PHONETIC-PHONOLOGICAL AND PROSODICAL TYPOLOGY.

The typology of sound organization of languages ​​arose in the 20th century. Its pioneers were members of the Prague Linguistic Circle. Thanks to the achievements of structural phonology (N.S. Trubetskoy), typological studies of the sound organization of languages ​​developed quickly and successfully.

(1) According to the number of vowels in the language:

Vocal (the number of vowels exceeds the average) - Danish, English, German, French.

Consonantal (the number of consonants exceeds the average) - Slavic languages, Arabic, Hebrew, Persian.

Due to articulatory and physiological reasons, in the languages ​​of the world there are generally fewer vowel sound types than consonants. Therefore, even in maximally vocal languages, the number of vowels rarely exceeds 50% of the total number of phonemes. While the number of consonants in consonantal languages ​​can reach 98% of the total inventory.

(2) By type of sound chains and syllable structure:

Syllabic, that is, languages ​​in which there are many restrictions imposed by the entire phonetic structure of the language on the compatibility of sounds. Valid syllables are combinations of “given” sounds. The number of different syllables is also strictly limited. (languages ​​of China and Southeast Asia)

Non-syllabic/phonemic, i.e. languages ​​where the main unit of meaning is the phoneme. The number of allowed syllables is more varied, although different languages ​​have very different restrictions (Arabic, Swedish, German, English)

(3) By the nature of the stress:

Tonic, i.e. languages ​​with tonic stress (Chinese languages, ancient Greek, Serbian, Croatian, Swedish, Lithuanian). With tonic stress, the stressed sound is distinguished by raising or lowering the tone.

Atonic, i.e. languages ​​with dynamic stress (English, German, most Slavic languages). With dynamic stress, the stressed sound is distinguished by a greater pressure of the exhaled air stream and greater muscular tension in the articulation of the stressed syllable.

Quantitative stress (a stressed syllable is distinguished by the duration of its sound) is typologically possible, but in reality it does not occur independently.

In a particular language, as a rule, one type of stress is represented - tonic or dynamic. However, there are still languages ​​in which two types of stress occur at once (Danish). Swedish uses all 3 types of stress, often in the same word.

MORPHOLOGICAL TYPES OF LANGUAGES.

Morphological typology is chronologically the first and most developed area of ​​typological research. It takes into account the ways of expressing grammatical meanings and the nature of the connection of morphemes in a word.

(1) By way of expression grammatical meanings:

Synthetic, i.e. languages ​​that are characterized by the combination of a grammatical indicator (prefix, suffix, ending, change of stress, internal inflection) with the word itself (Slavic languages, Sanskrit, Latin, Arabic)

Analytical, i.e. languages ​​that are characterized by the expression of grammatical meaning outside the word, separately from it. For example: using prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliary verbs. (Romance languages, Bulgarian, English)

Insulating, i.e. languages ​​in which a number of grammatical meanings (syntactic, relational) are expressed separately from the lexical meaning of a word (Chinese, Vietnamese, Khmer, Thai).

Incorporating/polysynthetic, i.e. languages ​​in which words are “overburdened” with various auxiliary and dependent root morphemes. Such a word turns into a sentence in meaning, but at the same time remains formalized as a word. (some Indian languages, Chukchi, Koryak).

(2) By the nature of the connection of morphemes:

Agglutinative (Turkic, Dravidian, Australian languages). In an agglutinative word, the boundaries between morphemes are quite distinct, while each affix has only 1 meaning and each meaning is always expressed by 1 affix.

Inflectional/fusional (ancient Greek, Latin, Slavic languages, English, French). A fusion word is characterized by the fact that service morphemes simultaneously express several grammatical meanings. For example: in the word wall, inflection –a has 3 meanings: zh.r., im. case, singular)

CONTENSIVE TYPOLOGY.

CONTENSIVE TYPOLOGY is research whose objects are subject-object structures of sentences.

Typological similarities and differences in the syntax of different languages ​​are to a certain extent revealed in morphological typology. However, in the categories of morphology it is impossible to understand the main subject of syntactic typology - the similarities and differences of languages ​​in the structure of the sentence. On this basis, typology identifies syntactic types of languages.

(1) According to the structure of the language:

Nominative, i.e. languages ​​in which the entire structure of the sentence is aimed at maximizing the distinction between the subject of an action and its object (Indo-European, Turkic, Mongolian languages)

Ergative, i.e. languages ​​in which the sentence structure is focused on maximizing the distinction between more active actions and less active actions (Ibero-Caucasian, Papuan languages)

Active, i.e. languages ​​in which the opposition of active and inactive action is expressed with greater consistency than in ergative languages ​​(autochthonous languages ​​of Northern and South America)

Cool, i.e. languages ​​that are characterized by the division of the main parts of speech into semantic classes. For example: categories of animals, plants, long, narrow, short objects. Each class corresponds to certain sentence structures. (languages ​​of Central Africa)

Neutral, i.e. languages ​​that (due to insufficient knowledge) can be characterized by the absence of those features that make up the differences between other systems (the languages ​​of West Africa).

(2) In word order:

Languages ​​with free vocabulary (Slavic languages)

Fixed word languages ​​(Japanese, Korean)

(3) According to the relative position of members in subordinate constructions:

Centripetal/ascending (cheese → Dutch). (Caucasian, Dravidian, Ural-Altaic languages)

Centrifugal/descending (Dutch ← cheese). (Semitic, Australonesian languages)

Moderately centripetal (Greek, Latin, English)

Moderately centrifugal (Italian, Spanish, Celtic languages)

(4) According to the method of syntactic development of the phrase:

The natural development of a phrase - the order of words or phrases reflects the order in which the components of thought appear in the speaker’s mind, or even the chronology of events or the hierarchy of objects.

The syntactic development of a phrase - the order of words - is guided by the models and schemes for the realization of thought developed in the language.

SOCIOLINGUISTIC TYPOLOGY OF LANGUAGES.

The fate of languages, their social history and the perspectives are profoundly different. And there is no social equality between languages. In the sociolinguistic “questionnaire” of languages, it is advisable to take into account the following features:

1. communicative rank of a language, corresponding to the volume and variety of communication in a particular language. The volume of communication is distributed extremely unevenly among the world's languages. A significant part of the volume of communication in the largest languages ​​of the world is communication outside those ethnic groups or countries for which the corresponding languages ​​are autochthonous. In sociolinguistics, there are 5 communicative ranks of languages, determined depending on the functions of languages ​​in interstate and interethnic communication:

World languages ​​are the languages ​​of interethnic and interstate communication that have the status of official and working languages ​​of the UN: English, Arabic, Spanish, Chinese, Russian, French.

International languages ​​are languages ​​that are widely used in international and interethnic communication and have the legal status of a state or official language in a number of countries (Portuguese, Spanish)

State (national) languages ​​- languages ​​that have the legal status of a state or official language and actually perform the functions of the main language in one country (Thai, Georgian)

Regional languages ​​are languages ​​of interethnic communication, usually written, but not having official or official status. state language(Breton, Catalan)

Local languages ​​are, as a rule, unwritten languages ​​used in oral informal communication only within ethnic groups in multiethnic societies.

2. the presence of writing and the duration of the written tradition. Of the 5-6 thousand languages ​​of the Earth, only 600-650 languages ​​have a written language. The presence of writing expands the communicative capabilities of language. However, in modern world It is the multifunctionality of the language that ensures the viability of his writing.

3. the degree of normalization of the language, the presence and nature of codification. The sociolinguistic parameter “standardization of language” is associated with the assessment of the integrity of the language. Different ethnic languages can differ significantly from each other in how close their constituent language formations (dialects, Koine, etc.) are to each other. In other words, how uniform, internally homogeneous and consolidated is the national language? Standardization aspects:

Does the language have a supra-dialectal formation that speakers of dialects use in interdialectal communication? If there is no supra-dialectal form of communication, then a national language standard has not yet emerged.

The relationship between this supra-dialectal means of communication and dialects. How more people speak a literary language, the closer the literary language is to dialects, the greater the degree of uniformity, i.e. standardization of the ethnic language.

The degree of codification, i.e. representation of literary norms in normative grammars and dictionaries.

The degree of difference between national variants of multiethnic languages.

4. type of standardized (literary) language, its relationship with non-standardized forms of language existence (dialects, vernaculars, etc.).

5. legal status of the language (state, official, constitutional, titular, official language of the state, language of the autonomous republic, language of the indigenous nationality, language of the nationality; official, working, authentic, documentary, semi-documentary, etc.) and its actual position in the conditions multilingualism

6. confessional status of the language. The main confessional functions of prophetic languages ​​became available to languages ​​- to be the language of Scripture and worship. However, while performing the functions of religious languages, new confessional languages ​​are not considered sacred.

7. educational and pedagogical status of the language. IN educational institutions languages ​​perform 3 main functions:

The language is used as an aid in teaching some other language

Language taught in

Language is a subject

Genealogical classification of languages.

Genealogical classification of languages, a classification based on the genetic principle, i.e., grouping languages ​​related by origin into language families. G.K.I. became possible only after the emergence of the concept linguistic relationship and approval of the principle of historicism in linguistic research (19th century). It develops as a result of studying languages ​​using the comparative historical method. Being historical and genetic in nature, G.K.I., in contrast to the multiplicity of typological and areal classifications, exists in the form of a single scheme. Being linguistic, it does not coincide with anthropological and, in particular, does not imply that peoples speaking related languages ​​belong to a single race. To prove the genetic relationship of languages, the existence of systemic tendencies in linguistic development is used. In this case, a specific criterion is the presence of systematic relationships - regular sound correspondences in the original material (in the dictionary, grammatical elements) of languages. However, the lack of identification of the latter between the languages ​​being compared does not yet allow one to assert the absence of kinship between them, since it may be too distant for any systematic relationships to be detected in the material of the languages.

Although the formation of language families occurs constantly, their formation, as a rule, dates back to the era before the appearance of class society. In the presence of phenomena of parallel and convergent development of languages, the leading role in this process belongs to the factor of linguistic differentiation. Language families are usually divided into smaller groups that include genetically more closely related languages; the emergence of many of them dates back to a very late time: cf. as part of the Indo-European languages, Slavic, Germanic, Italic (which gave rise to the Romance languages), Celtic, Indo-Iranian and other groups. Modern G.K.I. does not provide grounds for supporting the concept of monogenesis of the world's languages, popular in old linguistics.

Among the most famous language families of Eurasia and Oceania: Indo-European, Uralic, Turkic, Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu, Chukchi-Kamchatka, Tibeto-Chinese, Mon-Khmer, Malayo-Polynesian, Dravidian, Munda. In Africa they see only four large families languages: Semitic-Hamitic, or Afro-Asiatic (also widespread in the adjacent territory of Asia), Nilo-Saharan, Congo-Kordofanian, Khoisan. The least satisfactorily developed genealogical classification of the autochthonous languages ​​of America (in particular, the opinion of E. Sapir on the distribution of the languages ​​of North America between six language families has not yet been confirmed) and Australia, where it is not yet clearly distinguished from the typological one. Due to the difficulty of distinguishing between distantly related languages ​​and unrelated ones, in a number of cases there are purely hypothetical constructions: cf. the concepts of Altaic (as part of the Turkic, Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu languages ​​and sometimes Korean), Caucasian (as part of the Abkhaz-Adyghe, Kartvelian and Nakh-Dagestan languages) and Nostratic (as part of several large language families of Eurasia) families. Within the framework of known language families, the so-called also find their place. mixed languages: cf. the Indo-European identity of almost all creole languages. At the same time, certain languages ​​are also known that do not show genetic connections with others, which can be considered as the only representatives special families: for example, Basque - in Europe, Ket, Burusha, Nivkh, Ainu - in Asia, Kutenai, Zuni, Keres - in America.

Morphological classification of languages.

Morphological classification of languages, a classification based on similarities and differences in linguistic structure, as opposed to genealogical classification of languages. Until linguistic typology aimed to create a typological classification of languages, all typological classifications were almost exclusively morphological, since morphology long time was the most developed area of ​​linguistics. However, M. k. I. initially it was not thought of as being associated exclusively with the morphological level of language, but received its name due to the fact that the focus of its creators was the formal aspect of language.

Basic concepts of M.K.I. - morpheme and word; main criteria: the nature of the morphemes combined in a word (lexical - grammatical), the method of their combination (pre- or postposition of grammatical morphemes, which is directly related to syntax; agglutination - fusion, which relates to the field of morphonology); the relationship between morpheme and word (isolation, when morpheme = word, analyticism / synthetism of word formation and inflection), associated with syntax. M.K.I. seeks to characterize not specific languages, in which several morphological types are always represented, but the main structural phenomena and trends that exist in languages. M.K.I. was created and improved during the 19th century. German linguists A. Schlegel, H. Steinthal, W. Humboldt, A. Schleicher, and others. The American linguist E. Sapir tried to streamline the criteria of linguistic linguistics and introduced the concept of a degree of quality, based on the fact that a particular type can be realized in a language to a greater or lesser extent (for example, a language can be “almost amorphous” or “in highest degree agglutinative"), and created a flexible classification scale, bringing the data of linguistic linguistics closer to the real state of specific languages. Since the beginning of the 20th century, that is, since linguistic knowledge about the structure of language as a whole and about features of languages various types and language families, the creation of a general typological classification is neither the main nor the most pressing task of typology. It became obvious that a classification free from the shortcomings of traditional M.K.I. (fuzziness of basic concepts, lack of differentiation of different types of classification criteria, undeveloped ideas about necessary and sufficient criteria, inconsistency with specific language structures) and also including phonological, syntactic, semantic characteristics of the structure of the language, currently cannot yet be created. However, there are some trends in typology that fruitfully use the data of M.K.I. Thus, the American linguist J. Greenberg introduces a number of new criteria and the principle of quantitative assessment of the properties of language into Sapir’s classification.

Czech linguist V. Skalicka and other representatives of the so-called characterological typology study intrastructural patterns, according to which certain typological features are combined in one language, i.e. they develop characteristics of a language type. Soviet linguist B. A. Uspensky classifies linguistic elements and their groups according to ordered criteria, followed by languages ​​according to the presence / absence of certain groups of elements in them, and languages ​​are characterized relative to a certain standard language, structured in accordance with the general principles of M .k.i., interpreted accordingly.

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Morphological (typological) classification of languages ​​is a direction of linguistic research that is rooted in the most general and most important properties language and do not depend on their genetic relationship. It is based on the way of combining morphemes, typical for a particular language.

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History of classification The foundations of typology were laid by F. Schlegel, who distinguished between inflected and non-inflected languages. His brother, A.V. Schlegel, in addition to the first two, postulated a class of amorphous languages, and also introduced the opposition of synthetic and analytical systems for inflectional languages. W. von Humboldt identified the above types under their modern names; He considered incorporating languages ​​as a subclass of agglutinative ones. Subsequently, a number of morphological classifications were proposed, of which the most famous are the typologies of A. Schleicher, H. Steinthal, F. Misteli, N. Fink, F. F. Fortunatov. The most recent, well-founded and most detailed morphological classification was proposed in 1921 by E. Sapir.

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Selection parameters There are two traditional typological parameters: analytical and synthetic. In analyticism, grammatical meanings are expressed by separate function words, which can be either independent word forms (cf. will do) or clitics (cf. would do); The locus of grammatical morphemes is a separate syntactic position. In synthetism, grammatical meanings are expressed by affixes as part of the word form, that is, they can form one phonetic word with a supporting lexical root; locus of grammatical morphemes - at the lexical root.

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Types of morphological structures Isolating or amorphous Agglutative Incorporating or polysynthetic Inflectional

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Isolating languages ​​Isolating (amorphous) are languages ​​that have neither word formation nor inflection; express relationships between words either by juxtaposing them or through function words. Practically isolating languages ​​are extremely rare, although the tendency towards this type can be expressed to a very strong degree. Words in a maximally isolating language will consist of only one morpheme - the root, without forming either compound words or combinations with suffixes, prefixes, etc.

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Distribution Isolating languages ​​are widely spoken in Southeast Asia, such as Vietnamese, Classical Chinese (different from Modern Chinese). Almost all languages ​​in the region are isolating (the exception is Malay). Also, Austronesian languages ​​in this region exhibit more isolating features than other languages ​​in this group. Some other isolating languages ​​in the region are Burmese, Thai, Khmer in Cambodia, Lao, etc.

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Agglutinative languages ​​Agglutinative languages ​​(from the Latin agglutinatio - gluing) are languages ​​that have a structure in which the dominant type of inflection is agglutination (“gluing”) of various formants (suffixes or prefixes), and each of them carries only one meaning. In agglutinative languages, formants do not form indivisible structures and do not change under the influence of other formants. Usually agglutinative languages ​​contain many suffixes/morphemes in one word.

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Distribution Agglutinative languages ​​- Turkic, some Finno-Ugric, Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu, Korean, Japanese, Georgian, Basque, Abkhaz-Adyghe, Dravidian, part of the Indian and some African languages. The Sumerian language also belonged to the agglutinative languages.

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Incorporating languages ​​Polysynthetic (incorporating) languages ​​are languages ​​in which all members of a sentence (full incorporation) or some components of a phrase (partial incorporation) are combined into a single whole without formal indicators for each of them. With polysynthetism, all morphology tends to the verb, so polysynthetism really manifests itself in the complexity of verbal morphology. Polysynthetic languages ​​are characterized by long verbs that correspond to entire sentences of other languages. Formants in this type of language have only one meaning.

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Spreading Famous examples polysynthetic languages ​​- Chukchi-Kamchatka, Eskimo-Aleut and many language families North America. In the Abkhaz-Adyghe languages, although the noun system is very simple, the verb system is polysynthetic. The artificial (planned) languages ​​Ithkuil and Arachau are classified as polysynthetic.

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Inflectional languages ​​Inflectional system (from Latin flectivus “flexible”) is a structure of language in which inflection with the help of inflections dominates - formants that combine several meanings at once. A feature of inflected languages ​​is the presence irregular shapes. At the same time, inflected languages ​​tend to lose inflections as they develop. For example, Slovenian, Lithuanian, and Armenian languages ​​mainly retained the inflectional system of the Proto-Indo-European language, while English language and Afrikaans are almost analytical languages. Another typical feature of inflected languages ​​is their declensional systems. For example, in German The definite and indefinite articles change according to gender, number and case.

Linguists note that any possible similarities between the two languages ​​may be due to one of four reasons:

1) the relationship of languages, i.e. their common origin (genealogical factor);

2) mutual influence of languages, i.e. the emergence of similarities due to contacts of languages ​​(areal factor);

3) similarity of phonetic, semantic or grammatical structure (typological factor);

4) random coincidence (for example, bad means 'bad' in English and Persian).

Genealogical proximity is visible in the external similarity of words and roots in related languages, especially if you know phonetic processes: Russian. gold, Bulgarian gold, Polish zł oto, Latvian zelts, German Gold, English gold, lat. helvus– ‘amber-yellow’, ancient Indian. hari– ‘yellow, golden’. The narrower the genealogical community, the more identical features there are: in a subgroup there are more languages, in a group – fewer, in a family – even fewer. The result of the systematization of languages ​​by kinship is the genealogical classification of languages. Family ties Some languages ​​remain unidentified, for example, Japanese, Korean, Basque. Such languages ​​are considered genealogically isolated. Regarding some neighboring languages ​​(Paleo-Asian, Nilo-Saharan languages), it is not known what kind of similarity unites them - kinship or areal convergence.

The areal similarity of languages ​​arises due to the long-term proximity and contacts of peoples speaking these languages. The most common case of areal community is lexical borrowing. Sometimes such borrowings are characterized by considerable breadth and penetrate even into unrelated languages. Bright to that example - Belarusian, Russian, Ukrainian. school; Slovenian š ola, Polish szkoł a, German Schule, English school, Swedish skola, Latin school, fr. é cole, Hungarian iskola, Finnish koulu, Turkish okul - this is a general borrowing, through various linguistic means, going back to the Greek. schole(‘free time, doing something during leisure time, spending time in academic conversations’). Semantic, word-formation, morphological models can be traced - for example, in a number of Slavic languages ​​words with the meaning ‘taste’ developed under the influence of the French language figurative meaning‘feeling graceful’. Also, under French influence, the use of “polite” You and the corresponding forms of verbs developed in Slavic languages. Areal similarity is the opposite of genealogical proximity: areal interaction leads to a weakening of the original genetic closeness of related languages, and consequently to increasing dissimilarity. For example, in the Slovenian, Czech and partly in the Slovak languages, numerals denoting “non-round” numbers after 20 (21, 74, 95, etc.) began to be formed not according to the Proto-Slavic model (“names of tens + names of units”), but modeled on German numerals (“names of units + names of tens”): petindvajset (“5 and 20”), triinsedemdeset(“3 and 70”).

Typological similarity can manifest itself at all language levels: phonetic, lexical (semantic), grammatical. An example of a semantic typological pattern: in some languages ​​there are names of tools, mechanisms that were formed on the basis of figurative (metaphorical) use of animal names (or derivatives from animal names): Russian. winch - from swan, tongs - from tongs, coil - from kite,ruff(brush), top(toy), caterpillar(tank), many computer terms in English. language and translated into other languages; German Kranich– ‘crane’, Crane – ‘crane’, French. grue– ‘crane, crane’, Hungarian. daru– ‘crane; crane’, Hungarian kakas– ‘rooster, trigger, dog’, Turkish. horoz– ‘cock, trigger, door latch’ and many others. etc. Another typological pattern is the anthropomorphic vision of the world: in different languages, the names of parts of the relief go back to the names of parts of the body, like Russian. mountain range, mouth, branch of a river, foot of a mountain and many more etc.

The result of observations of the typological similarity of the grammatical structure of different languages ​​was typological(morphological) classification.

It arose later than the genealogical one, at the end of the 18th – beginning of the 19th centuries. For the first time, the question of the “type of language” was raised by German scientists (Friedrich Schlegel, August Schlegel, Wilhelm von Humboldt, August Schleicher).

Unlike the genealogical typological classification, languages ​​are divided into groups not on the basis of origin, but on the basis of the principles of their organization. The most developed is the morphological classification (there are also phonetic, syntactic and lexical typological classifications, but they are less developed). The morphological types of languages, grammatical means, and the generality of grammatical structure are compared. The morphological classification is based on 1) the methods used to express grammatical meanings; 2) the nature of the connection of morphemes in a word.

Typological classification considers languages ​​not historically, but synchronically; records what structure a language represents at a given stage of its development. The basis for identifying a language type is the word - the main unit of language. The type of language depends on how the word is grammatically formed and how the lexical and grammatical meanings are expressed.

Traditionally, the following types are distinguished:

inflectional languages ​​(synthetic and analytical);

agglutinative;

insulating (root);

incorporating (polysynthetic).

Inflected languages(from Latin flexio – ‘bending, transition’). Depending on the prevailing ways of expressing grammatical meanings, they distinguish synthetic(ancient - Sanskrit, Latin, all Slavic, except Bulgarian, Icelandic, Faroese, German, Arabic, Swahili, etc.) and analytical(all Romance, English, Danish, Modern Greek, Modern Persian, Bulgarian, Tajik, Hindi, etc.). In inflectional-synthetic languages, synthetic grammatical means predominate (affixation, internal inflection, suppletivism, reduplication, stress method). In inflectional-analytic languages, analytical means of expressing grammatical meanings (method of function words, word order, method of intonation) predominate. In the group of inflectional languages, a change in morphological type occurs over time: all analytical languages ​​were once synthetic.

Russian linguist of the 19th century. N. Krushevsky illustrated the differences between synthetic and analytical languages ​​with the following diagram:

|____ in synthetic languages ​​the beginning of the word does not change,

but its endings change;

_____| in analytical languages, the ending, on the contrary, remains

unchanged, and the grammatical function of a word is determined by what comes before it (function words).

Agglutinative languages. There are two types of morphemic structure of a word - fusion(from Latin fusio – ‘fusion’) and agglutination(from Latin agglutinatio – ‘gluing, gluing’). Fusion is observed in inflectional synthetic languages ​​- Russian, Latin, Ancient Greek, Lithuanian), agglutination - in agglutinative ones (of which there are much more on Earth than fusional ones: these are all the languages ​​of the Altai macrofamily (Turkic, Mongolian, etc.), Tungus-Manchu, Caucasian, some Finno-Ugric, Samoyed, African Bantu languages, Japanese, Korean, all Australian languages, most Indian languages).

Differences between agglutination and fusion:

1. With agglutination, the affix is ​​unambiguous, one affix - one grammatical meaning: Uzbek: daftar- 'notebook', daftar-lar– ‘notebooks’, daftar-lar-da– ‘in notebooks’, daftar-im-da– ‘in my notebook’, lar– plural indicator, Yes– indicator of local decline, them– indicator of belonging to 1 person, ha– dative case indicator – kyz-lar-ga– ‘to girls’. Georgian: sahl-eb-s – eb(plural), -With(dat.p.) – ‘at home’.

In fusion, the affix has multiple meanings, for example, the wall is white– inflection values A- three: gender, number, case. If you want to change only one grammatical value, you still need to change the entire grammatical indicator - red - red; house-y: inflection meanings - at– masculine, singular, dative case.

2. With fusion, the affixes are not standard, the same grammatical meaning, for example, meaning plural can be expressed by different affixes: masculine nouns can have plural endings in the nominative case - s(fruit),-And(horses), -A(shores), -I(edge, brothers), -e(peasants).

In agglutination, the affixes are standard, for example, the same affixes are used in all nouns, for example, Uzbek: odam- 'Human', odam-lar- 'People', odam-lar-da –'about people'; kitob-lar– ‘books’, kitob-ni– ‘book’, kitob-im- 'my book', kitob-lar-da– ‘in books’. The affix is ​​also used to indicate the plural in verbs lar:'he knows' - bila-di, 'they know' –beela-di-lar. Compare also the use of other standard affixes in verbs: bil-mok– infinitive – ‘to know’; bill-may- ('Not')- di(3 l.)- lar- 'they do not know'; He does not know' - bi-may-di;'I don't know' - bill-may-man;oh-may-di– ‘doesn’t open’, och-may-di-lar– ‘they don’t open’, uina-may-di-lar- ‘they don’t play’.

Tani-sh-tir-ol-ma-di-ng-iz:Tanya– root ‘to know’, w– reflexivity affix, shooting gallery– causative, ol- opportunity, ma– denial, di – past tense, ng– 2nd person, from– plural numbers (‘you were unable to introduce’).

From Turkish: yaz–ama–yor–sunuz:yaz'write', ama 'Can not', yor– pointer to indicative, sunuz–2nd person; translates to ‘you can’t write’.

Tatar word form tash-lar-im-da-gy-lar(tash- stone, lar– plural, th- possessive suf. 1 person, gee– local case) – ‘those on my stones’.

3. With agglutination, the boundaries between morphemes are quite clear, there is no phonetic interaction between morphemes, the morphemes are standard, they do not depend on the phonetic environment, however, intersyllabic synharmonism is observed - a uniform vocal design of the word: if the root has a front vowel, then the affix is ​​used with that or vowel - evler– ‘rooms’ (instead of evlar), Teshler– ‘teeth’, imenner – ‘oak trees’, urmannar- 'forests'.

With fusion, the boundaries between morphemes are indistinct; they seem to be fused and can pass within the sound (hence the term fusion(alloy), the term was introduced by the American linguist E. Sapir). For example, in the word narrator[ras:ka′sh":ik] the last consonant of the root [z] and the first suffix [h] are fused into one sound [sh":]; cut (in the sound [h] the last sound of the root [g] (strigu) and the initial sound of the infinitive indicator [t] -ti have merged), children's[dе′tskiy], desk - desk(hard-soft final consonant of the root), man – human(alternating b/h).

The processes of simplification and re-decomposition are not characteristic of an agglutinative word. The base of the word remains unchanged, affixes are easily “torn off” from the root. In agglutinative languages ​​there are no irregular verbs or similar morphological exceptions.

Isolating (root, amorphous, extremely analytical)languages. These include Vietnamese, Chinese (especially ancient Chinese), Khmer, Laotian, Thai, Malay-Polynesian (Maori, Indonesian, Ewe, Yoruba - one of the Qua-languages, common in Nigeria, Togo, Sierra Leone).

Isolating languages ​​are characterized by:

1) invariability of the word, absence of inflection forms, no indicators of number, person ( Hao Zhen- 'good man'; Zhen Hao –‘a person loves (me)’; siyu hao- 'to do good'; hao dagvih- 'very expensive');

2) the absence of grammatical indicators in the word, the word is equal to the root, words without grammatical indicators are, as it were, isolated from each other, parts of speech do not differ in morphological indicators: hee– ‘eat, lunch’; kaishi– ‘begin, beginning’. However, in modern Chinese There are already cases of using affixes, for example, the past completed tense is expressed using a suffix -le-:Warrior(We) nian-le(read) Liu(six) ke(lessons); a special suffix is ​​also used in pronouns to denote the plural ( in- I, vomen- We, neither- You, nemen- You, that- He, tamen– they), i.e. in modern Chinese there are already deviations from the isolating type, which in ancient Chinese was consistently maintained;

3) significant word order (subject before the predicate, definition before the word being defined, direct object always after the verb: mao pa gou, gou bu pa mao– ‘cats are afraid of dogs’, ‘dogs are not afraid of cats’), word order can also determine the status of a member of a sentence : gao shan– ‘high mountains’ (definition), Shan Gao– ‘the mountains are high’ (predicate);

4) the use of function words, for example, to convey an indirect object with a meaning similar to our dative case, a function word is used gays: Mama (mama) tsuo (do) fan (food) gays vomen (nam) hi (eat) – mom cooks dinner for us;

5) musical accent. In a literary language, 4 tones are distinguished; in dialects, their number increases to 9 (the same sound complex tang depending on the tone with which it is pronounced, it can mean 1) ‘soup’, 2) ‘candy’, 3) ‘sleep’, 4) ‘hot’);

6) semantically significant syllable division (the division of speech into syllables coincides with the morphemic division of speech).

Incorporating languages(from Latin incorporo - I insert) (polysynthetic - from Greek ‘many compounds’) - Paleo-Asian, many American Indian languages.

This type of language was first identified by W. von Humboldt in 1822. The basic unit is the incorporating complex, which is both a word and a sentence. In incorporating languages, the designation of objects of action, circumstances of action, and sometimes an indication of the subject of action is expressed by special affix words that are part of the verb form. The peculiarity of incorporating languages ​​is that they combine several bases expressing different concepts in one grammatical form. One complex word can include two, three or more stems. A typical sentence, for example, for the Chukchi language consists of several complex words. Thus, in the language of the Mexican Indians the word complex Ninakagua– ‘I eat meat’ seems to have a verb. But the verb in this language generally cannot be used on its own, separately from other words. You cannot separately say “there is”, or “I eat”, or “give”, or “I will give”. Five, six, ten words are intertwined with each other, even entering into their neighbors, forming, in our opinion, a strange word that expresses the meaning of the whole phrase. Thus, what in Indo-European languages ​​is expressed in the system of a whole sentence, in incorporating languages ​​can be conveyed using a single word, hence their name: “integrating” or “multi-integrating” (polysynthetic).

Chukotka: you-mine’-vala-mna-pyn’a– ‘I’m sharpening a big knife’: You('I'), main'('big'), shaft('knife'), me('from'), pyn'a(sharpen).

You-tor-tan’-pylvyn-you-poigy-pelya-rykyn– ‘I’m leaving a new good metal spear’.

Blackfoot language (Algonquian group): it-sipi-oto-isim-iu– ‘that dog went to drink at night’: ohm(‘ta’) imita-ua(‘there is a dog’); it('Then'), sipi('at night'), oto(‘went’), isim('drink') yiwu(3 l.);

Chinook language: inialudam– ‘I came to give it to her’;

language of the Ojibwe (Chippewa) tribe, Indian epic “The Song of Hiawatha”: vnitokuchumpunkuryuganiyugvivantumyu– ‘those who, while sitting, cut black tame bison (= cows) with knives’.

In the new classification languages ​​are divided into analytical and synthetic; for this purpose, syntheticity indices are determined. The synthetic index is a value that expresses the degree of complexity of the morphological structure of words in a language, numerically equal to the ratio of the number of morphs to the number of words in a certain text. The minimum synthetic index is 1, and each word consists of one morpheme. The language that actually exists with such an index is Vietnamese (1.06). Typically, analytical languages ​​are considered languages ​​for which the syntheticity index is less than 2 (sometimes they are divided into isolating (Vietnamese - 1.06) and analytical (modern English -1.68)). Languages ​​with a syntheticity index from 2 to 3 are considered synthetic (Sanskrit - 2.12, Anglo-Saxon -2.12, Russian - 2.39, Yakut - 2.17, Swahili - 2.55), and languages ​​with a syntheticity index higher 3 – polysynthetic (Eskimo – 3, 72).

Test questions and practical assignments on the topic “Typological classification of languages”

What underlies the typological (morphological) classification of languages?

Describe inflected languages.

Describe agglutinative languages.

What is the difference between agglutination and fusion as two types of affixation?

Describe root (isolating) languages.

Describe incorporating (polysynthetic) languages.

Speaking about the grammatical meaning expressed by a word as part of a statement, the leading American linguist Edward Sapir (1884-1939) noted: “In a Latin sentence, each member confidently speaks for itself, but the English word needs the services of its companions.” What did the scientist mean? What services does a word in an utterance provide to other words? And more broadly: what two types of languages ​​are we talking about?

Below are several phrases in Estonian with their translation into Russian.

Sa kirjutad raamatut. – You are writing a book.

Ma valisin vihikut. – I chose a notebook.

Te ehitasite veskit. -You were building a mill.

Me ehitame veski. - We will build a mill.

Sa viisid raamatu. - You brought the book.

Translate into Estonian: We built a mill. I was writing a book. We are building a mill. You carried the notebook. You will choose a book.

2. Below are phrases in Swahili with their translations into Russian:

Atakupenda- he will love you.

Nitawapiga- I will beat them.

Atatupenda- he will love us.

Anakupiga- he hits you.

Nitampenda- I will love him.

Unawasumbua- you irritate them.

Translate the following phrases into Swahili. You will love them. I annoy him.

3. Before you is a dialogue in Modern Greek, written in Russian letters.

- Xerete afton ton anthropon?

- Ne, xero.

- Pyos ine aftos o anthropos?

- Aphtos o anthropos ine o Hellinas apo tin Cypron. To onoma aftu tu antropu ine Andreas.

- Mila Ellinika?

- Fisika, dear Ellinika, poly feces. Ke mila Rusika.

- Ke sis, milate Rusika kala?

- Oh, that’s great Rusika. Xero mono maricus lexis ke phrasis. Milo ke grafo Anglica kala. Ke sis, xerete Anglica?

- No, xero afti ti glossa.

- Afto ine kala.

Assignment: translate this dialogue into Russian.

4. Sanskrit verb forms and their translations into Russian, written in a different order, are given:

nayasi, icchati, anayam, nayā mi, icchasi, icchā mi, anayat- I want, you lead, he wants, I lead, I led, you want, he led.

Task: establish the correct translations.

5. The following lak forms of the word are given: house with their translations and explanation of their use using examples in sentences:

qatluvu - in the house (I am in the house);

qatlukhuh - behind the house And past the house (I pass behind the house);

qatluvatu – from the house (I leave the house);

qatlulu - under the house (I am under the house);

qatluy - on the house (I am on the house, those. on the roof of the house);

qatluvun - into the house (I enter the house);

qatlukhatu – from behind the house (I leave from behind the house);

qatlulun - under the house (I enter, those. I'm going down under the house);

qatluykh - around the house(leaving him underneath) (I'm walking through the house, i.e. on the roof of the house).

Exercise. Translate into Lak:

from under the house (I am leaving from under the house);

through (through) the house (I pass through the house);

to the house (I'm entering, i.e. I'm getting up on house, i.e. on the roof of the house).

6. The forms of the Azerbaijani verb with translation into Russian are given:

1) bakhmag - to look;

2) bahabilmamag - not being able to look;

3) bahyrammy - am I watching?

4) bahyshabilirlar - they can look at each other;

5) bakhmadylar - they didn’t look;

6) bakhdyrabildymy - could he force you to watch?

7) bakhdyryram - I make you watch;

8) bakhmasady - if he was not looking;

9) bakhmalydysan - you should have watched.

Task 1. Describe the order in which the affixes are located in the Azerbaijani verb, what meanings they have.

Task 2. Translate into Azerbaijani:

Are you watching?

They didn't look at each other.

Make you watch.

If he could watch.

8. The verb forms of the old written Japanese language with translations into Russian are given:

1) tasukezarubekariki - he should not have helped;

2) tasukezarurashi - he probably didn’t help;

3) tasukeraresikaba - if he were helped;

4) tasukesaserarekeri - he was forced to help(for a long time) ;

5) tasukesaseki - he forced him to help;

6) tasukeraretariki - they helped him;

7) tasuketakarikari - he wanted to help(for a long time).

Task 1. Translate into Russian:

tasukesaseraredzarubekarishikaba.

Task 2. Translate into old written Japanese:

they helped him(for a long time); if he wanted to help; he was probably not forced to help; he helped.

8. The following words are given in the Komi language:

vőrny, vőrzyn, vőrződny, vőrődyshtny, vőrődny, padmyny, padmődny, lebzyn, lebny, gazhődyshtny, gazhődny, seyny, seyyshtny.

Here are translations of some of them into Russian (in a different order): move, hold, eat, move, linger, move, have fun, move, fly.

Exercise. Determine which translation corresponds to which word, and give translations of the remaining words in the Komi language.

The concept of linguistics. Sections of linguistics.

Linguistics is the science of natural human language, studying its structure, functioning and historical development, its properties and functions.

Linguistics is the science of all the languages ​​of the world as individual representatives of natural human language. Currently, there are about three to seven thousand languages ​​on earth. It is impossible to establish an exact figure, which is due, on the one hand, to the abundance of dialects in certain languages.

Linguistics is divided into sections: general and specific.

General linguistics is divided into the following main levels of language: phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic.

Phonetics is the science of the sound side of language; the subject of its study is the sounds of speech.

Lexicology deals with the study of the dictionary (vocabulary) of a language.

Morphology is that part of the grammatical structure of a language that unites the grammatical classes of words (parts of speech), the grammatical (morphological) categories and forms of words belonging to these classes.

Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of phrases and sentences and the functional interaction of various parts of speech in them. It is an integral part of grammar.

Special sciences of language study individual languages ​​and their groups. According to the object of study, the following special sciences about language are distinguished: 1) according to a separate language - Russian studies, Japanese studies, etc.; 2) according to the group of related languages ​​- Slavic studies, Turkic studies, etc.; 3) according to the geographical affiliation of languages ​​- Balkan studies, Caucasian studies, etc.

Morphological classification of languages.

Languages ​​can be combined into one typological group based on the characteristics of their morphological structure. The morphological structure of a word is the totality of its morphemes.

Classification based on the morphological structure of a word is called morphological.

According to the morphological classification, languages ​​are divided into four groups: 1) root-isolating, or amorphous, 2) agglutinative, 3) inflectional, 4) incorporating, or polysynthetic.

Root-isolating languages ​​are characterized by the absence of inflection; the stem of the word coincides with the root. Word order has great grammatical significance. Such languages ​​include Chinese, Vietnamese, Dungan, Muong, etc. Modern English is evolving towards root isolation.

Languages ​​of the second type are called agglutinative, or agglutinating. Languages ​​of this type are characterized by a developed system of inflection, in which each grammatical meaning has its own indicator. Agglutinative languages ​​are characterized by the presence of a common type of declension for all nouns and a common type of conjugation for all verbs. The agglutinative type of languages ​​includes Turkic, Tungus-Manchu, Finno-Ugric and some other languages, as well as the Esperanto language ( international language, international words, often understandable without translation, and 16 basic grammatical rules).

The third type is represented by inflected languages. For languages of this type Characterized by a developed system of inflection and the ability to convey several grammatical meanings with one indicator. The inflectional type of languages ​​includes Slavic, Baltic, Italic, some Indian and Iranian languages.

The fourth type includes incorporating languages. Languages ​​of this type are characterized by combining a whole sentence into one large complex word. In this case, grammatical indicators form not individual words, but the entire word-sentence as a whole.

1.1.Political democracy……………………………………………………………………

1.2. Social value of democracy……………………………………………

1.3. The role of democracy in the implementation of personnel policy…………………

1.4. The main advantages and disadvantages of the purpose principle………………

1.5.Electivity as the only way formation of representative bodies and the best way to resolve personnel issues………………….

1.6. Basic principles of democracy……………………………………………………8

2. Varieties of democracy……………………………………………… 9

2.1. People's democracy…………………………………………………….

2.2. Pluralistic democracy………………………………………….

3. Liberalism…………………………………………………………………..10

3.1. The basic premise of liberalism…………………………………….

3.2. Liberalism as historically and logically the first stage in the formation of democracy………………………………………………………………………………………….

3.3. Identification of liberalism with democracy……………………………

3.4.Liberal democracy, as a compromise between liberalism and democracy……………………………………………………………………………………….

4. Forms of democracy…………………………………………………………16

4.1. Representative democracy…………………………………………………….

4.2. Direct (direct) democracy……………………………….

5. Problems of establishing democracy in Russia…………………………19

5.1. Russia as a country on the path of transition from one political regime to another…………………………………………………………………………………………

5.2. Democratization as the formation of a democratic way of life of the people…………………………………………………………………………………….

5.3. The reason for the long-term and difficult process of transition to integral democracy in Russia……………………………………………………….

5.4. Formation of institutions of democracy……………………………………………………...

6.Features of the democratic process in Russia…………………….22

7.Conclusion………………………………………………………………….32

8. References Introduction

The idea of ​​democracy shares the fate of general, abstract ideas that have survived several eras, each time being filled with new concrete historical content and contradictions. Accordingly, the nature of the philosophical concept of democracy and the tasks the solution of which it has in mind can only be realized as a result of an analysis of the specific and complex conditions that gave the idea of ​​democracy new significance and meaning.

The democracy that we want to build in Russia today is a democracy with different problems than in the West, generated by the history of the country and the desire to renew the social and political system in conditions that are sharply different from those in which the formation of modern democracy took place in European countries. The point here is not about the “Eurasianism” of Russia, but about 1) the need to rediscover the principles of democracy and liberalism, in accordance with the historical traditions, culture and factors of the modern existence of Russia, and 2) the relevance of combining the experience of political democracy of the “tops” with elements of democracy in the experience "bottoms".

Modern democracy for modern Russia is, in the long term, democracy as a way of life of the people, which must synthesize both political democracy and democracy in the traditions, customs, and mentality of the multi-ethnic, multi-confessional people of Russia. Political democratization must be combined with social democratization, democracy of everyday life, in the way of life of every citizen and social groups. And this presupposes a number of conditions, and above all, the moral and material uplift of the masses, the economic, social and legal protection of every citizen from the arbitrariness of officials, from violence and accidents both within the country and in the outside world.

The formation of democracy as a way of life of the people is also based on the socio-political activity of each citizen, on his high spirituality and cultural wealth. In this matter, the peculiarity of our country is such that, due to the historical inclusion of Russia since the time of Peter I in the European socio-political and cultural system, spiritual life in our country has been modernized over the centuries faster than the economic and social living conditions of its population. Hence a kind of inversion of the interaction of socio-economic and spiritual factors of modernization in comparison with countries Western Europe: spiritual maturity " cultural society» Russia in in a certain sense ahead of material. The question of the maturity of Russian society for new European transformations loses its former unambiguity and becomes a question of discovering and establishing a new connection between “being” and “consciousness”, their new unity.

The problem of democracy is one of the most pressing for modern society in general, for Russia in particular for a number of reasons.

Firstly, the historical experience of the second half of the twentieth century has shown that countries with democratic regimes, as a rule, achieve greater economic success than countries with authoritarian regimes. This is due to the fact that it is democracy that creates the best conditions for the manifestation of initiative, without which effective production is impossible.

Secondly, governments of countries with democratic regimes tend to make fewer mistakes in governance, not to mention abuses of power and crimes against individuals. In other words, democracy is a kind of defense mechanism society from usurpation of power. Democracy is not always able to fulfill this protective function. During crises, democratic mechanisms also fail, but in developed countries these are still exceptions to the rule.

Thirdly, for modern man democracy is increasingly becoming an independent value. People do not want to be the wheels and cogs of any system, even a well-functioning one; they prefer to solve their problems themselves.

Fourthly, in Russia the problem of democracy is particularly acute, since the country is experiencing the beginning of a long and difficult period of formation of democratic forms of government. The situation is complicated by the very wide spread in the mass consciousness of stereotypes of authoritarian-patriarchal culture developed by the history of Russia in pre-Soviet and Soviet times.

Based on the above, the relevance of the chosen topic is beyond doubt.

The purpose of the work: to give the concept of democracy, to characterize modern problems and prospects for the democratic development of Russia.