Architectural styles in European countries. Architecture of Western Europe

In the first half of the 19th century, urban development on an unprecedented scale unfolded in Europe. Most European capitals - Paris, St. Petersburg, Berlin - have acquired their characteristic appearance; the role of public buildings in their architectural ensembles increased.

Neoclassicism in the first half of the 19th century. experienced a late bloom. By the middle of the century, the main problem of European architecture was the search for style. Due to a romantic fascination with antiquity, many masters tried to revive the architectural traditions of the past- this is how they arose neo-gothic, neo-renaissance, neo-baroque. The efforts of architects often led to eclecticism- mechanical connection of elements of different styles, old with new.

Architecture of France

In the years Great French Revolution Not a single durable structure was built in France. It was era of temporary buildings, usually wooden, which, of course, did not last very long. At the beginning of the revolution, the Bastille was destroyed and monuments to kings were demolished. In 1793, the royal academies, including the Academy of Architecture, were closed. Instead they appeared National Jury of the Arts And Republican Arts Club(in 1795 they were replaced by the School of Fine Arts), whose main tasks were organizing mass celebrations and decorating Parisian streets and squares.

On Place de la Bastille, on the ruins of an old prison, a pavilion was erected with the inscription: “They dance here.”

Place Louis XV (1), created by Jacques Gabriel, was named the Place de la Revolution (now the Place de la Concorde) and was complemented by triumphal arches “in honor of victories won over tyranny,” statues of Liberty, and fountains with emblems. It was supposed to become a place of national celebrations. Later, in place of the equestrian statue of Louis XV in the center of the square, a guillotine was installed: more than a thousand people were beheaded here, including King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette, and then many leaders of the revolution, among them Georges-Jacques Danton and Maximilian Robespierre.

Champ de Mars became a place of public meetings with the altar of the Fatherland in the center; it was here that on June 8, 1794, the feast of the Supreme Being was celebrated, whose cult was proclaimed to replace Catholicism, which was officially abolished by the revolutionary government.

In 1791 Church of St. Genevieve (2), built by Jacques Soufflot, was named the Pantheon of National Heroes of France. The remains of the revolutionary figure Count Mirabeau, philosophers and writers Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau were placed here.

House of Invalides(a complex of buildings built in Paris by order of King Louis XIV for elderly disabled soldiers) and its cathedral (3) turned into a temple of Humanity.

In the art of Napoleonic France, the dominant role remained with neoclassicism(which at one time was declared by the Convention - the highest legislative and executive body of the French Republic - the official style of the revolution). At the same time, architectural forms acquired a special pomp and ceremony, and the scale of construction is enormous. Neoclassicism from the time of Napoleon I was called empire style(French empire - “empire”). It was supposed to symbolize the greatness and power of the power created by General Bonaparte. Empire style refers to the so-called "royal styles" which can be characterized theatricality in the design of architectural buildings and interiors. The peculiarity of the architectural Empire style is the mandatory presence columns, pilasters, molded cornices and other classical elements, as well as motifs that reproduce almost unchanged ancient examples of sculpture, such as griffins, sphinxes, lion paws and similar sculptural structures. These elements are arranged in an orderly manner in the Empire style, maintaining balance and symmetry. The artistic concept of the style with its massive forms, and rich decoration, content of elements of military symbols, imitating the artistic forms of the Roman Empire, Ancient Greece and Ancient Egypt, was intended to emphasize and embody the ideas of the power of government and the state, the presence of a strong army.

In Napoleonic times, construction was not large-scale: wars diverted all the country's forces and resources. Most of the structures erected were triumphal monuments In addition, some old buildings were reconstructed and palace interiors were decorated.

The largest structures of Napoleonic times were Church of the Madeleine (Magdalene) (3b) and the Paris Bourse(Brongniart Palace) (3c). The Church of the Madeleine was created as a temple to the glory of Napoleonic army. The type of church is a Greco-Roman temple, surrounded on all four sides by a colonnade.

At the time in question, a reconstruction of the previously erected Bourbon Palace to the building of the Chamber of Deputies (3d). The building was enriched with a new ten-column Corinthian portico (1804-1807), designed by the architect Bernard Poyer.

In their servility, Napoleon's court decorators reached the point of absurdity. So Empress Josephine's bedroom in the Malmaison palace it was turned into a kind of camp tent of a Roman centurion, and women dressed in “Roman tunics” froze from the cold in the poorly heated Parisian Salons. Empire style is characterized by bright, cutting eyes red, blue, white- the colors of the Napoleonic flag! The walls were covered with bright silk, the ornaments included circles, ovals, diamonds, lush borders of oak branches, Napoleonic bees and stars made of gold and silver brocade on a scarlet, crimson, blue or green background.

Main Napoleon's event in the field of architecture became reconstruction of Paris.

The main representatives of Empire architecture were Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine- Napoleon's court architects. Of the works of Percier and Fontaine, the most significant was the reconstruction Louvre(4)

According to the plan for the reconstruction of the French capital, it was supposed to connect the medieval quarters system of prospectuses, crossing the city along the east-west axis, repeating the route of the revolutionary festive processions from the ruins of the Bastille to the Place de la Revolucion (Concorde). This project was carried out, but in a modified form; Now the ensemble of the ceremonial city center included the palace complexes of the Louvre (4) and the Tuileries, Place de la Concorde. From here, the new avenue Champs Elysees led to the western outskirts of the city, where several roads intersected (in 1863, Place des Stars was laid out there, in 1970 renamed Place Charles de Gaulle).

Key points of the new layout of the capital were marked by monuments glorifying the victories of the imperial army. They were often designed using features of famous ancient Roman monuments. For example, triumphal column (5) with a sculpture of Napoleon on Place Vendôme repeated the shape of Emperor Trajan’s column, and the entrance gate of the Tuileries Palace, which is now better known as triumphal arch (6) on Piazza Caruzzel, is a smaller copy of the famous ancient triumphal arch of Constantine in Rome. Arc de Triomphe of the Grand Army (7) was laid in the center of the future Star Square by order of the emperor in honor of his victory in 1805 at Austerlitz (in the Czech Republic) over the combined forces of Austria and Russia. The single-span arch (almost fifty meters high, about forty-five meters wide, the span length is just over twenty meters) is still perfectly visible from different parts of the city, since it is located at the intersection of twelve large streets. It is the largest triumphal arch in the world. The arch is a monument to the military valor of the French: the names of six hundred and sixty heroes of the Napoleonic wars are carved on its surface.

Architecture of England

If France chose the style of neoclassicism, then in England, free from revolutionary upheavals, neo-gothic. Her example is Houses of Parliament in London (8), architect Charles Barry. The building is reminiscent of English Gothic monuments of the 16th century. As a result, England became one of the few European countries that abandoned classicism for its main building. On the Clock Tower of the building there is the famous Big Ben clock with a fourteen-ton bell (9). On the sides of the central lobby are the meeting rooms - the House of Lords and the House of Commons. In total, the building has one thousand one hundred rooms, corridors with a total length of four kilometers, about one hundred staircases and eleven courtyards.

All over the country, mock ruins, country-style cottages, and the like were appearing on manor lands. In the estates themselves one could often find a “Gothic library” or a “Chinese dining room.” This desire for the unusual reached its apotheosis in the so-called Royal Pavilion, Brighton (9b) with John Nash (1815-22) also built it for the Prince Regent. This was the seaside residence of the kings of Great Britain. At first glance, it becomes clear that Nash wanted to place the prince in some kind of oriental fairy tale: the palace seemed to have come out of the pages of “A Thousand and One Nights.” There are minarets, domes, and fine carvings.

Architecture of Germany

The largest center of architecture in Germany in the first half of the 19th century. was Berlin. The development of the German architectural school of this period largely determined the work of two masters - Schinkel and Klenz.

Karl Friedrich Schinkel(1781-1841) - the most prominent German architect of the first half of the 19th century. In the history of art, Schinkel took an honorable place as an innovator of German architecture, leading it out of the stagnation in which it was at the beginning of the 19th century. He sought to revive the architecture of classical antiquity, predominantly ancient Greek, applying it to the conditions of the northern climate and to the needs of modern life, in which he succeeded. His main works are more or less strict Greek style. New guardhouse (10) in Berlin, erected according to his design in 1816-18, is a harsh, squat building with blank walls. The façade of the Berlin building is designed completely differently. Drama Theater (11): its walls, cut through by rows of large windows, acquired lightness, consonant with the slender columns of the portico. Schinkel's most famous building is Old Museum (12) in Berlin, the prototype of which was the Greek open colonnade. Schinkel's romantic aspirations were manifested in his passion for neo-Gothic - Werder Church (13). In the last decade, Schinkel has been creating a number of new types of projects - Construction Academy Berlin (14)- connecting the work of the great architect with the rationalistic tendencies of the architecture of the Art Nouveau era.
Another major representative of neoclassicism is Franz Carl Leo von Klenze (1784-1864)- was the court architect of King Ludwig I of Bavaria, whose passion for ancient Greek art had a significant influence on the formation of the architect's style. Klenze's works, which revived the forms of ancient Greek architecture, are characterized by impressive power and solemn representation. Klenze was extensively and fruitfully engaged in urban planning work, which was based on strict logic and regularity in the planning of architectural ensembles of streets and squares. Munich owes Klenze a number of harmonious architectural ensembles. The most famous of them is the ensemble of Königsplatz square, designed according to the ancient model: “Doric” Propylaea (15)(“Entrance gate”), “Ionic” Glyptothek (16), “Corinthian” Ancient collection. Königsplatz is probably one of the most famous modern Hellenistic ensembles. Klenze erected a number of buildings in the ancient Greek style. Among them is the so-called Valhalla near Regensburg (17) - a kind of Pantheon of the German people, built in the form of an ancient temple by order of Ludwig I. Being a European celebrity, Leo von Klenze repeatedly carried out orders from foreign sovereigns. In 1839, for the Russian Emperor Nicholas I, he completed the design for the building of the New Hermitage in St. Petersburg.

Europe is famous for its many attractions. Many tourists choose European countries for their travel. For those who have not yet planned their vacation, we have compiled a rating of the coolest buildings and structures on the continent. It includes old and new architectural monuments that are located in famous cities and small towns, museums, wine cellars with a rich history, and fabulous skyscrapers.

Architectural masterpieces

The National Football Museum in Manchester (UK) will tell the history of this sport. Contains a huge collection of exhibits.

The strange headquarters of the mobile operator Vodafone in Portugal. The building is remarkable for its architecture.

Ruins of the medieval castle of St. Andrew in Scotland.

Triangeln station in Malmo (Sweden) is more like a portal to the future.

Scotland's Pineapple House, located in Dunmore Park, has been entertaining visitors since 1761. The architecture of the building mixed different styles and trends: classicism, renaissance, baroque and even gothic.

At 387 meters high, the hotel, designed by architect Geert Vingård, is the tallest building in Stockholm. The tower's stunning façade, composed of various mirrors, reflects the blue sky.

Back to the past

The aqueduct in Segovia (Spain) was built during the power of the Roman Empire in the first centuries. To this day it stands on the central square.

The new National Gallery in Berlin was built according to the plans of the German architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe in the 1960s. Art Nouveau style with clean lines and lots of glass to reflect light.

Modern style

Arnhem railway station in the Netherlands was reconstructed in 2015. Its chic new hall is built in a modern style, the space is cut by twisted columns.

The ski jump in the village of Holmenkollen (near Oslo) is not only for fans of this sport. It offers breathtaking views of the city and the fjord.

Frank Gehry turned the Marques de Riscal winery in Spain into an architectural masterpiece. The complex includes a wine production plant, a hotel with 43 rooms, a restaurant and a spa center.

The beautifully designed Svalbard Global Seed Vault on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen is designed to protect them in the event of a global apocalypse.

The New Palace in Sanssouci Park (Potsdam, Germany) is considered the last building made in the Prussian late Baroque style. The building was intended for holding official receptions.

Beauty and benefits

It is difficult for tourists to guess what is in this building. Everything is quite simple. This is the Spittelau incineration plant in Vienna, designed by the respected artist and architect Hundertwasser.

The impressive Miramare Castle on the Italian coast near Trieste, built in Scottish style. On the territory of the castle there is a garden where exotic plants are grown.

The Markthal indoor market in Rotterdam, which is located at the intersection of Binnenrotte, Hoogstraat and Blaak, opened its doors on October 1, 2014. Queen Maxima of the Netherlands attended the opening ceremony.

The Renzo Piano cultural complex, located in Athens, Greece, is built on an artificial hill.

Famous buildings

The British Museum is one of the largest in the world. The reconstruction of the building took place at the end of the twentieth century. The project was created by Norman Foster.

You can see the summer residence of the Russian emperors by going to St. Petersburg. After all, this is where the Catherine Palace is located.

Unusual designs

This bubble, located in the middle of the vineyards, is the Serrato winery in Alba, Italy. There is an observation deck located directly in the structure that resembles a bubble.

The Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Protestant Church in Berlin was destroyed in 1943 during the fighting. Rebuilt from ruins in the early 1960s.

Made of glass, limestone, and titanium, the Guggenheim Bilbao Museum of Contemporary Art in Spain. The building shimmers with the colors of the rainbow in the rays of sunlight. Architect - Frank Gehry.

The building of the Karolinska Institutet Aula Medica Aula in Sweden resembles the multi-colored Leaning Tower of Pisa.

The most beautiful in the world

Spain's Bilbao Airport main terminal, designed by Santiago Calatrava, is one of the most beautiful in Europe.

The small chapel of Notre Dame du Haut is located near the French town of Ronchamp. This is a masterpiece of the twentieth century. It fits perfectly into the local landscape.

The Louis Vuitton Foundation was created to support creative endeavors. He also built an exhibition center in the Bois de Boulogne in Paris. The structure resembles a sailboat made of glass.

A hotel in East London is a prime example of an optical illusion that leaves passersby indifferent.

The British Library, which was designed by architect Colin St John Wilson, is home to the world's largest collection of books. Its stunning, stylish interior features a wavy staircase and sharp lines.

The Ordrupgaard Art Museum in Denmark has recently been renovated. Zaha Hadid worked on the project of the new building. The museum is a structure made of concrete, which changes color from gray to black depending on the weather.

The Pompidou Center in Paris, designed by Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano, houses the Museum of Modern Art, a music center and a public library under its roof.

The Clyde Auditorium, or Ironclad, is considered the most stylish place in Glasgow. Designed for cultural and entertainment events, political meetings, referendums.

Mestia Airport in Georgia, which serves tourists traveling to a nearby ski resort, was constructed in just three months.

The curved structure of the La Cité du Vin Museum in Bordeaux, whose name translates as “Wine City,” was designed by architects Anouk Legendre and Nicolas Desmazierve. From the outside, the building looks like a grapevine.

Unlike most skyscrapers, Bosco Verticale, 76 and 110 meters high, is decorated with greenery. The buildings are located in Milan. The skyscrapers are decorated with more than 700 trees and 90 species of plants.

The ancient Alhambra palace is located in Spain. Today it is a museum of Islamic architecture, a World Heritage Site.

Construction of the Inntel Hotel was completed in 2010. It looks more like Lego. The building consists of 12 floors and has a height of 39 meters. Under its roof there are 160 rooms, a restaurant, a swimming pool, a bathhouse, a spa center, and a conference room.

The arched Ponte Vecchio bridge in Florence, Italy is now conveniently lined with souvenir shops. There was a time when there were butcher shops here.

The Basilica of Santa Maria Novella, which was built in the 15th century, stands out among all the architectural structures of Florence.

The Dancing House in Prague was created by Frank Gehry. The architect replaced with his construction a building in the neo-Renaissance style, which was bombed during the Second World War.

Among the most beautiful buildings in London are the Renaissance St Pancras Hotel and King's Cross Clock Tower. They stand out with their striking Gothic façade, designed in the Renaissance style. Architect - George Gilbert Scott.

Fusion of cultures

The Royal Pavilion in Brighton, UK is an ambitious fusion of British and Indian cultures.

Harpa is a concert hall located in Reykjavik, Iceland. It cuts through the harsh climate with its sharp diagonal lines.

"Torre Galatea Figueres" in Catalonia, Spain - Salvador Dali Museum.

The Frauenkirche church in Dresden (Germany) was destroyed during World War II. Its restoration was completed in 2004.

Oil and gas company Statoil has one of the most unusual offices in Oslo, Norway.

The National Opera House in Oslo is a maze of 1,100 rooms.

The Ideal Palace in France is the result of more than 33 years of work by French postman Ferdinand Cheval.

The church in Antoni Gaudí's Colony Güell in Catalonia has not been fully rebuilt.

The Palace of Italian Civilization, nicknamed the "Square Colosseum", is a monument of ancient Roman culture. Today the building serves as the headquarters of designer Fendi.

Emporia Shopping Center is the largest shopping center in Scandinavia.

The Bodegas Isios winery in Spain produces the famous wine.

Temppeliaukio Church in the Finnish capital Helsinki was built into the rock according to the design of brothers Timo and Tuomo Suomalainen. Consecrated in 1969.

The world's largest solar oven is located in Odeillot, France.

The glass roof of the Riverside Museum (Glasgow), designed by Zaha Hadid, creates a stunning impression.

The train station in Lisbon, Gare do Oriente, was designed by the Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava.

Hallgrimskirkja Lutheran Church in Reykjavik is the largest in Iceland.

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Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia

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European architecture- The architecture of European countries is distinguished by a variety of styles.

Primitive era

During the Bronze Age (2nd millennium BC) in Europe, structures were erected from large stone blocks, which are classified as so-called megalithic architecture. Menhirs - vertically placed stones - marked the place of public ceremonies. Dolmens, which usually consisted of two or four vertical stones covered with stone, served as burial places. The cromlech consisted of slabs or pillars arranged in a circle. An example is Stonehenge in England.

Antiquity

One of the oldest structures of European architecture are the ruins of buildings on the island of Crete, the creation of which dates back more than 1000 BC. e. They are the first representatives of ancient architecture, then used by Ancient Greece and Rome. The rounded shapes of columns and arches bore the imprint of ideas about ideal forms and embodied grace and beauty. Statues could be part of a structure as part of a wall or as a replacement for columns. This architecture influenced not only temples and palaces, but also public institutions, streets, walls and the houses themselves. Roman architecture was more complex than Greek, and arches began to play an increasingly important role in it. The Romans were the first to use concrete, at least in Europe. The most notable structures: the Colosseum and aqueducts.

Middle Ages

An excerpt characterizing European architecture

I went to the gate and tried to open it. The feeling was not pleasant - as if I was forcibly breaking into someone’s life without asking permission. But then I thought about how miserable poor Veronica must have been and decided to take a risk. The little girl looked up at me with her huge, sky-blue eyes and I saw that they were filled with such deep melancholy that this tiny child simply should not have yet. I approached her very carefully, afraid to scare her away, but the girl had no intention of being scared, she just looked at me in surprise, as if asking what I needed from her.
I sat down next to her on the edge of the wooden partition and asked why she was so sad. She didn’t answer for a long time, and then finally whispered through her tears:
- My mother left me, but I love her so much... I guess I was very bad and now she will never come back.
I got lost. And what could I tell her? How to explain? I felt that Veronica was with me. Her pain literally twisted me into a hard, burning ball of pain and burned so hard that it became difficult to breathe. I wanted to help them both so much that I decided that whatever happens, I won’t leave without trying. I hugged the girl by her fragile shoulders and said as softly as possible:
– Your mother loves you more than anything in the world, Alina, and she asked me to tell you that she never abandoned you.
- So she lives with you now? – the girl bristled.
- No. She lives where neither you nor I can go. Her earthly life here with us is over, and she now lives in another, very beautiful world, from which she can watch you. But she sees how you suffer and cannot leave here. And she can’t stay here any longer either. That's why she needs your help. Would you like to help her?
- How do you know all this? Why is she talking to you?!.
I felt that she still didn’t believe me and didn’t want to recognize me as a friend. And I couldn’t figure out how to explain to this little, ruffled, unhappy girl that there was an “other”, distant world, from which, unfortunately, there was no return here. And that her beloved mother speaks to me not because she has a choice, but because I was simply “lucky” to be a little “different” than everyone else...
“All people are different, Alinushka,” I began. – Some have a talent for drawing, others for singing, but I have such a special talent for talking with those who have left our world forever. And your mother speaks to me not at all because she likes me, but because I heard her when no one else could hear her. And I am very glad that I can help her in at least something. She loves you very much and suffers very much because she had to leave... It hurts her very much to leave you, but it is not her choice. Do you remember she was seriously ill for a long time? – the girl nodded. “It was this illness that forced her to leave you.” And now she must go to her new world in which she will live. And for this she must be sure that you know how much she loves you.
The girl looked at me sadly and quietly asked:
– She lives now with angels?.. Dad told me that she now lives in a place where everything is like on the postcards that they give me for Christmas. And there are such beautiful winged angels... Why didn’t she take me with her?..
- Because you have to live your life here, dear, and then you will also go to the same world where your mother is now.
The girl beamed.
“So I’ll see her there?” – she babbled joyfully.
- Of course, Alinushka. So you should just be a patient girl and help your mom now if you love her so much.
- What should I do? – the little girl asked very seriously.
– Just think about her and remember her, because she sees you. And if you don't be sad, your mother will finally find peace.
“Does she see me now?” the girl asked and her lips began to twitch treacherously.
- Yes Dear.
She was silent for a moment, as if gathering herself inside, and then she clenched her fists tightly and quietly whispered:
- I’ll be very good, dear mommy... you go... please go... I love you so much!..
Tears rolled down her pale cheeks like large peas, but her face was very serious and concentrated... Life dealt her a cruel blow for the first time and it seemed as if this little, so deeply wounded girl suddenly realized something for herself in a completely adult way and now I tried to accept it seriously and openly. My heart was breaking with pity for these two unfortunate and such sweet creatures, but, unfortunately, I couldn’t help them anymore... The world around them was so incredibly bright and beautiful, but for both it could no longer be their common world. ..

With the development of capitalism in the mid-19th century, profound changes occurred in the architecture and urban planning of Western Europe. To develop trade relations, good roads and transport routes were necessary. The 19th century becomes the century of the construction of railways and large bridges. The rapid growth of the metallurgical industry contributed to the use of metal in a variety of industries, including construction and bridge construction.

The appearance of the first metal bridges dates back to this time. Already at the end of the 18th century, large bridges made of cast iron and iron were created in England (an arched bridge across the River Wear near Wearmouth with a span of 72 m (1779)). However, cast iron is a brittle material that does not work well in tension. Rolled iron, which has a more uniform structure, provided great opportunities for the construction of large engineering structures.

In 1818-1826. T. Telford built a huge suspension highway bridge with a span of 176 m across the Menay Strait in Ireland. In 1883-1890 in Scotland, a grandiose cantilever-beam bridge with a span of 525 m was built across Forth Bay (engineers D. Fowler, W. Baker). The largest arched bridge in the 19th century with a span of 165 m - the Garabi Viaduct in France - was built by G. Eiffel in 1883-1884.

Subsequently, bridge construction became one of the program areas that actively influenced the architecture of the city.

The intensive economic development of European countries has led to the need for new types of civil and industrial

buildings and structures. The production of new building materials (reinforced concrete, glass, cast iron, steel) contributed to the development of construction science and the emergence of new methods for calculating structures. Metal was especially widely used in ceilings. From industrial buildings, metal structures in the form of light domed and vaulted structures moved into new types of civil architecture: stations, markets, exhibition spaces.

World industrial exhibitions were of great importance for the development of architecture. The building of the World Industrial Exhibition in London - Crystal Palace (1851, D. Paxton, Fig. 58) was the first in architectural practice to be built only from glass and metal. Exhibition hall with an area of ​​72 thousand sq.m. (563 x 124 m) was built from the same architectural and structural elements - 3200 metal columns and 3200 metal beams. They formed the supporting frame. The building was erected in just 16 weeks. Glazed elements and steel frames marked the beginning of the so-called openwork architecture.

In subsequent exhibitions, the metal is no longer hidden, but is displayed openly on the facades. Thus, at the 1889 exhibition in Paris in the Gallery of Machines (Contamin and F. Duter, Fig. 60), measuring 421 x 145 m, the central nave was covered with 20 steel three-hinged arches with a span of 110.6 m and a height of 45 m with a corrugated purlin and beams between which the roof is laid. Symbol

G. Eiffel's tower (1889, Fig. 59) with a height of 312.5 meters became the industrial era. Gustave Eiffel was a bridge builder, which is reflected in the lattice-like nature of the structure.

Gradually, metal began to be used in architecture, mainly industrial, as a frame for buildings. These are weaving factories in England, the Meunier chocolate factory in France in 1872.

The intensive development of industry caused an influx of population from the villages. Hundreds of new cities are emerging in the largest mining and processing regions. Urbanization, striped and chaotic development, unsanitary conditions in established cities required urgent measures for their reconstruction. The bourgeois government wanted to give a respectable appearance to city centers and hide slum areas. Work to adapt medieval cities to the needs of bourgeois society was carried out in London, Vienna, Paris and other cities. So, architect Haussmann creates a project for the reconstruction of the streets of Paris, the chamened Champs Elysees. To relieve traffic, the Parisian “diameters” were connected by circular boulevards. At the main intersections, parks were laid out and squares were created.

Along with practical work on the reconstruction and planning of new cities, new urban planning concepts are emerging, in which attempts were made to solve the problems of zoning and improvement of urban areas.

T. Garnier, in his “Industrial City” project, put forward the idea of ​​zoning the city into residential and industrial areas, separated by sanitary protection areas.

The English architect E. Howard developed a project for an ideal garden city with a radial ring structure and zoning of residential, public and industrial areas.

The style canons of previous architecture - classicism - no longer met the requirements of increasingly complex functional and technological processes in architecture. The buildings of the exhibition pavilions were sporadic, being mainly the fruit of engineering activity and were rather experimental in nature, although later these structures had a huge influence on subsequent architecture.

Since the 30s. XIX century, for the composition and artistic decoration of buildings, a characteristic technique became stylization(imitation of styles of the past) and eclecticism.

Eclecticism

In the art historical sense, “eclecticism” is a mechanical mixture of different styles and techniques.

During the period of eclecticism, no architectural discoveries were made that highlighted the face of this era. Antique, Romanesque, Gothic and other motifs of various eras predominated in architectural structures. The eclecticism that arose in this way fulfilled one of the main requirements of society at the end of the 19th century, which was the desire for ostentatious pomp and luxury. The facades of apartment buildings, banks, and train stations were distinguished by their variegated eclectic treatment. In eclecticism, architects made an attempt to freely choose compositional techniques and forms, and search for a new style. Buildings of this kind, which only sometimes reached a high artistic level, became characteristic of entire architectural complexes and new residential areas that emerged unusually quickly at the end of the 19th century in all major cities of Europe.

The search for something new in the forms of the past led to a dead-end path in the development of architecture, to a breakdown in the connection between function and

appearance of architecture. The free use of historical forms, which were not associated with the general tectonic principles of the corresponding historical style, was the first manifestation of the increasing desire to free ourselves from the stylistic schemes of the 19th century and the inevitable transition period to a new artistic concept of architecture.

Modern

In the early 90s. XIX century in Belgium, France, Holland, Austria, Germany, almost simultaneously, a new style arose as a reaction to eclecticism - modern(from French - modern), which broke with historical continuity in world art. Modernity is characterized by:

Simple expressiveness of smooth lines: curves of walls, complex curvilinear outlines of parts, windows, doors.

Liberation from symmetry and classical order forms.

Picturesque color schemes, silhouette forms, the use of floral patterns and ceramic panels in the design of facades, the use of new building and finishing materials: concrete, steel, etc.

The interior has curvilinear forms, “flowing” space of rooms, open staircases, metal gratings.

The emergence of the Art Nouveau style in architecture and applied arts is associated with the founding of the Arts and Crafts Society (1883), whose influence spread throughout all European countries. The Art Nouveau method was largely based on theoretical positions put forward in the mid-19th century by English artists and theorists D. Ruskin and W. Morris. They saw one of the reasons for the decline of art in the mechanical depersonalization of products, the loss of taste and skill. In an effort to revive folk craftsmanship, William Morris (1834–1896) established a workshop for the manufacture of furniture and household items, contrasting creative craftsmanship with machine production. The ideas of folk craftsmanship also inspired the architect F. Webb, who built the Red House mansion for Morris (1859), one of the first examples in which the functional features of the building determined the overall composition. Instead of traditional wall decor, he

I used simple brick cladding. Smooth lines, deliberate asymmetry, and overall picturesqueness were contrasted with the academicism of decorative compositions.

The Arts and Crafts movement reached its peak in architecture and applied arts with the works of Charles Mackintosh, who preached a new constructive aesthetics in English architecture, close to the modernism of the 20th century. His most famous works are the building of the Kenston teahouse (1907-1911) and the Glasgow School of Arts and Crafts (1897-1899).

In different European countries, while there were common features of the Art Nouveau style, various stylistic features were developed. The style had different names: in Russia - Art Nouveau or Ruess style, in France - Art Nuovo (new art), in Germany - Jugendstil (style of the young), in Austria and Poland - Secession (schism). The emergence of this style was accompanied by active appearances in the press by its supporters. New magazines are appearing that declare this trend and criticize eclecticism. G. Semper and E. Violet le Duc made attempts to develop new concepts of architecture.

This style is most widespread in France, Belgium and Holland. The ideologists of the new style in architecture were B. Horta and the Belgian Van de Velde, who worked in Germany. Velde designed almost everything that surrounds a person - from interiors to jewelry. He was partial to creating rich, rich forms, rounding its elements and smooth curves.

In Dutch architecture, the first steps from historicism to modernity were made by G.P. Berlage. In his Amsterdam Bourse (1898-1903), Romanesque architecture has simpler forms and exposed metalwork in the interior. The glass roof of the hall makes the building innovative.

The work of the Spanish architect A. Gaudi is very unique, despite the obvious connection with Spanish Gothic and Baroque. In Barcelona, ​​he carried out a number of buildings, of which his most significant building is the Sagrada Familia Cathedral (1882-1926, Fig. 61). Antonio Gaudi, using a new building material - reinforced concrete, sees in it, first of all, new plastic possibilities. In the houses of Casa Batlo and Casa Mila in Barcelona (1905-1910) (Fig. 62), Gaudí uses concrete mainly to create tra-

traditional plastic forms, to imitate the forms of nature, imitation of shells, rocks.

The pretentiousness and theatricality of Art Nouveau, alien to the rational nature of construction, did not contribute to its consolidation in architecture for a long time. At the beginning of the 20th century, the irrationalistic principles of Art Nouveau began to lose their significance, but, nevertheless, Art Nouveau demonstrated new possibilities in creating the architectural composition and image of a building, having a great influence on the subsequent development of modern architecture.

Functionalism

The search for progressive European architects began

Centuries were directed towards the search for more rational forms and the rejection of decorativeism in architecture.

At the Weimar art and industrial school - Bauhaus, founded by Walter Gropius in the 1920s. a new movement in architecture is emerging - functionalism. Functionalism proclaimed the idea of ​​a synthesis of technology and art as the basis of modern form-building. He demanded strict compliance of constructive, volumetric-spatial and artistic

solutions of buildings to the production and domestic processes occurring in them (functions of the structure).

Leading functionalist architects actively promoted the principles of their movement. Its ideological leaders are V. Gropius and Jle Corbusier - the largest architects of the first half of the 20th century. Among the representatives of this trend are the German Peter Behrens (1861-1940), the Austrians Otto Wagner (1841-1954) and Adolf Loos (1870-1933), the French Aposte Perret (1874-1954) and Tony Garnier (1869-1948).

One of the leaders of functionalism, the German architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, put forward a new concept of space: the wall is not a subordinate element, but has an independent meaning, connecting the internal space with the environment.

Adolf Loos is known as a major practitioner and polemicist; he completely denies decoration in architecture, calling for a truthful and laconic form. His puritanically simple and austere Steiner House in Vienna (1910) is an illustration of his theoretical principles, a forerunner of the functionalist compositions of the 1920s and 1930s.

The facades of the buildings were designed in simple geometric forms, while at the same time the advantages of the frame were revealed. In this aspect, the reinforced concrete frame made it possible to create large spaces uncluttered by walls, unify structures, and speed up the pace of construction. A reinforced concrete frame is cheaper than a metal frame and does not have such an unpleasant factor as metal fatigue.

Along with the development of rationalistic trends in architecture, reinforced concrete forms are attracting more and more attention of architects. Initially, it was mainly used in industrial and warehouse construction, as well as in bridge construction (bridge over the Inn River, 1901, and the Rhine River, 1905, architect R. Mayer).

One of the first civil buildings made of reinforced concrete was the Church of Saint-Jean de Montmartre in Paris, 1894, architect Anatole de Baudot. In 1903, the Perret brothers first used reinforced concrete in the construction of a multi-story residential building.

Auguste Perret showed the wide aesthetic possibilities of reinforced concrete with his work. In his apartment building on the street. Franklin in Paris (1903), elements of a load-bearing reinforced concrete frame are revealed on the facade. The lower glazed floor has

"free" plan. On the upper floors the supports are completely exposed. There is a small garden on the flat roof. Perret used reinforced concrete in the construction of garages, churches, theaters, and studios. From his workshop came one of the outstanding architects of our time - Le Corbusier, who already at that time came up with a proposal to use reinforced concrete in mass construction. In his project “House of Ino” (1914-1915, Fig. 63), based on a frame and transforming partitions, he applied the principle of flexible apartment planning.

Lyon architect Tony Garnier follows the path of mastering reinforced concrete. In his project of the “Industrial City”, designed for 35 thousand inhabitants, all buildings were designed from reinforced concrete structures. The wide aesthetic possibilities of reinforced concrete have been demonstrated in the construction of large-span vaulted structures. In 1914, the Hall of Centuries with a ribbed reinforced concrete dome with a diameter of 65 m was built in Wroclaw (Fig. 64).

The possibilities of reinforced concrete and metal structures were most fully revealed in industrial architecture. In the buildings of the turbine shop of the AEG company plant in Berlin (1909, architect P. Behrens) and the Fagus factory in Alfeld (1911, architect W. Gropius), a hangar in Orly (1916, engineer Freyssinet , Fig. 65)

Precast reinforced concrete and thin-walled shells were used. Among them, the turbine workshop (1909), the later-built waterworks and tar storage facilities in the form of cylindrical towers connected together, stand out for their monumental simplicity. The artistic qualities of these structures derive entirely from the construction typical of reinforced concrete.

Gradually, functionalism turns into an international style, from which all decorative features disappear and national traditions are supplanted. Architecture is becoming depersonalized. The architects achieved high aesthetic qualities of the buildings by clearly thought out proportioning of volumes, emphasizing the functionality and constructiveness of details.

Roots of the Latin word "Architectura" go back to the ancient Greek language and mean the highest art of construction. The emergence of a certain architectural style is due to several factors: climatic conditions, religious commitment, technical capabilities for the implementation of ideas and the general level of cultural development of the population.

Empire style arose on the eve of the Great French Revolution - i.e. on the eve of significant reform changes. During the Napoleonic era, the monumentality and volume of structures began to be combined with the use of ornaments based on Egyptian motifs.

Art Deco is the art of late modern decoration. Embodying the idea of ​​neoclassicism and modernity, it is distinguished by a luxurious appearance with elements of chic and the use of expensive materials. The architectural style has been known since the mid-20s of the twentieth century and subsequently influenced architecture in the USSR.

English Gothic - the style of architectural solutions used in buildings in medieval England. There are three stages in the development of English Gothic: early English Gothic 1170-1300; decorative style 1272-1349; the vertical style - also known as perpendicular - was widespread in 1350-1539.

Antique architecture existed since the 8th century BC. to the 5th century AD An invaluable contribution to the general direction of further development of architectural techniques and methods of their implementation was made by ancient Greek and Roman architecture.

Baroque- architectural style of European countries in the 17th century and the first half of the 18th century. Distinctive features - expressive and unbalanced visual sensations with a touch of romanticism - are visually conveyed quite clearly. Russian Baroque 1680-1700 was distinguished by the significant influence of the traditions of Russian architecture.

Big style - is directly connected with the reign of King Louis XIV of France and with the flowering of French art in the second half of the 17th century, called the “Golden Age”.

Brutalism as one of the directions of modernism, arose in Great Britain in the 50s of the twentieth century and after a couple of decades became known in all corners of the planet. The main material for execution is always reinforced concrete.

Paper style - the name of utopian architectural ideas due to the obvious impossibility of their implementation in reality.

Burgher style - a tradition of creating building forms widespread in the cities of central Europe, based on the traditional bourgeois worldview and adapted to the everyday needs of small traders and artisans.

Gothic architectural style , widespread in the XII-XV centuries in many European countries, is divided into three main stages of development - Early Gothic, High Gothic and Late Gothic. Initially, the Gothic style developed on the basis of the Romanesque style, common in Burgundy, and later gained recognition in other European countries. A distinctive feature of the Gothic style is the frame construction of buildings, ensuring the principle of verticality of the entire structure, high towers, columns, arches with a pointed top, windows with multi-colored stained glass windows.

Deconstructivism as an architectural style that took shape in the late 80s of the twentieth century and is distinguished by some aggressiveness in relation to the surrounding urban buildings, as well as by the obvious complexity and fractured external forms of buildings.

Brick Gothic - Gothic style of architecture, common in the North German lands, as well as in Poland and the Baltic states in the 13th-16th centuries. The absence of the possibility of decorating the ornament with sculptures was replaced by the use, along with ordinary red ceramic bricks glazed brick.

Brick style in architecture was formed in the middle of the 19th century and became widespread thanks to the relatively simple method of constructing buildings using brickwork, which served as decoration. In Russia in the second half of the 19th century, the brick style was the main style of industrial buildings, and later this style became popular in the construction of civil buildings.

Classicism- style of European architecture of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. Architectural and decorative forms of classicism are based on the motifs of ancient architecture and are distinguished by the harmonious simplicity and severity of buildings.

Constructivism - a style in art and architecture that took place in the USSR from 1920 to the first half of the 30s of the twentieth century. This avant-garde style is characterized by rigor and clarity in geometric forms.

Scandinavian constructivism - modern style of the early 21st century. Strictness in geometry and some asceticism. Clear proportions and lack of pomposity, as well as a significant glazing area, which ensures unhindered penetration of sunlight into the room and the use of natural building materials are recognized in St. Petersburg.

Metabolism arose in the mid-twentieth century in Japan and is distinguished by some visual incompleteness in the perception of the appearance of the building and the emphasis on this incompleteness.

Modern- common in 1890-1910. It is distinguished by the use of new technologies that made it possible to widely use metal and glass in construction.

Neo-Gothic- a kind of renaissance of brick Gothic architecture that occurred in the late 60s of the 19th century in Germany. The style found its application in the construction of churches.

Neoclassicism - the confusion in defining this style is due to the fact that in Russia and Germany this style dates back to the beginning of the twentieth century and is associated with the revival of classicism of 1762-1840. without the use of plaster, but with a clear emphasis on classical forms made in stone. In France, neoclassicism dates back to the reign of Louis XVI - i.e. to the second half of the 18th century.

Organic architecture is based on the fact that construction projects must fit harmoniously into the environment and complement it with their entire appearance, but in no way stand out in particular. Due to the fact that in urban environments there is already little nature, this style has become popular in the construction of country mansions.

Postmodernism - an architectural style that appeared in the second half of the twentieth century in many countries. Adherents of postmodernism consider themselves successors to late modernity, but unlike modernity, various ornamental design options are widely used, often bordering on vulgarity.

Renaissance- a style of Western European architecture of the 15th-16th centuries, based on the revival of ancient (ancient Greek and Roman) architectural forms. Early Renaissance XV century, high Renaissance - first quarter of the XVI century, late Renaissance, aka mannerism- until the beginning of the 17th century.

Retrospectiveism - a variant of neoclassicism, a direction in the architecture of the twentieth century, associated with an awareness of the heritage of all architectural styles and their national characteristics.

Rococo- a style of French architecture of the first half of the 18th century, representing the late stage of Baroque. Rococo differs from baroque in the small scale of its forms (ornament).

Roman style was widespread in the 10th-12th centuries in a number of Western European countries. The basis for the Romanesque style was ancient Roman buildings. Distinctive features are the brutal asceticism of the buildings with small windows and openings. Secondary buildings were built around the main structure - the tower (donjon). The Romanesque style temple served as a fortress.

Russian style - an architectural direction from the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century, based on an awareness of national architectural roots up to Byzantine architecture. All styles that found their embodiment in construction on the territory of Russia were modified in one way or another due to the peculiarities of the traditions of Russian architecture.

Stalin Empire style formed in the late 30s of the twentieth century. This style is characterized by the use of bronze and marble in decoration, as well as architectural orders. The general concept of massive street development was supposed to exude confidence in the future, optimism and pride in one’s country.

Functionalism - an architectural style of the twentieth century, which is based on certain rules, according to which each structure must be designed based on its specific functions. Materials for construction are glass, reinforced concrete and in some cases brick. A distinctive feature is the unmemorable appearance and facelessness of the buildings.

High tech- a variant of late modernism from the late 70s of the twentieth century. Features of the style are the widespread introduction of high technology into simplicity, but this is not pragmatism in its purest form - sacrificing functionality for the sake of style is possible. Wide application of glass, plastic and metal.

Eclecticism- an architectural style common in Europe and Russia in 1830-1890. Although it was based on earlier styles, but with the addition of new features, the architectural form of the structure was set taking into account their purpose and there were no general rules for all structures.

Unusual buildings in the world. Photo