Techniques of satirical depiction of Shemyakin court. What satirical images (grotesque, hyperbole) are used in the story? give examples of using these examples in the text

Literature like no other form creative activity human, connected with social and historical life people, being a bright and imaginative source of its reflection. Fiction develops along with society, in a certain historical sequence and we can say that it is a direct example artistic development civilization. Each historical era is characterized by certain moods, views, attitudes and worldviews, which inevitably manifest themselves in literary works.

A common worldview, supported by common artistic principles the creation of a literary work by individual groups of writers, forms various literary trends. It is worth saying that the classification and identification of such trends in the history of literature is very conditional. Writers, creating their works in different historical eras, did not even suspect that literary critics, after years, would rank them among any literary direction. Nevertheless, for the convenience of historical analysis in literary criticism, such a classification is necessary. It helps to understand more clearly and structuredly the complex processes of the development of literature and art.

Main literary trends

Each of them is characterized by the presence of a number famous writers, which are united by a clear ideological and aesthetic concept set out in theoretical works, and a common view of the principles of creation work of art or artistic method, which, in turn, acquires historical and social traits, inherent in a certain direction.

In the history of literature, it is customary to distinguish the following main literary trends:

Classicism. It was formed as art style and worldview to the 17th century. It's based on passion ancient art, which was taken as a role model. In an effort to achieve simplicity of perfection, similar to ancient models, the classicists developed strict canons of art, such as the unity of time, place and action in drama, which had to be strictly followed. Literary work was emphatically artificial, reasonably and logically organized, rationally constructed.

All genres were divided into high (tragedy, ode, epic), which glorified heroic events and mythological subjects, and low - depicting the everyday life of people of the lower classes (comedy, satire, fable). The classicists preferred drama and created many works specifically for theatrical stage, using not only words to express ideas, but also visual images, a certain way of structured plot, facial expressions and gestures, scenery and costumes. The entire seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries passed under the shadow of classicism, which was replaced by another direction after the destructive power of the French.

Romanticism is a comprehensive concept that has powerfully manifested itself not only in literature, but also in painting, philosophy and music, and in each European country it had its own specific features. Romantic writers were united by a subjective view of reality and dissatisfaction with the surrounding reality, which forced them to construct different pictures of the world that lead away from reality. Heroes romantic works- powerful, extraordinary personalities, rebels who challenge the imperfections of the world, universal evil and die in the struggle for happiness and universal harmony. Unusual heroes and unusual life circumstances, fantasy worlds and unrealistically strong, deep experiences, the writers conveyed with the help of certain language their works were very emotional, sublime.

Realism. Pathos and elation of romanticism were replaced this direction, the main principle of which was the depiction of life in all its earthly manifestations, very real typical heroes in real typical circumstances. Literature, according to realist writers, was supposed to become a textbook of life, so heroes were depicted in all aspects of personality manifestation - social, psychological, historical. The main source influencing a person, shaping his character and worldview, becomes environment, real life circumstances with which the heroes constantly come into conflict due to deep contradictions. Life and images are given in development, showing a certain trend.

Literary trends reflect the most general parameters and features artistic creativity at a certain historical period development of society. In turn, within any direction, several movements can be distinguished, which are represented by writers with similar ideological and artistic attitudes, moral and ethical views, and artistic and aesthetic techniques. Thus, within the framework of romanticism there were such movements as civil romanticism. Realist writers were also adherents various trends. In Russian realism it is customary to distinguish philosophical and sociological movements.

Literary movements and trends - a classification created within the framework of literary theories. It is based on philosophical, political and aesthetic views eras and generations of people at a certain historical stage development of society. However, literary trends can go beyond just one historical era, therefore they are often identified with an artistic method common to a group of writers who lived in different times, but expressing similar spiritual and ethical principles.

Literature in the 19th century in Russia is associated with the rapid flowering of culture. Spiritual upliftment and importance are reflected in immortal works writers and poets. This article is dedicated to representatives of the Golden Age of Russian literature and the main trends of this period.

Historical events

Literature in the 19th century in Russia gave birth to such great names as Baratynsky, Batyushkov, Zhukovsky, Lermontov, Fet, Yazykov, Tyutchev. And above all Pushkin. Near historical events this period was marked. The development of Russian prose and poetry was influenced by Patriotic War 1812, and the death of the great Napoleon, and the passing of Byron. English poet, just like the French commander, for a long time controlled minds in a revolutionary way thinking people in Russia. and the Russian-Turkish War, as well as the echoes of the French Revolution, which were heard in all corners of Europe - all these events turned into a powerful catalyst for advanced creative thought.

While in Western countries Revolutionary movements were carried out and the spirit of freedom and equality began to emerge, Russia strengthened its monarchical power and suppressed uprisings. This could not go unnoticed by artists, writers and poets. Literature of the early 19th century in Russia is a reflection of the thoughts and experiences of the advanced strata of society.

Classicism

This aesthetic movement is understood as an artistic style that originated in European culture in the second half of the 18th century. Its main features are rationalism and adherence to strict canons. Classicism of the 19th century in Russia was also distinguished by its appeal to ancient forms and the principle of three unities. Literature, however, in this artistic style began to lose ground already at the beginning of the century. Classicism was gradually replaced by such movements as sentimentalism and romanticism.

Masters artistic word began to create their works in new genres. Works in the style gained popularity historical novel, romantic story, ballad, ode, poem, landscape, philosophical and love lyrics.

Realism

Literature in the 19th century in Russia is associated primarily with the name of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. Closer to the thirties, realistic prose took a strong position in his work. It should be said that the founder of this literary movement in Russia is Pushkin.

Journalism and satire

Some features European culture The 18th century was inherited by the literature of the 19th century in Russia. We can briefly outline the main features of poetry and prose of this period - satirical nature and journalisticism. Image trend human vices and the shortcomings of society can be seen in the works of writers who created their works in the forties. In literary criticism, it was later determined that the authors of satirical and journalistic prose were united. “Natural school” was the name of this artistic style, which, however, is also called “Gogol’s school.” Other representatives of this literary movement are Nekrasov, Dal, Herzen, Turgenev.

Criticism

Ideology " natural school" was justified by the critic Belinsky. The principles of the representatives of this literary movement. Characteristic feature became in their work social issues. The main genres are essay, socio-psychological novel and social story.

Literature in the 19th century in Russia developed under the influence of the activities of various associations. It was in the first quarter of this century that there was a significant rise in the journalistic field. Belinsky had a huge influence. This man had extraordinary ability feel the poetic gift. It was he who was the first to recognize the talent of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Turgenev, Dostoevsky.

Pushkin and Gogol

The literature of the 19th and 20th centuries in Russia would have been completely different and, of course, not so bright without these two authors. They had a huge influence on the development of prose. And many of the elements that they introduced into literature have become classical norms. Pushkin and Gogol not only developed such a direction as realism, but also created completely new art types. One of them is the image of the “little man”, which later received its development not only in the works of Russian authors, but also in foreign literature nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Lermontov

This poet also had a significant influence on the development of Russian literature. After all, it was he who created the concept of “hero of time.” With him light hand it entered not only literary criticism, but also social life. Lermontov also took part in the development of the psychological novel genre.

The entire period of the nineteenth century is famous for the names of talented great personalities who worked in the field of literature (both prose and poetry). Russian authors at the end of the eighteenth century adopted some of the merits of their Western colleagues. But due to a sharp leap in the development of culture and art, it eventually became an order of magnitude higher than the Western European one that existed at that time. The works of Pushkin, Turgenev, Dostoevsky and Gogol have become the property of world culture. The works of Russian writers became the model on which German, English and American authors later relied.

2) Sentimentalism
Sentimentalism is a literary movement that recognized feeling as the main criterion of human personality. Sentimentalism arose in Europe and Russia approximately simultaneously, in the second half of the 18th century, as a counterweight to the rigid classical theory that was dominant at that time.
Sentimentalism was closely associated with the ideas of the Enlightenment. He gave priority to the manifestations of human spiritual qualities, psychological analysis, and sought to awaken in the hearts of readers an understanding of human nature and love for it, along with a humane attitude towards all the weak, suffering and persecuted. The feelings and experiences of a person are worthy of attention regardless of his class affiliation - the idea of ​​​​universal equality of people.
The main genres of sentimentalism:
story
elegy
novel
letters
trips
memoirs
England can be considered the birthplace of sentimentalism. Poets J. Thomson, T. Gray, E. Jung tried to awaken in readers a love for the surrounding nature, depicting simple and peaceful rural landscapes in their works, sympathy for the needs of poor people. A prominent representative of English sentimentalism was S. Richardson. He put psychological analysis in the first place and attracted the attention of readers to the fate of his heroes. The writer Lawrence Stern preached humanism as the highest human value.
In French literature sentimentalism is represented by the novels of Abbé Prevost, P. C. de Chamblen de Marivaux, J.-J. Rousseau, A. B. de Saint-Pierre.
In German literature - the works of F. G. Klopstock, F. M. Klinger, I. V. Goethe, I. F. Schiller, S. Laroche.
Sentimentalism came to Russian literature with translations of the works of Western European sentimentalists. The first sentimental works of Russian literature can be called “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A.N. Radishchev, “Letters of a Russian Traveler” and “ Poor Lisa» N.I. Karamzin.

3)Romanticism
Romanticism originated in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. as a counterbalance to the previously dominant classicism with its pragmatism and adherence to established laws. Romanticism, in contrast to classicism, promoted deviations from the rules. The prerequisites for romanticism lie in the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794, which overthrew the power of the bourgeoisie, and with it, bourgeois laws and ideals.
Romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention to a person’s personality, his feelings and experiences. Main conflict Romanticism was about the confrontation between the individual and society. Against the background of scientific and technological progress, increasing complexity of social and political structure there was spiritual devastation of the individual. Romantics sought to attract the attention of readers to this circumstance, to provoke a protest in society against lack of spirituality and selfishness.
The Romantics became disillusioned with the world around them, and this disappointment is clearly visible in their works. Some of them, such as F. R. Chateaubriand and V. A. Zhukovsky, believed that a person cannot resist mysterious forces, must submit to them and not try to change his destiny. Other romantics, such as J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, S. Petofi, A. Mickiewicz, and the early A. S. Pushkin, believed that it was necessary to fight the so-called “world evil” and contrasted it with the strength of the human spirit.
The inner world of the romantic hero was full of experiences and passions; throughout the entire work, the author forced him to struggle with the world around him, duty and conscience. Romantics depicted feelings in their extreme manifestations: high and passionate love, cruel betrayal, despicable envy, base ambition. But the romantics were interested not only in the inner world of man, but also in the mysteries of existence, the essence of all living things, perhaps that is why there is so much mystical and mysterious in their works.
In German literature, romanticism was most clearly expressed in the works of Novalis, W. Tieck, F. Hölderlin, G. Kleist, E. T. A. Hoffmann. English romanticism is represented by the works of W. Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge, R. Southey, W. Scott, J. Keats, J. G. Byron, P. B. Shelley. In France, romanticism appeared only in the early 1820s. The main representatives were F. R. Chateaubriand, J. Stael, E. P. Senancourt, P. Mérimée, V. Hugo, J. Sand, A. Vigny, A. Dumas (father).
The development of Russian romanticism was greatly influenced by the Great French revolution and the Patriotic War of 1812. Romanticism in Russia is usually divided into two periods - before and after the Decembrist uprising in 1825. Representatives of the first period (V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, A.S. Pushkin of the period of southern exile), believed in the victory of spiritual freedom over everyday life, but after the defeat of the Decembrists, executions and exile romantic hero turns into a person rejected and misunderstood by society, and the conflict between the individual and society becomes insoluble. Prominent representatives of the second period were M. Yu. Lermontov, E. A. Baratynsky, D. V. Venevitinov, A. S. Khomyakov, F. I. Tyutchev.
Main genres of romanticism:
Elegy
Idyll
Ballad
Novella
Novel
Fantastic story
Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism
The idea of ​​two worlds is a struggle between objective reality and subjective worldview. In realism this concept is absent. The idea of ​​dual worlds has two modifications:
escape into the world of fantasy;
travel, road concept.
Hero concept:
the romantic hero is always an exceptional person;
the hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality;
the hero's dissatisfaction, which manifests itself in the lyrical tone;
aesthetic determination towards an unattainable ideal.
Psychological parallelism is the identity of the hero’s internal state with the surrounding nature.
Speech style of a romantic work:
extreme expression;
the principle of contrast at the composition level;
abundance of symbols.
Aesthetic categories of romanticism:
rejection of bourgeois reality, its ideology and pragmatism; the romantics denied a value system that was based on stability, hierarchy, a strict value system (home, comfort, Christian morality);
cultivating individuality and artistic worldview; reality rejected by romanticism was subject to subjective worlds based on creative imagination artist.

4) Realism
Realism is a literary movement that objectively reflects the surrounding reality using the artistic means available to it. The main technique of realism is the typification of facts of reality, images and characters. Realist writers place their heroes in certain conditions and show how these conditions influenced the personality.
While romantic writers were concerned about the discrepancy between the world around them and their inner worldview, the realist writer was interested in how the world around him influenced the individual. The actions of the heroes of realistic works are determined by life circumstances, in other words, if a person lived in a different time, in a different place, in a different socio-cultural environment, then he himself would be different.
The foundations of realism were laid by Aristotle in the 4th century. BC e. Instead of the concept of “realism”, he used the concept of “imitation”, which is close in meaning to him. Realism was then revived during the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. In the 40s 19th century in Europe, Russia and America, realism replaced romanticism.
Depending on the meaningful motives recreated in the work, there are:
critical (social) realism;
realism of characters;
psychological realism;
grotesque realism.
Critical realism focused on the real circumstances that influence a person. Examples of critical realism are the works of Stendhal, O. Balzac, C. Dickens, W. Thackeray, A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov.
Characteristic realism, on the contrary, showed a strong personality who can fight against circumstances. Psychological realism paid more attention to the inner world and the psychology of heroes. The main representatives of these varieties of realism are F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.

In grotesque realism, deviations from reality are allowed; in some works, deviations border on fantasy, and the more grotesque, the more stronger author criticizes reality. Grotesque realism was developed in the works of Aristophanes, F. Rabelais, J. Swift, E. Hoffmann, in the satirical stories of N.V. Gogol, the works of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M.A. Bulgakov.

5) Modernism
Modernism is a set of artistic movements that promoted freedom of expression. Modernism originated in Western Europe in the second half of the 19th century. How new form creativity, opposed to traditional art. Modernism manifested itself in all types of art - painting, architecture, literature.
Home distinctive feature modernism is its ability to change the world around it. The author does not seek to depict reality realistically or allegorically, as was the case in realism, or inner world hero, as was the case in sentimentalism and romanticism, but depicts his own inner world and own attitude to the surrounding reality, expresses personal impressions and even fantasies.
Features of modernism:
denial of the classical artistic heritage;
a declared discrepancy with the theory and practice of realism;
focus on the individual, not the social person;
increased attention to the spiritual rather than the social sphere of human life;
focus on form at the expense of content.
The largest movements of modernism were impressionism, symbolism and art nouveau. Impressionism sought to capture a moment as the author saw or felt it. In this author’s perception, the past, present and future can be intertwined; what is important is the impression that an object or phenomenon has on the author, and not this object itself.
Symbolists tried to find a secret meaning in everything that happened, endowing familiar images and words with mystical meaning. The Art Nouveau style promoted the rejection of regular geometric shapes and straight lines in favor of smooth and curved lines. Art Nouveau manifested itself especially clearly in architecture and applied arts.
In the 80s 19th century a new trend of modernism - decadence - was born. In the art of decadence, a person is placed in unbearable circumstances, he is broken, doomed, and has lost his taste for life.
The main features of decadence:
cynicism (nihilistic attitude towards universal human values);
eroticism;
tonatos (according to Z. Freud - the desire for death, decline, decomposition of personality).
In literature, modernism is represented by the following movements:
Acmeism;
symbolism;
futurism;
imagism.
Most prominent representatives modernism in literature are the French poets C. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, Russian poets N. Gumilev, A. A. Blok, V. V. Mayakovsky, A. Akhmatova, I. Severyanin, English writer O. Wilde, American writer E. Poe, Scandinavian playwright G. Ibsen.

6) Naturalism
Naturalism is the name of a movement in European literature and art that emerged in the 70s. XIX century and especially widely developed in the 80-90s, when naturalism became the most influential movement. The theoretical basis for the new trend was given by Emile Zola in his book “The Experimental Novel.”
End of the 19th century (especially the 80s) marks the flourishing and strengthening of industrial capital, developing into financial capital. This corresponds, on the one hand, high level technology and increased exploitation, on the other - the growth of self-awareness and class struggle of the proletariat. The bourgeoisie is turning into a reactionary class, fighting a new revolutionary force - the proletariat. The petty bourgeoisie fluctuates between these main classes, and these fluctuations are reflected in the positions of the petty bourgeois writers who adhere to naturalism.
The main requirements made by naturalists for literature: scientific, objective, apolitical in the name of “universal truth.” Literature should be at the level modern science, must be imbued with scientific character. It is clear that naturalists base their works only on science that does not deny the existing social system. Naturalists make the basis of their theory mechanistic natural-scientific materialism of the type of E. Haeckel, G. Spencer and C. Lombroso, adapting the doctrine of heredity to the interests of the ruling class (heredity is declared the cause of social stratification, giving advantages to some over others), the philosophy of positivism of Auguste Comte and petty-bourgeois utopians (Saint-Simon).
By objectively and scientifically demonstrating the shortcomings of modern reality, French naturalists hope to influence the minds of people and thereby bring about a series of reforms in order to save the existing system from the impending revolution.
The theorist and leader of French naturalism, E. Zola included G. Flaubert, the Goncourt brothers, A. Daudet and a number of other lesser-known writers in the natural school. Zola considered the French realists: O. Balzac and Stendhal to be the immediate predecessors of naturalism. But in fact, none of these writers, not excluding Zola himself, was a naturalist in the sense in which Zola the theorist understood this direction. Naturalism, as the style of the leading class, was temporarily embraced by writers very heterogeneous both in artistic method and in belonging to various class groupings. It is characteristic that the unifying point was not the artistic method, but rather the reformist tendencies of naturalism.
Followers of naturalism are characterized by only partial recognition of the set of demands put forward by the theorists of naturalism. Following one of the principles of this style, they start from others, differing sharply from each other, representing both different social trends and different artistic methods. A number of followers of naturalism accepted its reformist essence, without hesitation discarding even such a typical requirement for naturalism as the requirement of objectivity and accuracy. This is what the German “early naturalists” did (M. Kretzer, B. Bille, W. Belsche and others).
Under the sign of decay and rapprochement with impressionism, naturalism began to develop further. Arose in Germany somewhat later than in France, German naturalism was a predominantly petty-bourgeois style. Here, the decomposition of the patriarchal petty bourgeoisie and the intensification of capitalization processes are creating more and more new cadres of the intelligentsia, which do not always find application for themselves. Disillusionment with the power of science is becoming more and more widespread among them. Hopes for resolving social contradictions within the framework of the capitalist system are gradually being crushed.
German naturalism, as well as naturalism in Scandinavian literature, represents entirely a transitional stage from naturalism to impressionism. Thus, the famous German historian Lamprecht, in his “History of the German People,” proposed calling this style “physiological impressionism.” This term is subsequently used by a number of historians of German literature. Indeed, all that remains of the naturalistic style known in France is a reverence for physiology. Many German nature writers do not even try to hide their bias. At its center there is usually some problem, social or physiological, around which the facts that illustrate it are grouped (alcoholism in Hauptmann’s “Before Sunrise”, heredity in Ibsen’s “Ghosts”).
The founders of German naturalism were A. Goltz and F. Schlyaf. Their basic principles are set out in Goltz’s brochure “Art,” where Goltz states that “art tends to become nature again, and it becomes it in accordance with the existing conditions of reproduction and practical application.” The complexity of the plot is also denied. The place of the eventful novel of the French (Zola) is taken by a short story or short story, extremely poor in plot. The main place here is given to the painstaking transmission of moods, visual and auditory sensations. The novel is also being replaced by drama and poetry, which French naturalists viewed extremely negatively as a “kind of entertaining art.” Particular attention is paid to the drama (G. Ibsen, G. Hauptmann, A. Goltz, F. Shlyaf, G. Suderman), in which intensively developed action is also denied, only the catastrophe and the recording of the experiences of the heroes are given ("Nora", "Ghosts", "Before Sunrise", "Master Elze" and others). Subsequently, naturalistic drama is reborn into impressionistic, symbolic drama.
In Russia, naturalism did not receive any development. They were called naturalistic early works F. I. Panferova and M. A. Sholokhova.

7) Natural school
Under natural school literary criticism understands the direction that arose in Russian literature in the 40s. 19th century This was an era of increasingly aggravated contradictions between the serfdom and the growth of capitalist elements. The followers of the natural school tried to reflect the contradictions and moods of that time in their works. The term “natural school” itself appeared in criticism thanks to F. Bulgarin.
The natural school in the expanded use of the term, as it was used in the 40s, does not denote a single direction, but is a largely conditional concept. The natural school included writers as diverse in their class basis and artistic appearance as I. S. Turgenev and F. M. Dostoevsky, D. V. Grigorovich and I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov and I. I. Panaev.
Most common features, on the basis of which the writer was considered to belong to the natural school, were the following: socially significant topics that captured more wide circle, than even a circle of social observations (often in the “low” strata of society), a critical attitude towards social reality, realism of artistic expression, which fought against the embellishment of reality, aesthetics, and romantic rhetoric.
V. G. Belinsky highlighted the realism of the natural school, asserting the most important feature of the “truth” and not the “false” of the image. The natural school does not appeal to ideal, fictitious heroes, but to the “crowd,” to the “mass,” to ordinary people and, most often, to people of “low rank.” Common in the 40s. all sorts of “physiological” essays satisfied this need to reflect a different, non-noble life, even if only in a reflection of the external, everyday, superficial.
N. G. Chernyshevsky especially sharply emphasizes as the most essential and main feature of “literature Gogol period"its critical, "negative" attitude towards reality - "literature of the Gogol period" is here another name for the same natural school: namely, N.V. Gogol - the author" Dead souls", "The Inspector General", "Overcoat" - as the founder of the natural school, V. G. Belinsky and a number of other critics erected it. Indeed, many writers ranked as part of the natural school experienced a powerful influence various sides creativity of N.V. Gogol. In addition to Gogol, the writers of the natural school were influenced by such representatives of Western European petty-bourgeois and bourgeois literature as Charles Dickens, O. Balzac, George Sand.
One of the movements of the natural school, represented by the liberal, capitalizing nobility and the social strata adjacent to it, was distinguished by the superficial and cautious nature of its criticism of reality: this was either harmless irony in relation to certain aspects of noble reality or a noble-limited protest against serfdom. The range of social observations of this group was limited to the manor’s estate. Representatives of this trend of the natural school: I. S. Turgenev, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev.
Another current of the natural school relied primarily on the urban philistinism of the 40s, which was disadvantaged, on the one hand, by the still tenacious serfdom, and on the other, by growing industrial capitalism. A certain role here belonged to F. M. Dostoevsky, the author of a number of psychological novels and stories ("Poor People", "The Double" and others).
The third movement in the natural school, represented by the so-called “raznochintsy”, ideologists of revolutionary peasant democracy, gives in its work the clearest expression of the tendencies that were associated by contemporaries (V.G. Belinsky) with the name of the natural school and opposed the noble aesthetics. These tendencies manifested themselves most fully and sharply in N. A. Nekrasov. A. I. Herzen (“Who is to blame?”), M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“A Confused Case”) should also be included in this group.

8) Constructivism
Constructivism is an artistic movement that originated in Western Europe after the First World War. The origins of constructivism lie in the thesis of the German architect G. Semper, who argued that aesthetic value Any work of art is determined by the correspondence of its three elements: the work, the material from which it is made, and the technical processing of this material.
This thesis, which was subsequently adopted by functionalists and functionalist constructivists (L. Wright in America, J. J. P. Oud in Holland, W. Gropius in Germany), brings to the fore the material-technical and material-utilitarian side of art and, in essence, the ideological side of it is emasculated.
In the West, constructivist tendencies during the First World War and post-war period expressed themselves in a variety of directions, more or less “orthodox” interpretation of the main thesis of constructivism. Thus, in France and Holland, constructivism was expressed in “purism”, in “machine aesthetics”, in “neoplasticism” (iso-art), and in the aestheticizing formalism of Corbusier (in architecture). In Germany - in the naked cult of the thing (pseudo-constructivism), the one-sided rationalism of the Gropius school (architecture), abstract formalism (in non-objective cinema).
In Russia, a group of constructivists appeared in 1922. It included A. N. Chicherin, K. L. Zelinsky, I. L. Selvinsky. Constructivism was initially a narrowly formal movement, highlighting the understanding of a literary work as a construction. Subsequently, the constructivists freed themselves from this narrow aesthetic and formal bias and put forward much broader justifications for their creative platform.
A. N. Chicherin moved away from constructivism, a number of authors grouped around I. L. Selvinsky and K. L. Zelinsky (V. Inber, B. Agapov, A. Gabrilovich, N. Panov), and in 1924 a literary center was organized Constructivists (LCC). In its declaration, the LCC primarily proceeds from the statement of the need for art to participate as closely as possible in the “organizational onslaught of the working class,” in the construction of socialist culture. This is where constructivism aims to saturate art (in particular, poetry) with modern themes.
The main theme, which has always attracted the attention of constructivists, can be described as follows: “Intelligentsia in revolution and construction.” Dwelling with special attention on the image of the intellectual in the civil war (I. L. Selvinsky, “Commander 2”) and in construction (I. L. Selvinsky “Pushtorg”), the constructivists first of all put forward him in a painfully exaggerated form specific gravity and significance in the construction process. This is especially clear in Pushtorg, where the exceptional specialist Poluyarov is contrasted with the mediocre communist Krol, who prevents him from working and drives him to suicide. Here the pathos of the work technique as such obscures the main social conflicts of modern reality.
This exaggeration of the role of the intelligentsia finds its theoretical development in the article of the main theorist of constructivism Cornelius Zelinsky “Constructivism and Socialism”, where he considers constructivism as a holistic worldview of the era transition to socialism, as a condensed expression in the literature of the period being experienced. At the same time, Zelinsky again replaces the main social contradictions of this period with the struggle between man and nature, with the pathos of naked technology, interpreted outside of social conditions, outside of the class struggle. These erroneous positions of Zelinsky, which caused a sharp rebuff from Marxist criticism, were far from accidental and revealed with great clarity that social nature constructivism, which is easy to outline in the creative practice of the entire group.
The social source feeding constructivism is, undoubtedly, that layer of the urban petty bourgeoisie, which can be designated as a technically qualified intelligentsia. It is no coincidence that in the work of Selvinsky (who is the most prominent poet of constructivism) of the first period, the image of a strong individuality, a powerful builder and conqueror of life, individualistic in its very essence, characteristic of the Russian bourgeois pre-war style, is undoubtedly revealed.
In 1930, the LCC disintegrated, and in its place the “Literary Brigade M. 1” was formed, declaring itself a transitional organization to RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers), aiming at the gradual transition of fellow travelers to the rails of communist ideology, to the style of proletarian literature and condemning the previous mistakes of constructivism, although preserving its creative method.
However, the contradictory and zigzag nature of constructivism’s progress towards the working class makes itself felt here too. This is evidenced by Selvinsky’s poem “Declaration of the Poet’s Rights.” This is confirmed by the fact that the M. 1 brigade, having existed for less than a year, also disbanded in December 1930, admitting that it had not resolved the tasks set for itself.

9)Postmodernism
Postmodernism translated from German language literally means "that which follows modernism". This literary movement appeared in the second half of the 20th century. It reflects the complexity of the surrounding reality, its dependence on the culture of previous centuries and the information saturation of our time.
Postmodernists were not happy that literature was divided into elite and mass literature. Postmodernism opposed all modernity in literature and denied mass culture. The first works of postmodernists appeared in the form of detective, thriller, and fantasy, behind which serious content was hidden.
Postmodernists believed that highest art ended. To move forward, you need to learn how to properly use the lower genres of pop culture: thriller, western, fantasy, science fiction, erotica. Postmodernism finds in these genres the source of a new mythology. Works become aimed at both the elite reader and the undemanding public.
Signs of postmodernism:
using previous texts as potential for your own works (a large number of quotes, you cannot understand the work if you do not know the literature of previous eras);
rethinking elements of the culture of the past;
multi-level text organization;
special organization of text (game element).
Postmodernism questioned the existence of meaning as such. On the other hand, the meaning of postmodern works is determined by its inherent pathos - criticism popular culture. Postmodernism tries to erase the boundary between art and life. Everything that exists and has ever existed is text. Postmodernists said that everything had already been written before them, that nothing new could be invented and they could only play with words, take ready-made (already once thought up or written by someone) ideas, phrases, texts and assemble works from them. This makes no sense, because the author himself is not in the work.
Literary works are like a collage, composed of disparate images and united into a whole by the uniformity of technique. This technique is called pastiche. This Italian word translates as medley opera, and in literature it refers to the juxtaposition of several styles in one work. At the first stages of postmodernism, pastiche is a specific form of parody or self-parody, but then it is a way of adapting to reality, a way of showing the illusory nature of mass culture.
Associated with postmodernism is the concept of intertextuality. This term was introduced by Y. Kristeva in 1967. She believed that history and society can be considered as a text, then culture is a single intertext that serves as an avant-text (all texts that precede this one) for any newly appearing text, while individuality is lost here text that dissolves in quotes. Modernism is characterized by quotational thinking.
Intertextuality– the presence of two or more texts in the text.
Paratext– the relationship of the text to the title, epigraph, afterword, preface.
Metatextuality– these can be comments or a link to the pretext.
Hypertextuality– ridicule or parody of one text by another.
Archtextuality– genre connection of texts.
Man in postmodernism is depicted in a state of complete destruction (in in this case destruction can be understood as a violation of consciousness). There is no character development in the work; the image of the hero appears in a blurred form. This technique is called defocalization. It has two goals:
avoid excessive heroic pathos;
to take the hero into the shadow: the hero does not come to the fore, he is not needed at all in the work.
Prominent representatives of postmodernism in literature are J. Fowles, J. Barth, A. Robbe-Grillet, F. Sollers, H. Cortazar, M. Pavich, J. Joyce and others. (Symbol - from the Greek Symbolon - conventional sign)

1. The central place is given to the symbol*
2. The desire for a higher ideal prevails
3. A poetic image is intended to express the essence of a phenomenon
4. Characteristic reflection of the world in two planes: real and mystical
5. Sophistication and musicality of verse

The founder was D. S. Merezhkovsky, who in 1892 gave a lecture “On the causes of the decline and new trends in modern Russian literature” (article published in 1893). Symbolists are divided into older ones ((V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, F. Sologub made their debut in the 1890s) and younger ones (A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov and others made their debut in the 1900s)

Acmeism

(From the Greek “acme” - point, highest point). The literary movement of Acmeism arose in the early 1910s and was genetically connected with symbolism. (N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich and V. Narbut.) The formation was influenced by M. Kuzmin’s article “On Beautiful Clarity,” published in 1910. IN program article 1913 “The Legacy of Acmeism and Symbolism” N. Gumilyov called symbolism “ worthy father“, but emphasized that the new generation has developed a “courageously firm and clear outlook on life”

1. Focus on classical poetry XIX century
2. Adoption earthly world in its diversity, visible concreteness
3. Objectivity and clarity of images, precision of details
4. In rhythm, the Acmeists used dolnik (Dolnik is a violation of the traditional
regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. The lines coincide in the number of stresses, but stressed and unstressed syllables are freely located in the line.), which brings the poem closer to the living colloquial speech

Futurism

Futurism - from lat. futurum, future. Genetically, literary futurism is closely connected with the avant-garde groups of artists of the 1910s - primarily with the groups “ Jack of Diamonds", "Donkey's Tail", "Youth Union". In 1909 in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the article “Manifesto of Futurism.” In 1912, the manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste” was created by Russian futurists: V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov: “Pushkin is more incomprehensible than hieroglyphs.” Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.

1. Rebellion, anarchic worldview
2. Denial of cultural traditions
3. Experiments in the field of rhythm and rhyme, figurative arrangement of stanzas and lines
4. Active word creation

Imagism

From lat. imago - image A literary movement in Russian poetry of the 20th century, whose representatives stated that the purpose of creativity is to create an image. Basics means of expression Imagists - metaphor, often metaphorical chains that compare various elements of two images - direct and figurative. Imagism arose in 1918, when the “Order of Imagists” was founded in Moscow. The creators of the “Order” were Anatoly Mariengof, Vadim Shershenevich and Sergei Yesenin, who was previously part of the group of new peasant poets

Option 1

A. Classicism

B. Sentimentalism

B. Romanticism

G. Realism

1. Reflection of the idea of ​​harmony, strict orderliness of the world, faith in the human mind.

2. Contains opposition reality and dreams.

3. Opposes the abstraction and rationality of the works of classicism. It reflects the desire to depict human psychology.

4. Main character lonely and not understood by others, opposed to society.

5. The actions and actions of the heroes are determined from the point of view of feelings, the sensitivity of the heroes is exaggerated.

6. The plot and composition obey accepted rules (the rule of three unities: place of time, action).

7. Portrayal of typical characters in typical circumstances.

8. Main genres - comedy, ode.

9. Idealization of the village way of life, the heroes are ordinary people.

10. The name of the direction in translation means “material, real.”

11. Replaces classicism.

12. Civil (educational) orientation of the works.

13. M.Yu. Lermontov "Mtsyri"

14. G.R. Derzhavin Ode "Felitsa"

15. N.V. Gogol "Dead Souls"

16. V.A. Zhukovsky "Svetlana"

17. M.V. Lomonosov

18. N.M. Karamzin

19. D.I. Fonvizin

20. L.N. Tolstoy

Test on the topic “Literary Directions”

Option 2

When answering test questions, indicate only the letter that corresponds to the literary direction.

A. Classicism

B. Sentimentalism

B. Romanticism

G. Realism

I. Which literary movement does the characteristic correspond to?

1. The actions and deeds of the heroes are determined from the point of view of reason.

2. Idealization of the natural world (a special landscape).

3. An exceptional hero acts in exceptional circumstances.

4. Main genres - elegy, ballad.

5. The hero is individual and at the same time embodies typical traits.

6. The name of the direction in translation means “Exemplary”

7. Representatives of the lower classes are endowed with a rich spiritual world.

8. Replaces romanticism and exists to this day.

9. Unusual and exotic depiction of events, landscapes, people.

10. Dividing comedy heroes into positive and negative.

11. The work shows a special interest in the surrounding reality, the ideal world is contrasted with the real.

12. A hero is judged by how he can show feelings, and not by the benefit he brings to the state.

II. What literary movement do the works belong to?

13. V.A. Zhukovsky Elegy “Sea”

14. M.Yu. Lermontov "Hero of Our Time"

15. M.V. Lomonosov “Ode on the day of Elizabeth Petrovna’s accession to the throne”

16. A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin"

III. Which literary movement does the writer's work belong to?

17. G.R. Derzhavin

18. A.P. Chekhov

19. M.V. Lomonosov

20. N.M. Karamzin

	Option 1	Option 2

Evaluation criteria

"5" - 18-20 points (90% correct answers)

"4" - 14-17 points (70%-89% correct answers)

"3" - 10-13 points (50%-69% correct answers)

"2" - 0-9 points (less than 49% correct answers)