs a day, in the provinces - 1.2-2 francs a day. French workers began to eat meat more often and dress better.

About money.

We all know that now in France they use currency euro €. But we most often forget about past currencies, maybe we only remember Frank and a strange word "ecu".

Let's correct this and get curious, so to speak, about ancient French currency.

So, Livres, Franks, Napoleons - what cute names, right?

Livre was the monetary unit of France until the introduction of the franc in 1799. Do you know that the participants in the Egyptian expedition, which began in 1798, received salaries? Yes, and that’s true, only back then it was called a salary. So, famous scientists received 500 livres a month, and ordinary people - 50.

And in 1834, coins denominated in livres were withdrawn from circulation.

Franc It was originally silver and weighed only 5 grams. This so called Germinal franc put into circulation in March 1803, and it remained stable until 1914! (pictured right)

And here Napoleondor was a gold coin that was equal to 20 francs and contained 5.8 grams of pure gold. These coins began to be minted in 1803.

And the origin of the name is very simple, because on the coin there were images of Napoleon I, and later Napoleon III. This gold coin is not at all simple, because it could be minted in different variations - double Napoleondors (40 francs), 1/2 Napoleondor (10 francs) and 1/4 (5 francs).

You may ask, but how? louis d'or And ecu?

These coins went out of circulation faster. For example, the louis d'or (French gold coin) was first minted under Louis XIII, and ended its “life” in 1795.

A ecu existed since the 13th century, first they were gold, then silver, and in the middle of the 19th century they were taken out of circulation. But the name “ecu” was retained for the five-franc coin.

If only lovers of fiction would often come across this name on the pages of books by French writers.

About food.

If earlier the main food of the French were bread, wine and cheese, then in the 19th century it became widespread potato, brought from America. Thanks to this, the population is growing, because potatoes are being actively planted throughout France, and they bring a large harvest.

Colorfully describes the benefits of potatoes J.J. Menu, resident of the Isère department (French Isère) in southeastern France:

“This culture, freely settled, well-groomed, prosperous in my possessions, has brought me a lot of benefit; potatoes turned out to be very profitable, they found use on the table of owners, workers and servants, they were used as food for chickens, turkeys, and pigs; there was enough of it for local residents, for sale, etc. What abundance, what pleasure!”

Yes, and Napoleon himself preferred potatoes fried with onions to all dishes.

So it is not surprising that simple potatoes have become a favorite dish of all French people. Contemporaries write that they attended a dinner party where all the dishes were prepared exclusively from potatoes. Like this!

About art.

What do the people demand? Right - "Meal'n'Real!"

We talked about daily bread, or rather potatoes, which have taken a strong place in the life of the French. Now we learn about spectacles - about spiritual food.

In general it must be said that Napoleon Bonaparte actively supported the theater, actors and playwrights. Fashion, art and architecture of the time were heavily influenced by style "empire". Napoleon liked dramatic theater.

He spoke about this to the poet Goethe:

“Tragedy should be a school for kings and nations; this is the highest level that a poet can reach.”

Patronage of the theater smoothly extended to specific actresses who became mistresses of the top officials of the state: Therese Bourgoin - Minister of the Interior Chaptal, and Mademoiselle Georges - Napoleon himself.

Nevertheless, development of theater during the Empire is in full swing, it dominates Talma. A talented man from a family of dentists. He received an excellent education and even continued his father’s work for some time, playing in his spare time on small stages.

At one point, Talma decided to change his life and graduated from the Royal School of Declamation and Singing in Paris. AND in 1787 successfully debuted on the theater stage "Comédie Française" in Voltaire's play Mahomet. Soon he was accepted as a shareholder in the theater.

Talma broke the ridiculous centuries-old tradition of the theater, according to which actors represented heroes of different eras in the costumes of their time - in wigs and velvet!

AND theatrical "revolutionary" gradually introduced antique, medieval, oriental and renaissance costumes into theater use! ( Francois-Joseph Talma depicted as Nero in the painting by E. Delacroix).

Talma actively advocated the truthfulness of speech in everything, including diction. His views were formed under the influence of French and English enlighteners. And from the first days of the Great Revolution, he sought to bring its ideas to life on stage. This the actor headed a troupe of revolutionary actors who left the Comédie Française in 1791. And they founded the Theater of Freedom, Equality and Fraternity, which later became the Theater of the Republic on Richelieu Street.

The “old” theater or the Theater of the Nation staged plays that were objectionable to the authorities. And the revolutionary government closed it, the actors were thrown into prison. But they escaped execution thanks to the fact that one official of the Committee of Public Safety destroyed their papers.

After the fall of Robespierre, the remnants of the troupes of both theaters united, and Talma had to justify herself to the public, speaking out against revolutionary terror.

These are the bright changes that took place in the theater thanks to talented, caring people.

And it’s worth noting that the French weren’t the only ones watching tragedies! N.M. Karamzin wrote in his “Letters of a Russian Traveler” about five theaters - the Bolshoi Opera, the French Theater, the Italian Theater, the Theater of the Count of Provence and the Variety Show.

In conclusion I will add a couple of interesting facts :

— The first experiments in the field date back to the years of the Empire. photos.

— And, of course, the glory of the national perfumes is huge, and if a Frenchman starts doing this in another country, he will definitely be a success!

France still occupies a prominent place among perfumers in the world. What's it worth? Fragonard Perfume House in the southern town of Grasse. By the way, anyone can visit the historical museum of the factory and see with their own eyes the ancient equipment of perfumers.

P.S. On this wonderful note, I will end my story about the daily life of the French during the time of Napoleon Bonaparte. And for those who want to learn even more details on this topic, I can recommend Andrei Ivanov’s fascinating book “The Daily Life of the French under Napoleon.”

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