Features and genres of ancient Russian literature. Specific features of Old Russian literature
Question No. 1
Main features of Old Russian literature.
Old Russian literature - 10th – 12th century
Peculiarities:
1. Handwritten character. There were not individual handwritten works, but collections with specific purposes.
2. Anonymity. This was a consequence of society’s attitude towards the writer’s work. It is rare that the names of individual authors are known. In the work, the name is indicated at the end, title and in the margins with evaluative epithets "thin" and "undignified". Medieval authors did not have the concept of “authorship.” The main task: to convey the truth.
Types of anonymity:
3. Religious character. Everything is explained by God's purpose, will and providence.
4. Historicism. The author has the right to write only historically reliable facts. Fiction is excluded. The author is convinced of the accuracy of what is stated. Heroes are historical figures: princes, rulers standing at the top of the hierarchical ladder of feudal society. Even stories about miracles are not so much the imagination of the author as accurate records of the stories of eyewitnesses or the participants themselves.
5. Patriotism. The works are filled with deep content, heroic pathos of serving the Russian land, state, and homeland.
6. The main theme of ancient Russian literature- world history and the meaning of human life.
7. Ancient literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian person, capable of sacrificing what is most precious for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses a deep belief in the power, the ultimate triumph of good and the ability of man to elevate his spirit and defeat evil.
8. A feature of the artistic creativity of the ancient Russian writer is the so-called “literary etiquette”. This is a special literary and aesthetic regulation, the desire to subordinate the very image of the world to certain principles and rules, to establish once and for all what and how should be depicted
9. Old Russian literature appears with the emergence of the state, writing and is based on book Christian culture and developed forms of oral poetic creativity. At this time, literature and folklore were closely connected. Literature often perceived plots, artistic images, and visual means of folk art.
10. The traditions of Old Russian literature are found in the works of Russian writers of the 18th–20th centuries.
The word is imbued patriotic pathos of glorifying Rus', as equal among all states of the world. The author contrasts the Byzantine theory of the universal empire and the church with the idea of equality of all Christian peoples. Proves the superiority of grace over the law. The law was extended only to the Jews, but grace was extended to all nations. In summary, the new covenant is a Christian creed that has worldwide significance and in which every people has the full right to freely choose this grace. Thus, Hilarion rejects the monopoly rights of Byzantium to the exclusive possession of grace. According to Likhachev, the author creates his own patriotic concept of history, where he glorifies Rus' and the enlightener Vladimir. Hilarion exalts Vladimir's feat in the adoption and spread of Christianity. He lists the prince's services to his homeland, emphasizes that the Christian faith was adopted by Russians as a result of free choice. The work put forward demand for the canonization of Vladimir as a saint, also the author glorifies the activities of Yaroslav, who successfully continued his father’s work in spreading Christianity. The work is very logical. The first part is a kind of introduction to the second – the central one. The first part is a comparison of Law and Grace, the second is praise to Vladimir, the third is a prayerful appeal to God. In the first part it is observed sign of antithesis- a typical technique of oratorical eloquence. Hilarion widely uses book metaphors, rhetorical questions, exclamations, repetitions and verbal rhymes. The word is a model for scribes of the 12th-15th centuries.
Question #10
The Walk of Abbot Daniel
Already in the 11th century, Russian people began traveling to the Christian East, to “holy places.” These travel-pilgrimages (a traveler who visited Palestine brought with him a palm branch; pilgrims were also called kaliki - from the Greek name for shoes - kaliga, worn by the traveler) contributed to the expansion and strengthening of international relations of Kievan Rus, and contributed to the development of national identity.
So, at the beginning of the 12th century. "The Walk of Abbot Daniel" arises. Daniel committed pilgrimage to Palestine in 1106-1108 Daniel undertook a long journey, “compelled by his thoughts and impatience,” desiring to see “the holy city Jerusalem and the promised land,” and “for the sake of love, for the sake of these holy places, I wrote down everything I saw with my eyes.” His work is written “for the sake of the faithful people”, so that when they hear about “these holy places,” rushed to these places with thought and soul and thus they themselves accepted “from God an equal reward” with those who “reached these holy places.” Thus, Daniel attached to his “Walk” not only cognitive, but also moral, educational significance: his readers and listeners must mentally make the same journey and receive the same benefits for the soul as the traveler himself.
Daniel's "Walk" is of great interest due to its detailed description of the "holy places" and the personality of the author himself, although it begins with etiquette self-deprecation.
Talking about a difficult journey, Daniel notes how difficult it is to “experience and see all the holy places” without a good “leader” and without knowing the language. At first, Daniel was forced to give from his “meager earnings” to people who knew those places, so that they would show them to him. However, he was soon lucky: he found St. Savva, where he stayed, his old husband, “the book of Velmi,” who introduced the Russian abbot to all the sights of Jerusalem and its environs. This land.”
Daniel shows great curiosity: he is interested nature, city layout and character of buildings of Jerusalem, irrigation system near Jericho. Some interesting information Daniel reports about the Jordan River, which has gentle banks on one side and steep banks on the other, and in every way resembles the Russian river Snov. Daniel also strives to convey to his readers the feelings that every Christian experiences when approaching Jerusalem: these are feelings of “great joy” and “shedding of tears.” The abbot describes in detail the path to the city gates past the pillar of David, the architecture and size of the temples. A large place in the “Walk” is occupied by legends that Daniel either heard during his journey or read in written sources. He easily combines canonical scripture and apocrypha in his mind. Although Daniel’s attention is absorbed in religious issues, this does not prevent him from recognizing himself as the plenipotentiary representative of the Russian land in Palestine. He proudly reports that he, the Russian abbot, was received with honor by King Baldwin (Jerusalem was captured by the crusaders during Daniel's stay there). He prayed at the Holy Sepulcher for the entire Russian land. And when the lamp set by Daniel on behalf of the entire Russian land was lit, but the “flask” (Roman) one was not lit, he sees in this a manifestation of God’s special mercy and favor to the Russian land.
Question #12
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"
“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was found in the early 90s of the 18th century by the famous lover and collector of Russian antiquities A.I. Musin-Pushkin.
“The Word” is the pinnacle of literature created during the period of feudal fragmentation.
“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is dedicated to the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians in 1185 of Novgorod-Seversky Prince Igor Svyatoslavich with a few allies, a campaign that ended in a terrible defeat. Author calls on the Russian princes to unite to repel the steppe and to jointly defend the Russian land.
“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” with brilliant power and insight reflected the main disaster of its time - the lack of state unity of Rus' and, as a consequence, the weakness of its defense against the onslaught of steppe nomadic peoples, who in quick raids ravaged old Russian cities, devastated villages, drove the population into slavery, penetrated into the very depths of the country, everywhere bringing death and destruction with them.
The all-Russian power of the Kyiv prince had not yet completely disappeared, but its importance was falling uncontrollably . The princes were no longer afraid of the Kyiv prince and sought to capture Kyiv, to increase their possessions and use the fading authority of Kyiv to their advantage.
In the Lay there is no systematic account of Igor’s campaign. Igor’s campaign against the Polovtsians and the defeat of his army is for the author a reason for deep thought about the fate of the Russian land, for a passionate call to unite and defend Rus'. This idea - the unity of Russians against common enemies - is the main idea of the work. An ardent patriot, the author of “The Lay” sees the reason for Igor’s unsuccessful campaign not in the weakness of the Russian soldiers, but in the princes who are not united, act separately and ruin their native land, forgetting all-Russian interests.
The author begins his story with a memory of how alarming the beginning of Igor's campaign was, what ominous signs - an eclipse of the sun, the howling of wolves through the ravines, the barking of foxes - it was accompanied. Nature itself seemed to want to stop Igor, not to let him go further.
The defeat of Igor and its terrible consequences for the entire Russian land seem to force the author to remember that not long ago the Kiev prince Svyatoslav, with the united forces of the Russian princes, defeated these same Polovtsians. He is transported mentally to Kyiv, to the tower of Svyatoslav, who has an ominous and incomprehensible dream. The boyars explain to Svyatoslav that this dream is “in hand”: Igor Novgorod-Seversky suffered a terrible defeat.
And so Svyatoslav plunged into bitter thoughts. He utters the “golden word”, in which he reproaches Igor and his brother, the buoy of Vsevolod, for the fact that they disobeyed him, did not respect his gray hair, alone, without collusion with him, they arrogantly went against the Polovtsians.
Svyatoslav's speech gradually turns into an appeal by the author himself to all the most prominent Russian princes of that time. The author sees them as powerful and glorious.
But then he remembers Igor’s young wife, Yaroslavna. He quotes the words of her mournful cry for her husband and for his fallen soldiers. Yaroslavna cries on the city wall in Putivl. She turns to the wind, to the Dnieper, to the sun, yearns and begs them for the return of her husband.
As if in response to Yaroslavna’s plea, the sea began to gush at midnight, and tornadoes swirled on the sea: Igor is escaping from captivity. The description of Igor's flight is one of the most poetic passages in the Lay.
The Lay ends joyfully with Igor’s return to the Russian land. and singing his glory upon entering Kyiv. Despite the fact that “The Lay” is dedicated to the defeat of Igor, it is full of confidence in the power of the Russians, full of faith in the glorious future of the Russian land. The call for unity is permeated in the “Word” with the most passionate, strongest and most tender love for the homeland.
“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is a written work oh.
“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” became the main phenomenon not only of ancient literature, but also of modern literature - the 19th and 20th centuries.
“The Word” is a direct response to the events of Igor’s campaign. It was a call for an end to princely civil strife, for unification to fight against an external enemy. This call is the main content of the Word. Using the example of Igor's defeat, the author shows the sad consequences of political fragmentation in Rus' and the lack of cohesion between the princes.
The word not only tells about the events of Igor’s campaign, and also represents the passionate and excited speech of a true patriot. His speech is sometimes angry, sometimes sad and mournful, but always full of faith in the motherland. The author is proud of his homeland and believes in its bright future.
The author is a supporter of princely power, which would be capable of curbing the arbitrariness of petty princes . He sees the center of united Rus' in Kyiv.
The author embodies his call for unity in the image of the Motherland, the Russian land. In fact, the main character of the word is not Igor or any other prince. The main character is the Russian people, the Russian land. Thus, the theme of the Russian land is central to the work.
Using the example of Igor’s campaign, the author shows what such disunity among the princes can lead to. . After all, Igor is defeated only because he is alone.
Igor is brave but short-sighted, goes on a hike despite bad omens - a solar eclipse. Although Igor loves his homeland, his main goal is to gain fame.
Speaking of female images, it is important to note that they are imbued with tenderness and affection, the folk principle is clearly expressed in them, they embody sadness and care for the Motherland. Their crying is deeply national in nature.
The central lyrical element of the plot is Yaroslavna’s cry. Yaroslavna – a collective image of all Russian wives and mothers, as well as the image of the Russian land, which also mourns.
No. 14 Russian pre-revival. Emotionally - expressive style. "Zadonshchina"
Russian pre-renaissance - mid-14th - early 15th centuries!
This is a period of expressive-emotional style and patriotic upsurge in literature, a period of revival of chronicle writing, historical narration, panegyric hagiography, appeal to the times of independence of Rus' in all areas of culture: literature, architecture, painting, folklore, political thought, etc.
The Russian Pre-Renaissance of the XIV-XV centuries was the era of the greatest spiritual figures, scribes and painters. The names of Rev. served as the personification of the national spiritual culture of that time. Sergius of Radonezh, Stefan of Perm and Kirill Belozersky, Epiphanius the Wise, Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev and Dionysius. During the Pre-Renaissance period. coinciding with the gathering of Russian lands Around Moscow, there was an appeal to the spiritual traditions of ancient Kievan Rus, and attempts were made to revive them in new conditions. We are, of course, talking about the traditions of Russian asceticism. In the era under review, these traditions were strengthened, but they acquired a slightly different character. The activities of ascetics during the formation of the Moscow state in the second half of the 14th century became socially, and to some extent, politically active. This was reflected in ancient Russian literature of that period. A particularly striking example is the works of Epiphanius the Wise - “The Lives” of Sergius of Radonezh and Stephen of Perm.
There comes a period in Russian history when a person somehow begins valued as a person, there is a discovery of its historical significance and internal merits. In the literature, increasing attention is paid to the emotional sphere, and interest in human psychology is emerging. This leads to expressive style. Dynamic descriptions.
An emotionally expressive style is developing in literature, and in ideological life “silence” and “solitary prayer” are becoming increasingly important.
Attention to the inner life of man, demonstrating the fluidity of what is happening, the variability of everything that exists, was associated with the awakening of historical consciousness. Time was no longer represented only in the forms of changing events. The character of the eras changed, and first of all, the attitude towards the foreign yoke. The time has come to idealize the era of Russian independence. Thought turns to the idea of independence, art - to the works of pre-Mongol Russia, architecture - to the buildings of the era of independence, and literature - to the works of the 11th–13th centuries: to the “Tale of Bygone Years”, to the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, to “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, to the “Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, to the “Life of Alexander Nevsky”, to the “Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, etc. Thus, for the Russian Pre-Renaissance, Russia during the period of independence, Pre-Mongol Rus' became its “antique”.
There is an increasing interest in the internal states of the human soul, psychological experiences, and the dynamics of feelings and emotions. Thus, Epiphanius the Wise in his works conveys feelings of delight and surprise that fill the soul. Literature and art in general embody the ideal of beauty, spiritual harmony, the ideal of a person who devotes himself to serving the idea of the common good
According to DS Likhachev, “The focus of attention of writers of the late XIV - early XV centuries. turned out to be individual psychological states of a person, his feelings, emotional responses to events in the outside world. But these feelings, individual states of the human soul are not yet united into characters. Individual manifestations of psychology are depicted without any individualization and do not add up to psychology. The connecting, unifying principle - the character of a person - has not yet been discovered. Man's individuality is still limited by the straightforward classification of it into one of two categories - good or evil, positive or negative."
It is important to note that the emergence of man as a measure of all values in Rus' is only partial. This is how man, the titan, the man at the center of the Universe, does not appear. So, despite the existence of a pre-renaissance period, the Renaissance itself never comes!!!
Pushkin’s words “The Great Renaissance had no influence on it (Russia).”
"Zadonshchina"
Degree book"
Created in 1563 on the initiative of the Metropolitan Macarius by the royal confessor Andrei - Athanasius - “The Grave Book of the Royal Genealogy.” The Work makes an attempt to present the history of the Russian Moscow State in the form of genealogical continuity from Rurik to Ivan the Terrible.
History of the state presented in the form of hagiobiographies of rulers. Period the reign of each prince is a certain facet in history.
So the book is divided into 17 degrees and facets. Introduction – a lengthy life of Princess Olga. In each facet after the author's biography, the most important events are outlined. At the center of the story are the personalities of the autocratic princes. They endowed with the qualities of ideal wise rulers, brave warriors and exemplary Christians. The compilers of the Degree Book try to emphasize the greatness of the deeds and the beauty of the virtues of the princes, the psychologist introduces the characteristics of the heroes, trying to show their inner world and pious stories.
The idea of a autocratic form of government in Rus' is being pursued, power is surrounded by an aura of holiness, the need for resigned submission to it is proven.
Thus, in the Degree Book, historical material acquired topical political significance, everything is subordinated to the task of the ideological struggle to strengthen the autocratic power of the sovereign in Rus'. The degree book, like chronicles, serves as an official historical document, relying on which Moscow diplomacy conducted negotiations in the international arena, proving the original rights of Moscow sovereigns to own Russian territories.
Also An important part of the period of the second monumentalism is the work of Ivan the Terrible and the Tale of Peter and Fevronia.
No. 18 The work of Ivan the Terrible
Ivan groznyj was one of the most educated people of their time, had phenomenal memory and erudition.
He founded the Moscow Printing Yard, By his order, a unique literary monument was created - the Facial Chronicle.
And the works of Ivan the Terrible are the most famous monument of Russian literature of the 16th century. Messages from Tsar Ivan the Terrible - one of the most unusual monuments of ancient Russian literature. The central themes of his messages- international the importance of the Russian state(the concept of Moscow - “the third Rome”) and the monarch's divine right to unlimited power. The themes of the state, ruler, and power occupy one of the central places in Shakespeare, but are expressed in completely different genres and artistic means. The power of influence of Ivan the Terrible's messages lies in the system of argumentation, including biblical quotes and extracts from sacred authors; facts from world and Russian history to draw analogies; examples from personal impressions. In polemical and private messages, Grozny uses facts from his personal life much more often. This allows the author, without cluttering the message with rhetoric, to significantly enliven the style. A fact conveyed briefly and accurately is immediately remembered, receives an emotional overtones, and imparts the urgency necessary for polemics. The messages of Ivan the Terrible suggest a variety of intonations - ironic, accusatory, satirical, instructive. This is only a special case of the extensive influence on messages of living spoken language of the 16th century, which is very new in ancient Russian literature.
The works of Ivan the Terrible - REALLY GREAT LITERATURE.
Main literary monuments, created by Ivan the Terrible, this is the Message of the Terrible to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery and Correspondence with Andrei Kurbsky.
Message from Ivan the Terrible to Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery to Abbot Kozma of the monastery. Around 1573.
Written regarding violation of the monastic decree exiled there by the Terrible boyars Sheremetev, Khabarov, Sobakin.
Message permeated with caustic irony escalating into sarcasm, in relation to the disgraced boyars, who “introduced their own lustful regulations” into the monastery. Grozny accuses the boyars of destroying the monastic rule and this leading to social inequality. Terrible attacks the monks, who were unable to curb the temper of the boyars. Ivan the Terrible's words are imbued with irony arising from self-deprecation: “woe is me” O. And further, the more Grozny talks about his respect for the Kirillov Monastery, the more caustic his reproaches sound. He shames the brethren for allowing the boyars to violate the rules, and thus it is not known, the tsar writes, who took tonsure from whom, whether the boyars were monks or the monks were boyars.”
Grozny ends the letter with an angry, irritable appeal, forbidding the monks to bother him with such problems. According to Likhachev, the Message is a free improvisation, passionate, written in the heat of the moment, turning into an accusatory speech. Ivan the Terrible is confident that he is right and is annoyed that the monks are bothering him.
In general, Ivan the Terrible’s messages are evidence of the beginning of the destruction of the strict system of literary style and the emergence of an individual style. True, at that time only the king was allowed to declare his individuality. Realizing his high position, the king could boldly break all the established rules and play the roles of either a wise philosopher, or a humble servant of God, or a cruel ruler.
An example of a new type of life is precisely the “Life of Ulyaniya Osorgina” (Life of Juliania Lazarevskaya, The Tale of Ulyaniya Lazarevskaya)
“The Tale of Ulyaniya Lazarevskaya” is the first biography of a noblewoman in ancient Russian literature.(at that time, a noblewoman was not the highest stratum of society, rather the middle class).
Main features of the product:
1. Life writes relative of the saint(in this case son)
2. The medieval principle of historicism is violated. The work must convey the most important historical events, the heroes are major figures, and not a simple married woman with children.
3. The story is a clear indication that liter becomes closer to the reader.
Written by the son of Ulyana Druzhina at the beginning of the 17th century. The second level of anonymity, little is known about the author. The son is well acquainted with the facts of the heroine’s biography, her personal qualities, and her moral character is dear to him. The positive character of a Russian woman is revealed in the everyday setting of a rich noble estate.
The qualities of an exemplary housewife come to the fore. After marriage, Ulyany’s shoulders fall on the responsibility of running a complex household. A woman pulls a house, pleases father-in-law, mother-in-law, sister-in-law, monitors the work of slaves, herself resolves social conflicts in the family and between servants and gentlemen. So, one of the sudden riots of the courtyards leads to the death of her eldest son, but Ulyaniya resignedly endures all the hardships that befall her.
The story truthfully and accurately depicts the position of a married woman in a large family, her lack of rights and responsibilities. Running the household consumes Ulyanya, she doesn’t have time to go to church, but nevertheless she is a “saint.” Thus, the story affirms the holiness of the feat of highly moral worldly life and service to people. Ulyaniya helps the hungry, cares for the sick during the “pestilence”, doing “immeasurable alms.”
The story of Ulyaniya Lazarevskaya creates the image of an energetic, intelligent Russian woman, an exemplary housewife and wife, enduring all trials with patience and humility. Which falls to her lot. So Druzhina depicts in the story not only the real character traits of her mother, but also paints the general ideal appearance of a Russian woman as it seemed to a Russian nobleman of the early 17th century.
In biography The squad does not completely depart from the hagiographic tradition. So Ulyaniya comes from “God-loving” parents, she grew up in “piety” and “from a young age loved God.” In the character of Ulyany the inherent traits of a true Christian can be traced- modesty, meekness, humility, tolerance and generosity (“doing immeasurable alms.” As befits Christian ascetics, although Ulyaniya does not go to the monastery, she in old age indulges in asceticism: refuses carnal “coitus with her husband”, walks in winter without warm clothes.
The story also uses traditional hagiography Motives of religious fiction: Demons want to kill the Hive, but she is saved by the intervention of St. Nicholas. In some cases, “demonic machinations” have very specific manifestations - conflicts in the family and rebellion of “slaves”.
As befits a saint, Juliana has a presentiment of her death and dies piously; later her body works miracles.
Thus, The Tale of Juliania Lazarevskaya is a work in which elements of an everyday story are intertwined with elements of the hagiographic genre, however, the everyday description still prevails. The story is devoid of the traditional introduction, lamentation and praise. The style is quite simple.
The story of Juliania Lazarevskaya is evidence of growing interest in society and literature in the private life of a person, his behavior in everyday life. As a result, as a result of the penetration of such realistic elements into hagiography, the hagiography is destroyed and turns into the genre of a secular biographical story.
No. 21 “The Tale of the Tver Otroche Monastery”
17th century.
The historical story gradually turns into a love-adventure novella, which can be easily traced in the Tale of the Tver Otroch Monastery. DS Likhachev studied this most interesting work in detail in selected works, so we will rely on his opinion.
“The Tale of the Tver Otroch Monastery,” undoubtedly composed in the 17th century, tells about a rather ordinary everyday drama: the bride of one marries another. The conflict intensifies because both heroes of the story - both the former groom and the future husband - are connected by friendship and feudal relations: the first is a servant, the “youth” of the second.
A remarkable feature of the story is that it is not based on the usual conflict between good and evil in medieval stories. In “The Tale of the Tver Otroch Monastery” there are no evil characters, no evil principle at all. In it there is not even social conflict: action takes place as if in an ideal country where exist good relations between the prince and his subordinates. The peasants, boyars and their wives strictly follow the prince’s instructions, rejoice at his marriage, and happily meet his young wife, a simple peasant woman. They come out to meet her with children and offerings, and are amazed at her beauty. All the people in this story are young and beautiful. Several times the beauty of the heroine of the story is persistently spoken of - Ksenia. She is pious and meek, humble and cheerful, has “a great mind and walked in all the commandments of the Lord.” Youth Gregory, Xenia's fiancé, is also young and handsome(his expensive clothes are mentioned several times in the story). He always “stood before the prince,” was “loved by him dearly,” and was faithful to him in everything. The young Grand Duke Yaroslav Yaroslavich received no less praise. They all behave as they should and are distinguished by piety and intelligence. Ksenia’s parents also behave ideally. None of the characters made a single mistake. Little of, everyone acts as planned. The youth and the prince see visions and carry out the will revealed to them in these visions and signs. Moreover, Ksenia herself foresees what is about to happen to her. She is illuminated not only with bright beauty, but also with a bright vision of the future. And yet, the conflict is obvious - an acute, tragic conflict, forcing all the characters in the story to suffer, and one of them, the youth Gregory, to go into the forests and found a monastery there. This happens because for the first time in Russian literature, the conflict has been transferred from the sphere of the world struggle between evil and good into the very essence of human nature. Two people love the same heroine, and neither of them is guilty of their feeling. Is Ksenia to blame for choosing one over the other? Of course, she is not guilty of anything, but to justify her, the author has to resort to a typically medieval technique: Ksenia follows the divine will. She obediently does what is destined for her and what she cannot help but do. By this, the author seems to free her from the burden of responsibility for the decisions she makes; in essence, she does not decide anything and does not change Gregory; she only follows what was revealed to her from above. Of course, this intervention from above weakens the earthly, purely human nature of the conflict, but this intervention is told in the story with the utmost tact. The intervention of fate is not ecclesiastical in nature. Nowhere is it said about Xenia’s visions, her prophetic dreams, the voice she heard, or anything like that. Ksenia has the gift of clairvoyance, but this clairvoyance is not ecclesiastical, but rather folkloric in nature. She knows what must happen, but why she knows is not told to the reader. She knows as a wise man knows the future. Ksenia is a “wise maiden”, a character well known in Russian folklore and reflected in ancient Russian literature: let us remember the maiden Fevronia in “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom” of the 16th century. But, in contrast to the fairy-tale development of the plot, in “The Tale of the Tver Youth Monastery” everything is transferred to a more “human plane”. The story is still far from being immersed in everyday life, but it is already developing in the sphere of ordinary human relationships.
The plot itself: the founding of the Tver Otroche Monastery. When it turns out that Ksenia has been given to another, Prince Yaroslav Yaroslavovich, Grigory dresses in a peasant dress and goes into the forest, where “build yourself a hut and a chapel.” The main reason that Gregory decides to found a monastery is not a pious desire to devote himself to God, but unrequited love.
The founding of the monastery and the prince’s help in its construction finally confirm the main idea of the story, that everything that happens happens for the betterment of the world. “The monastery still stands today through the grace of God and the prayers of the Most Holy Theotokos and the Great Saint Peter, Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, the Wonderworker.”
“The Tale of the Tver Youth Monastery” has the features of an epic plot. It is similar to the translated chivalric novel by its love theme; as in "Bova", we meet here a classic love triangle and the twists and turns within this triangle that are beyond the reader’s foresight.
Gregory receives heavenly love in return for his lost earthly love. However, this preference is forced - and in the depiction of this compulsion, new trends in the original fiction of the 17th century were perhaps reflected most forcefully. Fate is inescapable, but it promised the prince a happy love, and Gregory - an unhappy one. The youth has nothing more to look forward to in this world; he must build a monastery only in order to please the Lord and become “blessed.” Thus, on the ladder of Christian moral values, carnal, earthly love is one step higher - a conclusion apparently not intended by the author.
The Tale of "Grief - Misfortune"
One of the outstanding works of literature of the second half of the 17th century.
Central theme: the theme of the tragic fate of the younger generation, trying to break with the old forms of family and everyday life, domostroevsky morality.
The plot of the story is based on the tragic life story of Young Man, who rejected his parents’ instructions and wished to live of his own free will, “as he pleases.” Appearance in general - a collective image of a representative of the younger generation of his time - an innovative phenomenon. Per liter The historical personality is replaced by a fictional hero, embodying the typical traits of an entire generation.
Well done, he grew up in a patriarchal family living according to the principles of Domostroy. He was surrounded by the love and care of his parents. But because of this, he has not learned to understand people and understand life, so he wants to break out from under his parents’ wing and live according to his own will. He is too gullible, and this gullibility and belief in the sanctity of the bonds of friendship destroys him, but he does not want to give up and wants to prove that he is right by going to a foreign country. The reason for the further misadventures of the Young Man is his character. He is ruined by boasting about his happiness and wealth. This is the moral - “but the word of praise has always rotted.” From this moment on, the image of Grief appears in the work, which personifies the unfortunate fate of a person. The young man, who rejected parental authority, is forced to bow his head before Grief. “Good people” sympathize with him and advise him to return to his parents. But now it’s just Gore
Old Russian(or Russian medieval, or ancient East Slavic) literature is a collection of written works, written on the territory of Kievan and then Muscovite Rus' in the period from the 11th to the 17th centuries. Old Russian literature is common ancient literature of the Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian peoples.
Map of Ancient Rus'
The largest researchers
ancient Russian literature are academicians Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev, Boris Aleksandrovich Rybakov, Alexey Aleksandrovich Shakhmatov.
Academician D.S. Likhachev
Old Russian literature was not the result of artistic invention and had a number of features
.
1. Fiction was not allowed in ancient Russian literature, since fiction is a lie, and lies are sinful. That's why all works were of a religious or historical nature. The right to fiction was conceptualized only in the 17th century.
2. Due to the lack of fiction in ancient Russian literature there was no concept of authorship, since the works either reflected real historical events or were expositions of Christian books. Therefore, works of ancient Russian literature have a compiler, a copyist, but not an author.
3. Works of ancient Russian literature were created in accordance with etiquette, that is, according to certain rules. Etiquette was formed from ideas about how the course of events should unfold, how the hero should behave, and how the compiler of the work should describe what is happening.
4. Old Russian literature developed very slowly: over seven centuries, only a few dozen works were created. This was explained, firstly, by the fact that the works were copied by hand, and the books were not replicated, since before 1564 there was no printing in Rus'; secondly, the number of literate (reading) people was very small.
Genres
Old Russian literature differed from modern ones.
| Genre | Definition | Examples |
| CHRONICLE |
Description of historical events by “year,” that is, by year. Goes back to ancient Greek chronicles. |
“The Tale of Bygone Years”, “Laurentian Chronicle”, “Ipatiev Chronicle” |
| TEACHING | A father's spiritual testament to his children. | "Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh" |
| LIFE (HAGIOGRAPHY) | Biography of a saint. | "The Life of Boris and Gleb", "The Life of Sergius of Radonezh", "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum" |
| WALKING | Description of travel. | "Walking beyond the three seas", "Walking of the Virgin Mary through torment" |
| WARRIOR TALE | Description of military campaigns. | "Zadonshchina", "The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev" |
| WORD | Genre of eloquence. | "The Word about Law and Grace", "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land" |
The literary art of the Middle Ages is a special world, largely “hidden” for modern man. He has a special system of artistic values, his own laws of literary creativity, and unusual forms of works. This world can only be discovered by someone initiated into its secrets, who has learned its specific features.
Old Russian literature is the literature of the Russian Middle Ages, which went through a long, seven-century path in its development, from the 11th to the 17th centuries. For the first three centuries it was common to the Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian peoples. Only by the 14th century did differences emerge between the three East Slavic peoples, their language and literature. During the period of the formation of literature, its “apprenticeship,” the center of political and cultural life was Kyiv, “the mother of Russian cities,” therefore the literature of the 11th–12th centuries is usually called the literature of Kievan Rus. In the tragic XIII-XIV centuries for Russian history, when Kiev fell under the blows of the Mongol-Tatar hordes and the state lost its independence, the literary process lost its former unity, its course was determined by the activities of regional literary “schools” (Chernigov, Galician-Volyn, Ryazan, Vladimir -Suzdal, etc.). Starting from the 15th century, a tendency towards the unification of creative forces was evident in Rus', and the literary development of the 16th–17th centuries was marked by the rise of a new spiritual center - Moscow.
Old Russian literature, like folklore, did not know the concepts of “copyright” and “canonical text”. Works existed in handwritten form, and the scribe could act as a co-author, create the work anew, subjecting the text to selection, stylistic editing, including new material borrowed from other sources (for example, chronicles, local legends, monuments of translated literature). This is how new editions of works arose, differing from each other in ideological, political and artistic attitudes. Before publishing the text of a work created
In the Middle Ages, it was necessary to do a huge amount of grunt work to study and compare various lists and editions in order to identify those that are closest to the original appearance of the monument. These goals are served by the special science of textual criticism; its tasks also include attribution of the work, that is, establishing its authorship, and resolving questions: where and when was it created, why was its text subject to editing?
The literature of Ancient Rus', like the art of the Middle Ages in general, was based on a system of religious ideas about the world; it was based on a religious-symbolic method of cognition and reflection of reality. The world in the consciousness of ancient Russian man seemed to be bifurcated: on the one hand, it is the real, earthly life of man, society, nature, which can be known with the help of everyday experience, with the help of feelings, that is, “bodily eyes”; on the other hand, it is a religious-mythological, “high” world, which, in contrast to the “down”, is revealed to chosen people pleasing to God in moments of spiritual revelation and religious ecstasy.
It was clear to the ancient Russian scribe why certain events were happening; he was never tormented by the questions that Russian classics of the 19th century would think about: “who is to blame?” and “what to do?” to change people and the world for the better. For the medieval writer, everything that happens on earth is a manifestation of God's will. If “a great star appeared, the rays of which are as bloody,” then this served the Russians as a formidable warning about future trials, Polovtsian raids and princely feuds: “Behold, those who do not show it in advance. For this reason, there were many tussocks and the invasion of the FILTHY on the Russian land, this is a star, like a bloody one, showing the shedding of blood.” For medieval man, nature had not yet acquired its independent aesthetic value; an unusual natural phenomenon, be it an eclipse of the sun or a flood, acted as a certain symbol, a sign of the connection between the “high” and “down” worlds, and was interpreted as an evil or good omen.
Historicism of medieval literature of a special kind. Often in the work two planes are intertwined in the most bizarre way: real-historical and religious-fantastic, and the ancient man believed in the existence of demons as well as in the fact that Princess Olga traveled to Constantinople, and Prince Vladimir baptized Russia. Demons, as depicted by the ancient Russian writer as “mobs, creeps, with tails,” were endowed with the ability to perform human actions:
scatter flour at the mill, lift logs to the high bank of the Dnieper for the construction of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery.
A mixture of fact and fiction is characteristic of the ancient part of The Tale of Bygone Years, the origins of which are in folklore. Talking about Princess Olga’s journey to Constantinople and her adoption of Christianity, the chronicler follows the popular legend according to which Olga, the “wise maiden,” “outwitted” (outwitted) the Byzantine emperor. Struck by her “blindness,” he decided to “wink” Olga for himself, that is, to take her as his wife, but after the baptism of a non-Christian (a marriage condition put forward by Olga), he was forced to abandon his intention: the godfather could not become the husband of his goddaughter. Recent studies of this chronicle fragment, comparing it with data from translated chronicles, indicate that Princess Olga at that time was at a very advanced age, the Byzantine emperor was much younger than her and had a wife. The chronicler used the folk-poetic version of this historical event in order to show the superiority of the Russian mind over the foreign one, to elevate the image of a wise ruler who understood that without a single religion the formation of a single state is impossible.
Glorifying the fortitude and wisdom of the Russian people, the medieval writer was an exponent of the idea of religious tolerance and humane attitude towards people of other faiths. In the 11th century, Theodosius of Pechersk, in a letter to Izyaslav Yaroslavich, denouncing the “wrong Latin faith,” nevertheless calls on the prince: “Merciful with alms, not only your own v”ry, nb and mu-zhey. whether in winter, or E"bdoyu Odrzhi-ml, whether a child of a Jew, or a Sorochinin, or a Volgdrin, or a heretic, or an ldtnnin, or from the weather, have mercy on everyone and from f*cking from abroad, as you can, and bribes from “Eogd don’t drown.”
Old Russian literature is distinguished by high spirituality. The life of the human soul is the center of gravity of medieval literature, education and improvement of the moral nature of man is its main task. The external, the objective, recedes into the background here. As in an icon, where the “face” and “eyes” are shown in close-up, that which reflects the inner essence of the saint, the “light” of his soul, in literature, especially hagiography, the image of a person is subordinated to the glorification of the proper, ideal, eternally beautiful moral qualities: mercy and modesty, spiritual generosity and non-covetousness.
In the Middle Ages, there was a different system of artistic values than in our time; the aesthetics of similarity, rather than the aesthetics of uniqueness, prevailed. According to the definition of D.S. Likhacheva, Old Russian
The writer based his work on the concept of “literary etiquette,” which was composed of ideas about “how this or that course of events should have taken place,” “how the character should have behaved,” “in what words should the writer describe what is happening. Before us, therefore, is the etiquette of the world order, the etiquette of behavior and the etiquette of words.”
Old Russian literature valued the general, repetitive, and easily recognizable, avoiding the particular, random, and unusual for the reader. That is why in the monuments of the 11th–17th centuries there are so many “commonplaces” in the depiction of military or monastic feats, in the obituary characteristics of Russian princes and in words of praise to saints. Comparing heroes of Russian history with biblical characters, quoting books of the Holy Scripture, imitation of authoritative Fathers of the Church, borrowing entire fragments from the works of previous eras - all this in the Middle Ages testified to a high book culture and the skill of the writer, and was not a sign of his creative impotence.
The literature of Ancient Rus' is characterized by a special system of genres. To a greater extent than in the literature of modern times, it is connected with extraliterary circumstances, with the practical needs of ancient Russian society. Each literary genre served a specific area of life. For example, the emergence of chronicles was due to the need of the state to have its own written history, where the most important events would be recorded (the birth and death of rulers, wars and peace treaties, the founding of cities and the construction of churches).
In the 11th–17th centuries, several genre systems existed and actively interacted: folklore, translated literature, business writing, liturgical and secular, artistic and journalistic literature. Of course, the genres of liturgical literature (“Prologue”, “Book of Hours”, “Apostle”, etc.) were more closely connected with the sphere of their existence and were more static.
The basis for the identification of genres in the literature of Ancient Rus' was the object of the image. The military exploits of the Russians were depicted in military stories, travel to other countries, first only for pilgrimage, and then for trade and diplomatic purposes - in walks. Each genre had its own canon. For example, for a hagiographic work, where the object of the image was the life of a saint, a three-part composition is required: a rhetorical introduction, a biographical part and praise to one of the “armies of Christ.” Type
the narrator in the life is a conventionally sinful person, “thin and foolish,” which was necessary for the exaltation of the hero - a righteous man and a miracle worker, therefore, for this genre, the main thing was the idealizing way of depiction, when the hero’s behavior was freed from everything temporary, sinful and he was presented only in ceremonial moments of his life as a “positively wonderful person.” The style of monuments of hagiographic literature, in contrast to chronicles, is florid and verbally decorated, especially in the introductory and final parts, which are often called the “rhetorical mantle” of a life.
The fate of ancient Russian genres developed differently: some of them disappeared from literary use, others adapted to changed conditions, and others continue to actively function, filled with new content. Essay literature of the 19th – 20th centuries, literary travels of the 18th century go back to the traditions of ancient Russian movements - one of the most stable genre formations of the Middle Ages. Researchers see the origins of the Russian novel in everyday stories of the 17th century. The poetics of odes in the literature of Russian classicism, of course, developed under the influence of the works of oratory of Ancient Russia.
Thus, ancient Russian literature is not a dead, bygone phenomenon; it did not sink into oblivion, leaving no posterity. This phenomenon is alive and prolific. She bequeathed to Russian literature of modern times a high spiritual spirit and a “teaching” character, the ideas of patriotism and a humane attitude towards people, regardless of their religion. Many genres of literature of Ancient Rus', having undergone evolution, found a second life in the literature of the 18th – 20th centuries.
Any national literature has its own distinctive (specific) features.
Old Russian literature (DRL) is doubly specific, since in addition to national features it bears the features of the Middle Ages (XI - XVII centuries), which had a decisive influence on the worldview and human psychology of Ancient Rus'.
Two blocks of specific features can be distinguished.
The first block can be called general cultural, the second is most closely connected with the inner world of the personality of a person in the Russian Middle Ages.
Let's talk about the first block very briefly. Firstly, ancient Russian literature was handwritten. In the first centuries of the Russian literary process, the writing material was parchment (or parchment). It was made from the skin of calves or lambs and therefore it was called “veal” in Rus'. Parchment was an expensive material, it was used extremely carefully and the most important things were written on it. Later, paper appeared instead of parchment, which partly contributed, in the words of D. Likhachev, to “the breakthrough of literature to the masses.”
In Rus', three main types of writing successively replaced each other. The first (XI - XIV centuries) was called the charter, the second (XV - XVI centuries) - semi-charter, the third (XVII century) - cursive.
Since writing material was expensive, the book’s customers (large monasteries, princes, boyars) wanted the most interesting works of various subjects and the time of their creation to be collected under one cover.
Works of ancient Russian literature are usually called monuments.
Monuments in Ancient Rus' functioned in the form of collections.
Particular attention should be paid to the second block of specific features of DRL.
1. The functioning of monuments in the form of collections is explained not only by the high price of the book. Old Russian man, in his desire to acquire knowledge about the world around him, strove for a kind of encyclopedicism. Therefore, ancient Russian collections often contain monuments of various themes and issues.
2. In the first centuries of the development of DRL, fiction had not yet emerged as an independent area of creativity and social consciousness. Therefore, one and the same monument was simultaneously a monument of literature, a monument of historical thought, and a monument of philosophy, which existed in Ancient Rus' in the form of theology. It is interesting to know that, for example, Russian chronicles until the beginning of the 20th century were considered exclusively as historical literature. Only thanks to the efforts of Academician V. Adrianova-Peretz did the chronicles become the object of literary criticism.
At the same time, the special philosophical richness of Old Russian literature in subsequent centuries of Russian literary development will not only be preserved, but will actively develop and become one of the defining national features of Russian literature as such. This will allow Academician A. Losev to state with certainty: “Fiction is a storehouse of original Russian philosophy. In the prose works of Zhukovsky and Gogol, in the works of Tyutchev, Fet, Leo Tolstoy, Dostoevsky<...>The main philosophical problems are often developed, of course, in their specifically Russian, exclusively practical, life-oriented form. And these problems are resolved here in such a way that an unbiased and knowledgeable judge will call these solutions not just “literary” or “artistic,” but philosophical and ingenious.”
3. Old Russian literature was anonymous (impersonal) in nature, which is inextricably linked with another characteristic feature - the collectivity of creativity. The authors of Ancient Rus' (often called scribes) did not strive to leave their name for centuries, firstly, due to the Christian tradition (scribe-monks often call themselves “unreasonable,” “sinful” monks who dared to become creators of the artistic word); secondly, due to the understanding of one’s work as part of an all-Russian, collective endeavor.
At first glance, this trait seems to indicate a poorly developed personal element in the Old Russian author compared to Western European masters of artistic expression. Even the name of the author of the brilliant “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is still unknown, while Western European medieval literature can “boast” of hundreds of great names. However, there can be no talk of the “backwardness” of ancient Russian literature or its “impersonality.” We can talk about its special national quality. Once D. Likhachev very accurately compared Western European literature with a group of soloists, and Old Russian literature with a choir. Is choral singing really less beautiful than the performances of individual soloists? Is there really no manifestation of human personality in him?
4. The main character of ancient Russian literature is the Russian land. We agree with D. Likhachev, who emphasized that the literature of the pre-Mongol period is the literature of one theme - the theme of the Russian land. This does not mean at all that ancient Russian authors “refuse” to depict the experiences of an individual human personality, “get fixated” on the Russian land, depriving themselves of individuality and sharply limiting the “universal” significance of the DRL.
Firstly, ancient Russian authors always, even in the most tragic moments of Russian history, for example, in the first decades of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, sought through the richest Byzantine literature to join the highest achievements of the culture of other peoples and civilizations. Thus, in the 13th century, the medieval encyclopedias “Melissa” (“Bee”) and “Physiologist” were translated into Old Russian.
Secondly, and this is the most important thing, we must keep in mind that the personality of a Russian person and the personality of a Western European are formed on different ideological foundations: the Western European personality is individualistic, it is affirmed due to its special significance and exclusivity. This is due to the special course of Western European history, with the development of the Western Christian Church (Catholicism). A Russian person, by virtue of his Orthodoxy (belonging to Eastern Christianity - Orthodoxy), denies the individualistic (egoistic) principle as destructive both for the individual himself and for his environment. Russian classical literature - from the nameless scribes of Ancient Rus' to Pushkin and Gogol, A. Ostrovsky and Dostoevsky, V. Rasputin and V. Belov - depicts the tragedy of the individualistic personality and affirms its heroes on the path to overcoming the evil of individualism.
5. Old Russian literature did not know fiction. This refers to a conscious orientation towards fiction. The author and the reader absolutely believe in the truth of the literary word, even if we are talking about fiction from the point of view of a secular person.
A conscious attitude towards fiction will appear later. This will happen at the end of the 15th century during a period of intensified political struggle for leadership in the process of unifying the original Russian lands. Rulers will also appeal to the unconditional authority of the book word. This is how the genre of political legend will arise. In Moscow there will appear: the eschatological theory “Moscow - the Third Rome”, which naturally took on a topical political overtones, as well as “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”. In Veliky Novgorod - “The Legend of the Novgorod White Cowl.”
6. In the first centuries of DRL, they tried not to depict everyday life for the following reasons. The first (religious): everyday life is sinful, its image prevents earthly man from directing his aspirations to the salvation of the soul. Second (psychological): life seemed unchanged. Both grandfather, father, and son wore the same clothes, weapons did not change, etc.
Over time, under the influence of the process of secularization, everyday life penetrates more and more into the pages of Russian books. This will lead to the emergence in the 16th century of the genre of everyday stories (“The Tale of Ulyany Osorgina”), and in the 17th century the genre of everyday stories will become the most popular.
7. DRL is characterized by a special attitude to history. The past is not only not separated from the present, but is actively present in it, and also determines the fate of the future. An example of this is “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “The Story of the Crime of the Ryazan Princes”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, etc.
8. Old Russian literature wore teacher character. This means that the ancient Russian scribes sought, first of all, to enlighten the souls of their readers with the light of Christianity. In DRL, unlike Western medieval literature, there was never a desire to entice the reader with a wonderful fiction, to take him away from life’s difficulties. Adventurous translated stories will gradually penetrate into Russia from the beginning of the 17th century, when the Western European influence on Russian life becomes obvious.
So, we see that certain specific features of DID will gradually be lost over time. However, those characteristics of Russian national literature that determine the core of its ideological orientation will remain unchanged until the present time.
The problem of authorship of literary monuments of Ancient Rus' is directly related to the national specifics of the first centuries of the development of the Russian literary process. “The author’s principle,” noted D.S. Likhachev, “was muted in ancient literature.<…>The absence of great names in ancient Russian literature seems like a death sentence.<…>We are biased based on our ideas about the development of literature - ideas brought up<…>centuries when it flourished individual, personal art is the art of individual geniuses.<…>The literature of Ancient Rus' was not the literature of individual writers: it, like folk art, was supra-individual art. It was an art created through the accumulation of collective experience and making a huge impression with the wisdom of traditions and the unity of all - mostly nameless- writing.<…>Old Russian writers are not architects of free-standing buildings. These are city planners.<…>Every literature creates its own world, embodying the world of ideas of its contemporary society.” Hence, anonymous (personal) the nature of the creativity of ancient Russian authors is a manifestation of the national originality of Russian literature and in this regard namelessness“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is not a problem.
Representatives of the skeptical school of literary criticism (the first half of the 19th century) proceeded from the fact that “backward” Ancient Rus' could not “give birth” to a monument of such a level of artistic perfection as “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”
Philologist-orientalist O.I. Senkovsky, for example, was sure that the creator of the Lay imitated examples of Polish poetry of the 16th – 17th centuries, that the work itself could not be older than the time of Peter I, and that the author of the Lay was a Galician who moved to Russia or was educated in Kiev. The creators of “The Lay” were also called A.I. Musin-Pushkin (the owner of the collection with the text “Words”), and Ioliy Bykovsky (the one from whom the collection was purchased), and N.M. Karamzin as the most gifted Russian writer of the late 18th century.
Thus, the “Lay” was presented as a literary hoax in the spirit of J. Macpherson, who allegedly discovered in the mid-18th century the works of the legendary Celtic warrior and singer Ossian, who according to legend lived in the 3rd century AD. in Ireland.
The traditions of the skeptical school in the 20th century were continued by the French Slavist A. Mazon, who initially believed that the “Word” was supposedly created by A.I. Musin-Pushkin to justify the aggressive policy of Catherine II on the Black Sea: “We have here a case when history and literature deliver their evidence at the right time.” In many ways, the Soviet historian A. Zimin agreed with A. Mazon, calling Ioliy Bykovsky the creator of the Lay.
The arguments of supporters of the authenticity of the Lay were very convincing. A.S. Pushkin: the authenticity of the monument is proven by “the spirit of antiquity, which cannot be imitated. Which of our writers in the 18th century could have had enough talent for this? V.K. Kuchelbecker: “in terms of talent, this deceiver would have surpassed almost all the Russian poets of that time, taken together.”
““Attacks of skepticism,” V.A. rightly emphasized. Chivilikhin, “were to some extent even useful - they revived scientific and public interest in the Lay, encouraged scientists to look more closely into the depths of time, and generated research done with scientific care, academic objectivity and thoroughness.”
After disputes related to the time of creation of the “Word” and “Zadonshchina”, the overwhelming majority of researchers, even, ultimately, A. Mazon, came to the conclusion that the “Word” is a monument of the 12th century. Now the search for the author of the Lay has focused on the circle of contemporaries of the tragic campaign of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich, which took place in the spring of 1185.
V.A. Chivilikhin in his novel-essay “Memory” gives the most complete list of the supposed authors of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and indicates the names of the researchers who put forward these assumptions: “they named a certain “Grechin” (N. Aksakov), the Galician “wise scribe” Timofey (N. Golovin), “folk singer” (D. Likhachev), Timofey Raguilovich (writer I. Novikov), “Notorious singer Mitus” (writer A. Yugov), “thousand’s Raguil Dobrynich” (V. Fedorov), some unknown courtier singer, close associate of the Grand Duchess of Kiev Maria Vasilkovna (A. Solovyov), “singer Igor” (A. Petrushevich), “merciful” Grand Duke Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, chronicle Kochkar (American researcher S. Tarasov), unknown “wandering book singer” (I. Malyshevsky), Belovolod Prosovich (anonymous Munich translator of the Lay), Chernigov voivode Olstin Aleksich (M. Sokol), Kiev boyar Peter Borislavich (B. Rybakov), the likely heir of the family singer Boyan (A. Robinson), the nameless grandson of Boyan (M Shchepkin), in relation to a significant part of the text - Boyan himself (A. Nikitin), mentor, adviser to Igor (P. Okhrimenko), an unknown Polovtsian storyteller (O. Suleimenov)<…>».
V.A. himself Chivilikhin is sure that the creator of the word was Prince Igor. At the same time, the researcher refers to a long-standing and, in his opinion, undeservedly forgotten report by the famous zoologist and at the same time a specialist in the “Word” N.V. Charlemagne (1952). One of the main arguments of V. Chivilikhin is the following: “it was not for the singer or the warrior to judge the contemporary princes, to indicate what they should do; this is the prerogative of a person standing on the same social level with those to whom he addressed"
Option 5
Read the text and complete tasks 1 – 3
(1) While studying the features of ancient Russian literature, researchers have more than once drawn attention to the fact that in different works episodes with similar content are conveyed using the same literary techniques, and sometimes almost the same words. (2) Such monotony in different monuments of ancient Russian literature, some scientists
explained by the meager imagination of medieval authors who could not vividly and originally present the events in the work. (3)<…>Academician D.S. Likhachev convincingly proved in his works that medieval authors consciously sought to imitate, professing the so-called “aesthetics of identity”: they saw the artistic dignity of a literary work in the fact that its author follows an authoritative model.
1. Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.
1) Researchers of ancient Russian literature believed that the monotony of artistic techniques of medieval authors was due to the fact that these people were not able to present the material in an original way.
2) One of the most important features of Old Russian literature is that its authors sought to create their works according to a single template.
3) D.S. Likhachev, having refuted the opinion of a number of scientists, proved that in different works of ancient Russian literature, similar episodes are conveyed using the same means intentionally, since the authors consciously focus on known examples.
4) The fact that in the works of ancient Russian literature the reader finds a set of constantly repeating artistic techniques became the subject of research by academician D.S. Likhacheva.
5) The use of the same techniques when conveying similar episodes in ancient Russian literature is explained not by the poverty of imagination of medieval authors, as some scientists believed, but by the desire to follow an authoritative model, as evidenced by the works of D.S. Likhacheva.
2. Which of the following words (combinations of words) should appear in the gap in the third (3) sentence of the text? Write down this word (combination of words).
Therefore So However, Certainly, Moreover,
3. Read a fragment of a dictionary entry that gives the meaning of the word FOLLOW. Determine in what sense this word is used in the third (3) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.
FOLLOW , -blowing, -blowing; nesov.
1) Walk, move, move after, directly behind someone.Follow me.
2) Set off, go, move.The train goes to Moscow .
3) Be guided by something, act like someone.S. fashion.
4) To be the result of something, to follow from something.This is the conclusion.
5) Bezl. It is necessary, it must.The experience of leading producers should be disseminated more widely.
4. In one of the words below, an error was made in the placement of stress: the letter denoting the stressed vowel sound was highlighted incorrectly. Write this word down.
dowry
tamed
mosaic
dose
5. One of the sentences below uses the highlighted word incorrectly. Correct the mistake and write this word correctly.
The most amazing thing is that I can’t write his VERBAL portrait.
His face is very expressive: aristocratic, PREDATORY, long and humpbacked, the most aquiline nose, high cheekbones, deep eye sockets.
Infection weakens the body's RESISTANCE and increases the risk of a new disease.
Mercy is a big topic that finds a HOL in the heart of any person.
Krymov made no distinction between Dobrolyubov and Lassalle, Chernyshevsky and Engels.
6. In one of the words highlighted below, an error was made in the formation of the word form.Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.
WAVE your hand
six SAUCERS
BEST way
SEVEN HUNDRED answers
curtain with tulle
7. Establish a correspondence between grammatical errors and the sentences in which they were made: for each position in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
OFFERS
A) incorrect use of the case form of a noun with a preposition
B) incorrect construction of a sentence with a participial phrase
C) disruption of the connection between subject and predicate
D) violation in the construction of a complex sentence
D) violation in the construction of sentences with homogeneous members
1) St. Basil's Cathedral has not only rich decor, but also an unusual overall composition.
2) I sincerely admired and loved this painting by Surikov; an unknown power emanated from it.
3) The generation of our fathers and grandfathers perceived the reforms with distrust.
4) Tired from a long walk, we wanted to get to the camp as quickly as possible.
5) In 1871–1872, Dostoevsky’s sixth novel with the defiant symbolic title “Demons” was published.
6) Once you see this clearing, you will not be able to forget it.
7) At the group meeting, issues of attendance and whether it was possible to take tests early were discussed.
8) Gorky could vividly depict the life of tramps, since he knew the life of these people well from the inside.
9) Contrary to expectations, service in the regiment was full of surprises, often pleasant.
8. Identify the word in which the unstressed vowel of the root being tested is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.
pl..sneeze
rel..mother
give me a hint
festival..val
unacceptable
9. Identify the row in which the same letter is missing in both words. Write out these words by inserting the missing letter.
pr..deeds (temple), pr..increased
in..south, confiscation
p..yesterday, nar..singing
s..ate (apple), super..bright
before..groovy, vz..small
10. Write down the word in which the letter E is written in the blank.
grow..grow
arrogant
man..k
de-energize (line)
11. Write down the word in which the letter I is written in place of the gap.
hide..hide
wounded..in (hand)
possessed (passerby dog)
expected..my
unnoticed
12. Determine the sentence in which NOT is spelled together with the word. Open the brackets and write down this word.
People who (DID NOT) WANT to submit to the pressure of militant indifference came to the aid of the city, memory, and art.
He imagined himself as a martyr and partly even proudly thought that the cup had not yet been drunk to the bottom, that he would still suffer for his honesty.
I shook her hand twice; the second time she pulled it out, (NOT) SAYING a word.
The French were repelled at all points, but we (DID NOT) have enough strength to cross the river that same day and complete the defeat.
Let it be (NOT) IN MY opinion, I am ready to compromise.
13. Determine the sentence in which both highlighted words are written CONTINUOUSLY. Open the brackets and write down these two words.
(DURING) THE CONTINUATION of the sea voyage, we (NOT) TIMES found ourselves in storms.
It was not THAT easy to lure Chekhov into a political party: he expressed his protest against injustice and cruelty (IN) HIS OWN.
(B) DIFFERENT from others, Zelensky was ready to speak, although he perfectly understood what Rybin had in mind when he made the appointment.
“(WHY) are you so sad?” – Maria asked with excitement in her voice, tilting her head (ON) TO THE SIDE.
WHATEVER the guest said, he knew how to (TRULY) ignite and inspire his interlocutor...
14. Indicate all the numbers in whose place NN is written.
I patiently examined the sandbank and the fresh wash of pebbles in search of interesting pebbles; a light breeze was blowing, the waves were gentle and calm. It seemed to me that I was wandering in a mystery (3), abandoned (4) by everyone in the world.
15. Punctuate . Specify two sentences in which you need to putONE comma. Write down the numbers of these sentences.
1) The motif of desolation and rotting, necrosis and degradation is closely connected with the image of Plyushkin in Gogol’s “Dead Souls”.
2) The Revolution and Civil War not only changed the socio-political situation in the country but also influenced the thoughts and attitudes of people.
3) The appearance of a stranger in the city was talked about the next day and a week later and even a month later.
4) Every day I tried to learn something new and did not want to waste a single hour or a single minute.
5) And in the morning the gray and hazy sea still roared and heavy splashes of surf flew onto the embankment.
16. Place all punctuation marks:
In the evening, grandfather Trofim (1), putting on a sheepskin coat (2), left the hut and appeared on the threshold only a couple of hours later with a bundle of firewood; covered with (3) gray frost (4) he looked like Santa Claus.
17. Place all the missing punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) in whose place(s) there should be a comma(s) in the sentence.
“I have a presentiment,” said the doctor, “that (1) poor Grushnitsky (2) will be your victim...
The princess said that your face is familiar to her. I noticed to her that (4) it’s true (5) she met you in St. Petersburg, somewhere in the world... I said your name... She knew it. It seems (6) your story made a lot of noise there... The princess began to talk about your adventures, adding (7) probably (8) her comments to the social gossip...<…>If (9) you want, I will introduce you...
18. Place all punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) in whose place(s) there should be a comma(s) in the sentence.
Late German romantics presented passions as external, often deceptive and hostile forces to man (1) as a toy in the hands (2) of which (3) he is (4) and likened love to fate.
19. Place all punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) in whose place(s) there should be a comma(s) in the sentence.
We did not know (1) that in these rude hearts there is enough space (2) to serve as a battlefield between God and the devil (3) and (4) that the idea of merging with the people or being separated from them is important only for us (5) and not for
public consciousness.
20. Edit the sentence: correct the lexical error,excluding unnecessary word. Write this word down.
Now the steppe opened up, distant and silent, now low, blood-stained clouds, and now people, the steam engine, and the thresher all at once drowned in the blackening darkness.
Read the text and complete tasks 21 – 26
(1) The sky was overcast with evil clouds, the rain sadly pounded the windows and made me sad. (2) In a thoughtful pose, with his vest unbuttoned and his hands in his pockets, the owner of the city pawnshop, Polikarp Semyonovich Iudin, stood at the window and looked at the gloomy street.
(3) “Well, what is our life? - he reasoned in unison with the crying sky. - (4) What is she? (5) Some kind of book with a lot of pages on which more suffering and grief are written than joys... (6) Why was it given to us? (7) After all, God, the good and omnipotent, did not create the world for sorrows! (8) But it turns out the other way around. (9) There are more tears than laughter..."
(10) Judah took his right hand out of his pocket and scratched the back of his head.
(11) “Well,” he continued thoughtfully, “in terms of the universe, obviously, there was no poverty, corruption and shame, but in reality they exist. (12) They were created by humanity itself. (13) It itself gave birth to this scourge. (14) And for what, one might ask, for what?”
(15) He took out his left hand and sadly ran it over his face.
(16) “But how easily it would be possible to help people’s grief: one would only have to lift a finger. (17) For example, there is a rich funeral procession. (18) A set of horses in black blankets is carrying a magnificent coffin, and a line of carriages is driving almost a mile behind. (19) The torchbearers step forward with lanterns. (20) Cardboard coats of arms are dangling from the horses: an important person is being buried, the dignitary must have died. (21) Has he done at least one good deed in his entire life? (22) Did you warm the poor man? (23) Of course not... tinsel!
- (24) What do you want, Semyon Ivanovich?
- (25) Yes, I find it difficult to evaluate the costume. (26) In my opinion, it is impossible to give more than six rubles for it. (27) And she asks for seven; He says the kids are sick and need to be treated.
- (28) And six rubles will be too much. (29) Don’t give more than five, otherwise we’ll go bankrupt. (30) Just take a good look around to see if there are any holes or stains left somewhere...
(31) “Okay, sir, so this is life that makes you think about human nature. (32) Behind the rich hearse is a cart, on which a pine coffin is loaded. (33) Only one old woman trudges behind her, splashing through the mud. (34) This old woman, perhaps, is burying her breadwinner son... (35) But let me ask if the lady sitting in the carriage will give her even a penny? (36) Of course, he won’t, although maybe he will express his condolences...”
-(37) What else is there?
- (38) The old woman brought a fur coat... how much should I give?
- (39) Rabbit fur... (40) Nothing, strong, worth five rubles. (41) Give three rubles, and interest, of course, forward... (42) “Where, in fact, are people, where are their hearts? (43) The poor are dying, but the rich don’t even care..."
(44) Judah pressed his forehead to the cold glass and thought. (45) Tears appeared in his eyes - large, shiny, crocodile tears.
(according to A.P. Chekhov*)
* Alexander Pavlovich Chekhov (1855–1913) - Russian writer, prose writer, publicist, elder brother of Anton Pavlovich Chekhov.
21. Which of the statements correspond to the content of the text? Please provide answer numbers.
1) The city pawnshop is on the verge of bankruptcy, so Judin, the owner of this pawnshop, cannot afford to engage in charity.
2) The lady in the carriage gave one kopeck to the old woman who was burying her son that day.
3) Funeral processions - rich and poor - led Polikarp Semyonovich to talk about the poor and the rich.
4) The owner of the pawnshop, despite his philanthropic reasoning, strictly looks after the financial interests of the establishment.
5) Polikarp Semyonovich is convinced that it is very easy to help people.
22. Which of the following statements arefaithful ? Please provide answer numbers.
Enter the numbers in ascending order.
1) Sentence 2 contains a description.
2) Sentences 11–14 present the narrative.
3) Proposition 23 contains the answer to the question formulated in sentences 21–22.
4) Sentences 34–36 present the reasoning
5) Proposition 45 explains the reason for what is said in sentence 44.
23. From sentences 39–45, write down antonyms (antonymic pair).
24. Among sentences 15–23, find one(s) that is related to the previous one using a coordinating conjunction and a personal pronoun. Write the number(s) of this sentence(s).
25. “Chekhov’s stories are compact in form and deep in content, and the author avoids direct value judgments - his voice sounds quiet, but at the same time firm and distinct. This is facilitated by a complex composition and, of course, a competent selection of visual and expressive means. In the presented fragment it is worth noting the trope – (A)__________ (“angry clouds” in sentence 1, “gloomy street” in sentence 2), lexical device – (B)__________ (“hanging out” in sentence 20, “we’ll burn out” in sentence 29 , “travels, spanking...” in sentence 33), syntactic device – (B)__________ (sentences 3, 14, 21). It is worth paying attention to such a technique as (G)__________ (sentence 11), which becomes, perhaps, one of the main ones in the construction of this text.”
List of terms:
1) phraseological units
2) antithesis
3) epithets
4) colloquial vocabulary
5) series of homogeneous members of the sentence
6) interrogative sentences
7) lexical repetition
8) hyperbole
9) synecdoche
26. Write an essay based on the text you read.
Formulate one of the problems posed by the author of the text.
Comment on the formulated problem. Include in your comment two illustrative examples from the text you read that you think are important for understanding the problem in the source text (avoid excessive quoting).
Formulate the position of the author (storyteller). Write whether you agree or disagree with the point of view of the author of the text you read. Explain why. Argue your opinion, relying primarily on reading experience, as well as knowledge and life observations (the first two arguments are taken into account).
The volume of the essay is at least 150 words.
ANSWERS:
1. Answer: 35|53.
2. Answer:however.
3. Answer: 3.
4. Answer:mosaic.
5. Answer:response.
6. Answer:tulle.
7. 94372
8. Answer:irreconcilable
9. Answer:ate superbright
10. Answer:little man
11. Answer:injuring
12. Answer:was missing
13. Answer:why sideways
14. Answer: 234.
15. Answer: 12
16. Answer: 124
17. Answer: 345678
18. Answer: 14.
19. Answer: 1235.
20. Answer:blackening|blackening.
21. Answer: 345
22. Answer: 134.
23. Answer: 21
25. Answer: 3462
Explanation.
1. The problem of human duplicity, hypocrisy. (What assessment is worthy of a person who complains about human vices and at the same time does evil himself?)1. A hypocrite, a two-faced person is worthy of ridicule and contempt.
2. The problem of true and false compassion and mercy. (How does true and false compassion manifest itself?)
2. Behind beautiful, compassionate speeches there is not always true compassion. Compassion and mercy are demonstrated by actions, not words.
* To formulate a problem, the examinee may use vocabulary that differs from that presented in the table. The problem may also be cited from the source text or indicated by reference to sentence numbers in the text.