Sections: History and social studies

The formation and development of ancient Russian culture was inextricably linked with the same historical factors and conditions that influenced the formation of statehood, the development of the economy of Rus', the political and spiritual life of society. The rich cultural heritage of the Eastern Slavs, their beliefs, experience, customs and traditions - all this was organically combined with elements of the culture of neighboring countries, tribes and peoples. Rus' did not copy or recklessly borrow someone else's heritage; it synthesized it with its own cultural traditions. The openness and synthetic nature of Russian culture largely determined its originality and originality.

Oral folk art continued to develop even after the appearance of written literature. Russian epic of the 11th – early 12th centuries. enriched with stories dedicated to the fight against the Polovtsians. The image of Vladimir Monomakh, the initiator of the fight against the nomads, merged with the image of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. By the middle of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. This includes the appearance of Novgorod epics about the “guest” Sadko, a wealthy merchant descended from an ancient boyar family, as well as a cycle of tales about Prince Roman, the prototype of which was the famous Roman Mstislavich Galitsky.

Ancient Rus' knew writing even before the official adoption of Christianity. This is evidenced by numerous written sources, such as the agreement between Prince Oleg and Byzantium, and archaeological finds. Around the first half of the 1st millennium AD. e. primitive pictographic writing (“traits” and “cuts”) arose. Later, the Slavs used the so-called Proto-Cyrillic alphabet to write complex texts. The creation of the Slavic alphabet is associated with the names of the Christian missionaries brothers Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius. In the second half of the 9th century. Kirill created the Glagolitic alphabet - the Glagolitic alphabet, and at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries. Based on the Greek letter and elements of the Glagolitic alphabet, the Cyrillic alphabet arose - an easier and more convenient alphabet, which became the only one among the Eastern Slavs.

The Baptism of Rus' at the end of the 10th century. contributed to the rapid development of writing and the spread of literacy. The Slavic language, understandable to the entire population, was used as the language of church services, and as a result of this, its development as a literary language occurred. (In contrast to the Catholic countries of Western Europe, where the language of church services was Latin, and therefore early medieval literature was predominantly Latin.) Liturgical books and religious literature began to be brought to Rus' from Byzantium, Bulgaria, and Serbia. Translated Greek literature of ecclesiastical and secular content appeared - Byzantine historical works, descriptions of travel, biographies of saints, etc. The first handwritten Russian books that have reached us date back to the 11th century. The oldest of them are “Ostromir Gospel”, written by Deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir in 1057, and two “Izbornik” of Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich 1073 and 1076. The highest level of craftsmanship with which these books were made testifies to the existence of traditions of making handwritten books by this time.

The Christianization of Rus' gave a powerful impetus to the spread literacy. The “bookish men” were princes Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod Yaroslavich, Vladimir Monomakh, Yaroslav Osmomysl.

Highly educated people met among the clergy, among wealthy townspeople and merchants. Literacy was not uncommon among commoners. This is evidenced by inscriptions on handicrafts, church walls (graffiti), and finally, birch bark letters, first discovered during archaeological excavations in Novgorod in 1951, and then in other cities (Smolensk, Pskov, Tver, Moscow, Staraya Russa) . The wide distribution of letters and other documents on birch bark indicates a fairly high level of education of a significant layer of the ancient Russian population, especially in cities and their suburbs.

Based on the rich traditions of oral folk art, arose Old Russian literature. One of its main genres was chronicle - weather report of events. Chronicles are the most valuable monuments of the entire spiritual culture of medieval society. The compilation of chronicles pursued very specific political goals and was a matter of state. The chronicler not only described historical events, he had to give them an assessment that met the interests of the prince-customer.

According to a number of scientists, the beginning of chronicle writing dates back to the end of the 10th century. But the oldest chronicle that has come down to us, based on earlier chronicles, dates back to 1113. It went down in history under the name “The Tale of Bygone Years” and, as is commonly believed, was created monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. Answering the questions posed at the very beginning of the story (“Where did the Russian land come from, who was the first prince in Kiev, and how did the Russian land begin to exist”), the author unfolds a wide canvas of Russian history, which is understood as an integral part of world history (under the world in those times Biblical and Roman-Byzantine history was implied). The “Tale” is distinguished by the complexity of its composition and the variety of materials included in it; it absorbed the texts of treaties, as if illustrating records of events, retellings of folk legends, historical stories, lives, theological treatises, etc. Later

The Tale of Bygone Years,” in turn, became part of other chronicle collections. From the 12th century a new period begins in the history of Russian chronicles. If earlier the centers of chronicle writing were Kyiv and Novgorod, now, after the fragmentation of the Russian land into many different-sized principalities, chronicles are created in Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Vladimir, Rostov, Galich, Ryazan and other cities, acquiring a more local, local character.

One of the oldest monuments of ancient Russian literature is the famous “Sermon on Law and Grace” by the princely priest in Berestovo and the future first Russian metropolitan of Kiev Hilarion (40s of the 11th century). The content of the “Word” was the substantiation of the state-ideological concept of Ancient Rus', the determination of the place of Rus' among other peoples and states, and its contribution to the spread of Christianity. The ideas of Hilarion’s work were developed in the literary and journalistic monument of the second half of the 11th century. “In memory and praise of Vladimir,” written by the monk Jacob, as well as in “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” - about the first Russian saints and patrons of Rus'.

At the beginning of the 12th century, new literary genres were formed in ancient Russian culture. These are teachings and walking (travel notes). The most striking examples are the “Instructions for Children”, compiled in his declining years by the Kyiv Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh, as well as the famous “Walking” created by one of his associates, Abbot Daniel, which describes his journey to holy places through Constantinople and Fr. Crete to Jerusalem.

At the end of the 12th century. The most famous of the poetic works of ancient Russian literature was created - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”. The basis of the plot of this small secular work was the description of the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians of Novgorod-Seversk Prince Igor Svyatoslavich (1185). The unknown author of the Lay apparently belonged to the druzhina nobility of one of the southern Russian appanage principalities. The main idea of ​​the “Tale” was the need for unity of Russian princes in the face of external danger. At the same time, the author was not a supporter of the state unification of the Russian land; his call was aimed at agreement in actions, to an end to civil strife and princely strife. Apparently, these ideas of the author of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” did not find a response in the society of that time. Indirect evidence of this is the fate of the manuscript of “The Lay” - it was preserved in the only copy (which was lost during the fire of 1812 in Moscow).

Much more widespread in Rus' was another remarkable work, preserved in two main editions - “The Word”, or “Prayer”, by Daniil Zatochnik (late 12th - first quarter of the 13th century). It was written in the form of an appeal to the prince on behalf of the author - an impoverished princely servant, perhaps a warrior who fell into disgrace. A staunch supporter of strong princely power, Daniel paints an ideal image of a prince - a defender of his subjects, capable of protecting them from the tyranny of “strong people”, overcoming internal strife and ensuring security from external enemies. The brightness of the language, masterful rhyming play on words, an abundance of proverbs, aphorism, and sharply satirical attacks against the boyars and clergy ensured this talented work great popularity for a long time.

Reached a high level in Rus' architecture. Unfortunately, the monuments of ancient Russian wooden architecture have not survived to this day. Few stone structures survived, since a significant part of them was destroyed during Batu’s invasion. Monumental stone construction began in Rus' at the end of the twentieth century, after the adoption of Christianity. The principles of stone construction were borrowed by Russian architects from Byzantium. The first stone building - the Tithe Church in Kyiv (end of the 10th century, destroyed in 1240) was erected by Greek craftsmen. Excavations revealed that it was a powerful structure made of thin brick, decorated with carved marble, mosaics, glazed ceramic slabs, and frescoes.

Under Yaroslav the Wise (probably around 1037), Byzantine and Russian craftsmen built the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, which has survived to this day (though not in its original form, but significantly rebuilt from the outside). St. Sophia Cathedral is a wonderful monument not only of architecture, but also of fine art. Kiev Sophia is already significantly different from Byzantine examples in the stepped composition of the temple, the presence of thirteen domes crowning it, which was probably reflected in the traditions of Russian wooden architecture. The interior of the temple is decorated with mosaics and frescoes, some of which were apparently created by Russian masters, or, in any case, painted on Russian subjects.

Following the Kyiv Sophia, the St. Sophia Cathedral was built in Novgorod (1045–1050). And although there is a clear continuity between these two architectural monuments, the appearance of Novgorod Sophia already reveals the features of the future Novgorod architectural style. The temple in Novgorod is stricter than the one in Kyiv, it is crowned with five domes, there are no bright mosaics in the interior, but only frescoes, more severe and calm.

From the 12th century a new stage in the development of Russian architecture began. Architecture of the 12th–13th centuries. distinguished by less monumental buildings, the search for new simple and at the same time elegant forms, rigor, even stinginess of decoration. In addition, while maintaining the common features of architecture in different centers of Rus', local stylistic features are developed. In general, the architecture of this period is characterized by a combination of local traditions, forms and elements of the Western European Romanesque style borrowed from Byzantium. Particularly interesting buildings from this period have been preserved in Novgorod and in the cities of the Vladimir-Suzdal region.

In Novgorod, princely construction was reduced; boyars, merchants, and residents of this or that street began to act as customers for churches. The last of the princely Novgorod churches is the modest and elegant Church of the Savior on Nereditsa (1198), destroyed during the Great Patriotic War and then restored.

Russian medieval architecture is one of the most striking pages in the cultural history of Rus'. Architectural monuments fill our ideas about the development of culture with living, imaginative content and help us understand many aspects of history that are not reflected in written sources. This fully applies to the monumental architecture of the ancient, pre-Mongol period. As in the Western European Middle Ages, Russian architecture of the X-XIII centuries. was the main type of art, subordinating and including many other types, primarily painting and sculpture. From this time to the present day, brilliant monuments have been preserved, often not inferior in their artistic perfection to the best masterpieces of world architecture.
The thunderstorms that swept over Russia, unfortunately, wiped out many architectural monuments from the face of the earth. More than three quarters of the ancient Russian monumental buildings of the pre-Mongol period have not survived and are known to us only from excavations, and sometimes even from their mere mention in written sources. Of course, this made it very difficult to study the history of ancient Russian architecture. Nevertheless, over the past three decades, great strides have been made in this area. They are due to several reasons. First of all, it is worth noting the methodological approach, which provides for an analysis of the development of architecture in inextricable connection with the socio-economic and political history of Rus', with the development of Russian culture. It is equally important that, thanks to the wide scope of architectural and archaeological research, the number of monuments involved in study has significantly increased.

Restoration work carried out on many of them made it possible to get closer to understanding the original appearance of the structures, which, as a rule, turned out to be distorted over the long years of existence and operation. It is also very important that architectural monuments are now considered comprehensively, taking into account equally the historical, artistic, and construction-technical aspects.
As a result of the successes achieved, it became possible to understand the development of ancient Russian architecture with much greater completeness than before. Not everything in this process is still completely clear, many monuments have not yet been studied, but the overall picture nevertheless emerges quite clearly now.

IX -XIII centuries XIV-XV centuries 3. Birch bark letters as evidence of the spread of literacy in cities and suburbs 1. Replacement of parchment with paper. 2. Monasteries still remain the centers of book learning - the origin of book printing Ivan Fedorov. The first book is “Apostle” - 1564, “Book of Hours”, Psalter Correspondence of I. the Terrible with A. Kurbsky. 3. Basic knowledge of salt making, history 1. Growth of printed materials. 2. The emergence of public and private libraries - the opening of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy by Simeon of Polotsk - “Primer” by V. Burtsev, “Grammar” by M. Smotritsky 5. “Synopsis” - historical work by I. Gisel

IX -XIII centuries XIV-XV centuries Monomakh XII century 4. “The Tale of Igor’s Host” (about the events of 1185) 5. “The Word and Prayer” by D. Zatochnik (XII-XIII centuries) 1. Sophony of Ryazan “Zadonshchina” - end of the XIV century 2. The work of Epiphanius the Wise “Life of Sergius Radonezh" 3. Af. Nikitin "Walking beyond the three seas" 4. "Life of Al. Nevsky" (XIII-XIV centuries) 1. Sylvester "Domostroy" 2. A. Kurbsky "The Story of the Grand Duke of Moscow" 3. Encyclopedic work " Great Chetya-Menaion" under the direction of Macarius 4. Philotheus "Moscow - the Third Rome" 5. Ermolai Erasmus "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia" 6. The emergence of the genre of journalism (Ivan Peresvetov and Abraham Palitsyn) 1. The emergence of the genre of historical story "The Tale of Seat of Azov" (1642) 2. The appearance of autobiographical works "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum" 3. Satirical stories 4. The work of Simeon of Polotsk 5. Virshi - poetic works of love, everyday, satirical motifs

IX -XIII centuries XIV-XV centuries .Intercession on the Nerl Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (1326; 1475 A. Fioravanti) 2. Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (house church of the royal family) 3. Faceted Chamber - M. Fryazin Place of ceremonial receptions 4. Trinity-Sergius Monastery -1337. 5. Andronikov Monastery (Moscow, 1427) 6. Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (Vologda 1397) 7. Solovetsky Monastery (Arkhangelsk) 1. Construction of China Town (F. Kon) 2. Wall of the White City (F. Kon) 3. Novodevichy Convent (in honor of the capture of Smolensk by Vasily III) 4. Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye 1532 (in honor of the birth of Ivan the Terrible) 5. Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin A. Fryazin () Tomb of the Russian Tsars. 6. Kazan Cathedral. Barma. Postnik (in honor of the capture of Kazan by Ivan IV) 7. Bell tower of Ivan the Great Bon Fryazin. 1505 1. A new style appears - Naryshkin Baroque 2. Palace in Kolomenskoye Work of architects Bazhen Ogurtsov, Larion Ushakov, Chirin, Savin.

IX –XIII centuries XIV-XV centuries XVI century XVII in painting 1. Iconography of Alimpius 1. Iconography of Theophanes the Greek. Painting of the Annunciation Cathedral. 2. The works of Andrei Rublev () 1. Iconography of Dioni. () Assumption Cathedral. 2. Stroganov school of painting 1. The emergence of the parsuna genre 2. Simeon Ushakov ()master of the armory travelers Af. Nikitin – research of Crimea, Turkey, India. “Walking across three seas” 1. Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev () exploration of Siberia, passage from the Arctic Ocean to the Pacific, the strait between Asia and America 2. Khabarov Erofey Pavlovich () exploration of the Amur. 3. Atlasov Vladimir Vasilievich () - study of Kamchatka

Culture test. * A1 Indicate the earliest cathedral in terms of construction? 1) Sofia in Kyiv 2) Dmitrievsky in Vladimir 3) Sofia in Novgorod 4) Uspensky in Vladimir * A2. A popular genre in Rus', in which the narrative went from year to year: 1) chronicle 2) chronicle 3) hagiography 4) walking * A3. Read an excerpt from a literary work and indicate the year to which it refers: “It was not proper for us, brothers, to begin with ancient words the difficult story of the campaign of Igor Svyatoslavovich... Let us begin, brothers, the story from ancient Vladimir to present-day Igor...” 1))) ) 1224 * A4. Under which ruler did a unique Kremlin ensemble emerge that still amazes with its beauty today? 1) Ivan Kalita 2) Dmitry Donskoy 3) Ivan III 4) Simeone Gordom * A5. Under which prince was the idea of ​​“Moscow – the third Rome” formed? 1) Ivan III 2) Ivan Kalita 3) Dmitry Donskoy 4) Vasily III

* A6. The author of “Walking Beyond the Three Seas” is 1) Aristotle Fioravanti 2) Fedor the horse 3) Aleviz Fryazin (New) 4) Marco Fryazin * A7. The temple built by Grozny in honor of the victory over Kazan 1) St. Basil's 2) Assumption Cathedral 3) Ivanovo Church 4) Church of the Ascension * A8. Name the artist who worked in the Armory in the 17th century 1) Georgy Zinoviev 2) Ivan Maximov 3) Tikhon Filatiev 4) Simon Ushakov * A9. Which buildings were built by the architect Kazakov a) Gubin House b) Golitsyn Hospital c) Winter Palace d) Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin e) Academy of Arts building f) Mikhailovsky Palace 1) ABG 2) AVG 3) BGE 4) AVD * A10. Who organized the first professional theater? 1) Volkov 2) Pashkevich 3) Sumarokov 4) Shlykova

* A 11 The “secularization of culture” of the 17th century is evidenced by 1) the appearance of parsuna 2) the adoption of the law on compulsory primary education 3) the beginning of book printing 4) the opening of the Academy of Sciences * A 12 The “secularization of culture” of the 17th century is evidenced by 1) the emergence of professional theater 2) transition to a new chronology 3) the beginning of book printing 4) the creation of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy * A13 “The Glades lived separately in those days... and there were three brothers - Khoriv, ​​Shchek, Kiy and their sister - Lybid. And they built a city and named it in honor of their brother - Kiev..." 1) "Cathedral Code 2) "Russian Truth" 3) "Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh" 4) "The Tale of Bygone Years" * A 14 "The Father" of the Russian theater is called 1) Biron 2) Volkov 3) Radishchev 4) Polzunov * A 15 The creator of the first steam engine is considered to be 1) Biron 2) Volkov 3) Polzunov 4) Rokotov * A 16 In ancient Russian literature, “Life” was called 1) a weather record of events 2) a description of the activities of Christian saints 3) teachings of princes to their heirs 4) folk epic tales

* A 17 A small-sized pictorial work of art was called 1) stained glass 2) headband 3) filigree 4) miniature * A 18 Russian portrait painter of the 18th century 1) Rokotov 2) Kiprensky 3) Bryullov 4) Voronikhin * A 19 The emergence of printing in Russia is associated with named after 1) Simeon Ushakov 2) Ivan Peresvetov 3) Andrei Kurbsky 4) Ivan Fedorov * A 20 Russian architects of the 18th century 1) Tatishchev, Shcherbakov 2) Kazakov, Bazhenov 3) Shubin, Argunov 4) Horse, Chokhov * A 21 The navigator who discovered strait between Asia and America 1) Bering 2) Poyarkov 3) Ushakov 4) Nakhimov * A 22 The names of Theophanes the Greek, Dionysius, Simeon Ushakov are associated with the development of 1) jewelry art 2) architecture 3) chronicle writing 4) icon painting *

Q1 Arrange in chronological order the appearance of historical monuments * A) St. Basil’s Cathedral b) “The Tale of Bygone Years” c) “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” d) the white stone Kremlin in Moscow * B2 Match * A) Daniil Zatochnik 1) “Zadonshchina” * B ) Sophony Ryazan 2) “Prayer” * C) Nestor 3) “Teaching to Children” * D) Vladimir Monomakh 4) “The Tale of Bygone Years” 5) “Domostroy” * Match: * A) Marco Fryazin 1) “Trinity” * B ) Andrey Rublev 2) Chamber of Facets * C) Aristotle Fioravanti 3) Archangel Cathedral * D) Aleviz Novy Fryazin 4) Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin 5) Kazan Cathedral

* References: * 1. History from ancient times to the end of the 18th century, textbook for universities. Ed. A.N. Sakharov. M: Ast., 2003 * 2.V.N. Alexandrov History of Russian Art, Minsk, 2007 * 3.L. A. Belyaev. Fortresses and weapons of Eastern Europe. M: "Book House",

in the discipline "Culturology"

on the topic: “Culture of Ancient Rus'”

INTRODUCTION

1. ORAL FOLK ARTS

2. WRITING AND LITERATURE

3. ARCHITECTURE

4. PAINTING

5. ARTISTIC CRAFTS

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

The culture of Ancient Rus' is a unique phenomenon. According to the researcher, “Old Russian art is the fruit of the feat of the Russian people, who defended their independence, their faith and their ideals on the edge of the European world.” Scientists note the openness and synthetic nature (from the word “synthesis” - reduction into a single whole) of ancient Russian culture. The interaction of the heritage of the Eastern Slavs with Byzantine and, consequently, ancient traditions created a unique spiritual world. The time of its formation and first flowering was the 10th-first half of the 13th century. (pre-Mongol period).

The Russian people made a valuable contribution to world culture, creating hundreds of years ago works of literature, painting and architecture that have endured for centuries. Acquaintance with the culture of Kievan Rus and the Russian principalities of the era of feudal fragmentation convinces us of the fallacy of the once-existing opinion about the original backwardness of Rus'.

Russian medieval culture X-XIII centuries. earned high praise from both contemporaries and descendants. Eastern geographers pointed out the routes to Russian cities and admired the art of Russian gunsmiths who prepared special steel (Biruni). Western chroniclers called Kyiv the adornment of the East and the rival of Constantinople (Adam of Bremen). The learned presbyter Theophilus of Paderborn in his technical encyclopedia of the 11th century. admired the products of Russian goldsmiths - the finest enamels on gold and niello on silver. In the list of countries whose masters glorified their lands with one form of art or another, Theophilus put Rus' in a place of honor - only Greece was ahead of it. The sophisticated Byzantine John Tsetzes was so fascinated by Russian bone carving that he sang in poetry about the pyxis (carved box) sent to him, comparing the Russian master with the legendary Daedalus.

1. ORAL FOLK ARTS

Oral folk art includes proverbs and sayings, songs and stories, ditties and charms. An integral part of the art of Rus' was the art of music and singing. In “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the legendary storyteller-singer Boyan is mentioned, who “let” his fingers onto the living strings and they “themselves rumbled glory to the princes.” On the frescoes of the St. Sophia Cathedral we see images of musicians playing woodwind and string instruments - lute and harp. The talented singer Mitus in Galich is known from chronicle reports. Some church writings directed against Slavic pagan art mention street buffoons, singers, and dancers; There was also a folk puppet theater. It is known that at the court of Prince Vladimir, during feasts, those present were entertained by singers, storytellers, and performers on string instruments.

An important element of the entire ancient Russian culture was folklore - songs, tales, epics, proverbs, aphorisms. Wedding, drinking, and funeral songs reflected many features of the life of people of that time. So, in ancient wedding songs they spoke about the time when brides were kidnapped, “kidnapped”, in later ones - when they were ransomed, and in songs from Christian times they talked about the consent of both the bride and parents to marriage.

A special place in the historical memory of the people was occupied by epics - heroic tales about defenders of their native land from enemies, recorded on paper in the 19th century. Folk storytellers glorify the exploits of Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich, Volga, Mikula Selyaninovich and other epic heroes (in total there are more than 50 main characters in the epics). They address their appeal to them: “You stand for the faith, for the fatherland, you stand for the glorious capital city of Kiev!” It is interesting that in epics the motive of defending the fatherland is supplemented with the motive of defending the Christian faith. The Baptism of Rus' was the most important event in the history of ancient Russian culture.

2. WRITING AND LITERATURE

With the adoption of Christianity, the rapid development of writing began. Writing was known in Rus' in pre-Christian times (mention of “traits and cuts”, mid-1st millennium; information about treaties with Byzantium drawn up in Russian; the discovery near Smolensk of a clay vessel with an inscription in Cyrillic - the alphabet created by the Slavic enlighteners Cyril and Methodius at the turn of the X-XI centuries). Orthodoxy brought liturgical books, religious and secular translated literature to Rus'. The oldest handwritten books have reached us - the “Ostromir Gospel” (1057) and two “Izborniki” (collections of texts) of Prince Svyatoslav (1073 and 1076). They say that in the XI-XIII centuries. 130-140 thousand books of several hundred titles were in circulation: the level of literacy in Ancient Rus' was very high by the standards of the Middle Ages. There is other evidence: birch bark letters (archaeologists discovered them in the middle of the 20th century in Veliky Novgorod), inscriptions on the walls of cathedrals and handicrafts, the activities of monastic schools, the richest book collections of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra and St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, etc.

There was an opinion that ancient Russian culture was “dumb” - it was believed to have no original literature. This is wrong. Old Russian literature is represented by various genres (chronicles, lives of saints, journalism, teachings and travel notes, the wonderful “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” which does not belong to any known genre), it is distinguished by a wealth of images, styles and trends.

In the XI-XII centuries. chronicles appear in Rus'. The chronicles not only describe the sequence of events that took place, but also contain biblical texts, record documents, and provide comments from the chronicles' compilers. The oldest chronicle that has come down to us, “The Tale of Bygone Years,” was created around 1113 by the monk of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, Nestor. The famous questions with which “The Tale of Bygone Years” opens: “Where did the Russian land come from, who was the first prince in Kyiv, and how did the Russian land begin to exist?” already speak about the scale of the personality of the creator of the chronicle, his literary abilities. After the collapse of Kievan Rus, independent chronicle schools arose in the isolated lands, but they all turned to the “Tale of Bygone Years” as a model.

Another genre of ancient Russian literature is hagiography. A life (hagiography) tells about the holy life of a clergyman or a secular person elevated to the rank of saint. The Life required its author to strictly follow the established rules. The life was compositionally divided into three parts: introduction, central part, conclusion. In the introduction, the author should have apologized for his lack of skill in writing. And the conclusion was dedicated to praising the hero of the life. The central part directly describes the biography of the saint. The life belongs to the pre-realistic genre, because Only the positive properties of the hero are described. Negative ones are omitted. The result is a “saccharine” image of the saint. In this case, hagiography comes close to icon painting. The chronicler Nestor is credited, according to legend, with the authorship of a life dedicated to the murdered Boris and Gleb, as well as to the founder of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, Abbot Theodosius.

Among the works of the oratorical and journalistic genre, the “Sermon on Law and Grace”, created by Hilarion, the first metropolitan of Russian origin, in the middle of the 11th century, stands out. These are reflections on power, on the place of Rus' in Europe. The “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh, written for his sons, is remarkable. The prince must be wise, merciful, fair, educated, lenient and firm in protecting the weak. Strength and valor, faithful service to the country, were demanded from the prince by Daniil Zatochnik, the author of the brilliant “Prayer” in language and literary form.

The unknown author of the greatest work of ancient Russian literature, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (late 12th century), also called for agreement and reconciliation among the princes. A real event - the defeat of the Seversk prince Igor from the Polovtsians (1185-1187) - became only the reason for the creation of the “Word”, amazing with the richness of the language, the harmony of the composition, and the power of the figurative structure. The author sees “Russian land from a great height, covers vast spaces with his mind’s eye. Danger threatens Rus', and the princes must forget the strife in order to save it from destruction.

A significant difference between Russian culture and the culture of most countries of the East and West is the use of the native language. The Arabic language for many non-Arab countries and the Latin language for a number of Western European countries were alien languages, the monopoly of which led to the fact that the popular language of the states of that era is almost unknown to us. The Russian literary language was used everywhere - in office work, diplomatic correspondence, private letters, in fiction and scientific literature. The unity of the national and state languages ​​was a great cultural advantage of Rus' over the Slavic and Germanic countries, in which the Latin state language dominated. Such widespread literacy was impossible there, since to be literate meant knowing Latin. For Russian townspeople, it was enough to know the alphabet in order to immediately express their thoughts in writing; This explains the widespread use in Rus' of writing on birch bark and on “boards” (obviously waxed).

3. ARCHITECTURE

Russian medieval architecture makes a serious contribution to the history of world culture. For many years, Rus' was a wooden country, and its architecture, pagan chapels, fortresses, towers, and huts were built of wood. In wood, Russian people, first of all, expressed their perception of structural beauty, a sense of proportion, and the merging of architectural structures with the surrounding nature. If wooden architecture goes back mainly to pagan Rus', then stone architecture is associated with already Christian Russia. Unfortunately, ancient wooden buildings have not survived to this day, but the architectural style of the people has come down to us in later wooden structures, in ancient descriptions and drawings. Russian wooden architecture was characterized by multi-tiered buildings, crowning them with turrets and towers, and the presence of various types of extensions - cages, passages, vestibules. Intricate artistic wood carving was a traditional decoration of Russian wooden buildings.

Achievements and cultural values ​​of Kievan Rus

The most important achievement of the culture of Kievan Rus is the development of the vast space of the north-east of Europe, the establishment of agriculture here, the transformation of the natural landscape, giving it a cultural, civilized appearance: the construction of new cities - centers of culture, laying roads, erecting bridges, paths connecting the most remote corners of the once dense, "untrodden" forests with cultural centers.

Another, no less important, historical value is the adoption of Orthodoxy and the transformation of pagan culture. Orthodoxy played a dual role in the development of Russian culture. On the one hand, it largely eradicates the heritage of pagan Rus', impoverishes the historical memory of the people, and makes the complex world of its mythological images disappear into oblivion. But its progressive function is also undoubted, especially in the initial stages of its development. During the period of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, it was Orthodoxy that was the spiritual center that made it possible to preserve the cultural identity of Rus', organize a moral resistance to the conquerors, and put forward the goals of the national Renaissance. But as the culture of modern times develops, the role of Orthodoxy declines; it is replaced by new forms of cultural creativity, centers of innovative change.

With Orthodoxy came stone temple construction to Rus'. One of the first Christian churches was built in Pskov by Princess Olga around 965, that is, even before the baptism of Rus', and was dedicated to the Divine Trinity. Therefore, Pskov was sometimes called the “House of the Holy Trinity”, and Novgorod - the “House of Saint Sophia”. In Kyiv, back in 952, a wooden Sophia appeared, erected by Olga; it burned down in 1016 and in its place, already under Yaroslav the Wise, a stone Sophia was built. It was “about 13 versions” - about 13 chapters, domes, as a symbol of the “Christ and Apostolic Church” (1 + 12 apostles). Many temples from the Kievan Rus period burned down and were destroyed during the Mongol invasion. Among the surviving ones can be named the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (Fig. 14.8), Demetrius Cathedral (1194-1197). Covered with intricate stone carvings, out of 566 images, Demetrius Cathedral has only 46 directly related to Christian themes. This indicates that “dual faith” still persisted in Rus' for a long time. Official “Orthodoxy” and real “paganism” coexisted in the same cultural monuments. The cultural development of civilization is impossible without the advent of writing, the spread of literacy, and book art. The Slavs had their own system for recording information long before Orthodoxy. This finds its expression in the vocabulary of the language. We still say: “Tie a knot for memory,” forgetting that this “catchphrase” expression once reflected a real cultural achievement - a method of “knotting” information, known to other peoples. In particular, the Incas used such a system, called “khipu,” to transmit complex historical and artistic texts. Another expression reflecting the way information is conveyed is the proverb “Cut it on your nose.” The “nose” in this case is not a part of the face, but a tablet that was carried with them to mark the memory of certain facts.

There is evidence that another recording system was used, known as “traits and cuts”, or Slavic runes. The texts of agreements concluded with the Greeks were also written in Russian. The merit of Orthodoxy, undoubtedly, was the assistance that Byzantium provided in giving Russian writing - the Glagolitic alphabet - perfect forms, creating a "Cyrillic" alphabet that met the needs of the language of that time, and the sound composition of the Slavic language, and even modern language norms. Constantine the Philosopher (Cyril) and Methodius, even before the creation of their alphabet, which was called the “Cyrillic alphabet,” saw in Korsun some “Rusyn” had a book written in “Russian” characters, which, however, were understandable to Cyril.

The creation of modern writing contributed to the formation of a single Russian language. Russian as a national language began to emerge very early. It originates from the “Slovenian”, “Slavic” language. Kievan Rus, being a multi-tribal formation, had one state language - “Russian”, also known as “Slovenian”.

“...and the Slovenian language and the Russian language are the same... and even in the glades they call each other, but there is no Slovenian speech,” testifies “The Tale of Bygone Years.” Thus, this language existed among the Polyans, in Polyansky Kyiv, and Russian Kyiv continues to develop and improve it. The term “Russian” in relation to the language was recorded in chronicles in the 11th century. When comparing ethnic groups and languages, we must remember that they were identified at that time. Therefore, when the chronicle said that “Slavs” and “Rus” are one language, this meant that they were one people. Let us remember that A.S. Pushkin also wrote: “and he will name... every language that exists in it, and the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn...” The Russian language was the single, common, state language of Kievan Rus. And today we can read texts written down more than 1000 years ago.

The Russian language developed over a vast territory from the Carpathians to the Volga; vocabulary, spelling, and grammar were common. Back in the 13th century. The French language was understandable to the population of Ile-de-France, and the vast outskirts of France spoke Catalan, Basque, Breton, Flemish, and Provençal. Northern and southern Germans did not understand each other even in the 19th century. Bismarck created an army where the soldiers spoke different languages.

For writing, the Russians used a specific material - birch bark. Birch bark "letters" were found in Novgorod (many), Smolensk (10), Vitebsk (1), Pskov (3), Staraya Russa (13), Mstislavl, on Castle Hill in the Mogilev region. It should be noted that birch bark was originally used by Indo-Europeans for writing and drawings. Thus, among the Aryans, the “Veda of Witchcraft”, “Atharvaveda”, was written on birch bark.

In Kievan Rus, Russian was the only language - spoken and liturgical, written and oral, church and state, while in Western Europe the church imposed Latin, which hampered the development of language and culture and led to protests everywhere. Thus, the “Ostromir Gospel” was recorded in 1050-1057, and created even earlier and in Russian. But the first literary work, also translated into Polish from Latin - “The Psalter of Queen Jadwiga”, appeared in Poland only around 1400. Only in the 16th century. National literature began to emerge in Poland. And the blame for this falls on Catholicism: the Catholic Church claimed that “only three languages ​​are known in which it is worthy to praise God in books: Hebrew, Greek and Latin...” Kirill - Konstantin the Philosopher answered this: “doesn’t God send rain?” the same for everyone? And also, doesn’t the sun shine for everyone? And don’t we all come into being the same? And aren’t you ashamed, recognizing only three languages ​​and commanding that all other peoples and tribes be blind and deaf? Explain to me, do you think "Are you God powerless, unable to give all this, or dependent and therefore unwilling (to give all this)?"

The early formation of a single language gave rise to an extensive Russian literature. It was preceded by rich folk art and the creation of epics. In the IX-X centuries. epics were created about Mikhail Potok, about Ilya Muromets, about Stavr Godinovich, about Danil Lovchanin, about the Danube, about Ivan Godinovich, about Volga and Mikul, about Dobrynya, about the marriage of Vladimir, etc. No nation knows such a variety of epics in this time, their abundance. On the one hand, they preserve the memory of more ancient times in the history of the Slavs; on the other hand, this is creativity that reflects real, relevant history. Russian epics are characterized by a number of features.

In epics, church and Orthodox influence is minimal. They are full of pagan symbols, heroes, images. They are dominated by secular, worldly content, rather than ecclesiastical, sacred content.

The epics have been preserved in oral tradition for almost 1000 years.

The epic is characterized not only by the glorification of physical power, strength, and “valid prowess.” The main thing in them is morality, the ethical value of a person’s act, his kindness, compassion, empathy.

In contrast to this, for example, “The Tale of the Nibelungs”, “The Elder Edda” are indifferent to morality, they are sub-moral, sub-moral. The epics, describing the same historical time as the sagas, and sometimes even more ancient - for example, "Svyatogor", are fundamentally different from the German epic in their moral content, ethical assessments and judgments. Being created at the same historical time, they differ culturally - they are moral. Moral from a popular point of view. Although they are full of military clashes, all the battles fought by the epic heroes are defensive. This is not surprising, given that, according to the calculations of V. O. Klyuchevsky, from 1228 to 1462. Rus' withstood 160 external wars and raids.

Rich artistic oral creativity contributed to the formation of Russian literature. It was distinguished by a number of features, first of all, it was based on the common Russian language. This allowed her to create the greatest literary works in the shortest possible time: “The Tale of Law, Grace and Truth” by Hilarion, “The Tale of Bygone Years” and “The Life of Theodosius” by Nestor, “Teaching the Children” by Vladimir Monomakh, “The Tale” by Daniil Zatochnik, “The Tale of Igor's regiment" by Igor, son of Svyatoslavl, grandson of Olgov, "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu", "The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land" and many others.

During the late Middle Ages, Russian literature was enriched by new wonderful works: “Zadonshchina” by Safonia, “Walking across Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin, “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev”, works by Ivan the Terrible (“Correspondence with Kurbsky”), Ivan Peresvet and Avvakum Petrov, “ The Tale of Misfortune."

Comparison and juxtaposition of these works shows that these are the fruits of a single literary process, which was not interrupted for almost a millennium, but only slowed down during the Mongol yoke.

Russian literature very early realized the commonality of the Russian land, the Russian people. In “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” there are no longer any tribal references, but “Russian Land” is mentioned 20 times! This is a characteristic feature of Russian literature, the main thing in it is the fate of the country, land, homeland and people. “The Russian land is bright and beautifully decorated!” We will not find this in any European literature! “Patriotism” is the original theme, a feature of Russian culture. Only in 1353 did Petrarch appear with a hymn addressed to Italy as the Motherland.

In the 12th century. Kirill Turovsky writes:

"The height of heaven has not been measured,

The depths of hell have not been tested..."

In the 18th century Kirill Danilov will continue the same thought and repeat and modify the same theme:

"Is it the height, the height under heaven,

Depth, depth of the Akyan-sea,

Wide expanse throughout the earth,

Deep are the pools of the Dnieper..."

No people knew such a developed system of chronicles. The first chronicle records appeared around 872 in Kyiv. They are characterized by an anti-Varangian tendency and the absence of a Christian element. The First Chronicles are based on oral traditions, Slavic myths, and epic tales. The pagan element dominates in them. In particular, the Chronicle contains a story about the Prophetic Oleg and his death, which is predicted not by a sorcerer, but by a “magician,” that is, a shaman.

Chronicle of the 10th century. falls into two forms: secular and ecclesiastical. In secular chronicles the following stand out:

“tales”, tales about princes: Igor, Svyatoslav, Yaropolk and others, that is, this is a knightly cycle (these tales are a continuation of the Slavic “glories”);

chronicles - chronicles of affairs: campaigns, invasions, princely meetings, etc.;

texts of contracts.

The chronicle appears where the state and civilization arise. What is the difference between the Russian chronicle? In universality, the chronicle is a collection of diverse knowledge; they included information from myths, history, fiction, and oral folk art. In Rus', chronicles were kept on a large scale; there were both princely and church chronicles, and chronicles were kept not only in princely cities, but also in destinies. Thus, the chronicle was a comprehensive, unified, ubiquitous phenomenon in Rus'.

Many chronicles burned down and were lost during the Tatar-Mongol invasion. Others died during fires, which were common in Rus'. Thus, on the estate of V.N. Tatishchev, 5 chronicles burned down, including Raskolnichya and Galitsyn. In 1812, the unique Trinity Chronicle was lost in a fire in Moscow, and Musin-Pushkin’s manuscripts, including the manuscript of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” were destroyed at the same time.

Few cultural objects of Ancient Rus' have reached us. Russian swords XI-XIII centuries. Only 183 have survived, and even fewer helmets, although they were very carefully preserved. The fate of books and icons is even more difficult: they most often perished in fires that arose either by accident or as a result of military operations. In 1382, during Tokhtamysh’s invasion of Moscow, the Kremlin churches were filled “to the brim,” that is, to the top, to the roof, with books and icons - everything burned down. In 1547, almost all of Moscow burned down, in 1612 Moscow was burned by the Poles, and in 1812 by the French. But also in the 18th - mid-19th centuries. the monks burned manuscripts like unnecessary rubbish, drowned them in Volkhov, and rotted in damp basements.

At the same time, what we managed to preserve, find, and study is admirable. The State Historical Museum in Moscow houses a frame with a cross-shaped slot, which experts consider the height of perfection of medieval Russian jewelry technology. Here is how B. A. Rybakov describes it: “Between twelve stones set in gold, the master arranged a whole flower garden of miniature gold flowers, planted on spiral springs of 4-5 turns, soldered only at one end to the plate. The spiral stems were made of ribbed gold wire. The flowers have five carefully made petals, figuratively cut and soldered to the pistil. In a space of 0.25 cm2, the Ryazan master managed to plant from 7 to 10 golden flowers, which swayed on their spiral stems at the level of purple gems."

Influence
By the time of the adoption of Christianity, Rus' was already a country with a distinctive culture. She grew up on the fertile soil of the cultures of local East Slavic tribes and constantly developed contacts with the cultures of other countries, primarily Byzantium, Bulgaria, the countries of Central Europe, Scandinavia, the Khazar Kaganate and the Arab East.

Crafts and wood construction techniques have reached a high level. In the era of transition from pre-class society to feudal, like other European peoples, epic. Its plots were preserved mainly in epics written down many centuries later. By the 9th-10th centuries. refers to the appearance of plots from such epics as “Mikhailo Potok”, “Danube”, “Volga and Mikula”. The end of the 10th century was especially fruitful for the formation of the epic epic. - era of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. His reign became the “epic time” of Russian epics, and the prince himself became a generalized image of the ruler of Rus'. By the end of the 10th century. refers to the appearance of epics whose heroes were Dobrynya Nikitich (his prototype was Vladimir Svyatoslavich’s maternal uncle, Dobrynya, who was the prince’s mentor and adviser in his youth) and Ilya Muromets.

No later than the end of the 9th beginning of the 10th century. Slavic languages ​​are spreading in Rus' alphabet - Cyrillic and Glagolitic. Created in the second half of the 9th century by the brothers Cyril and Methodius and initially spreading in the Western Slavic state - Great Moravia, they soon penetrated into Bulgaria and Rus'. The first Russian monument of Slavic writing is the Russian-Byzantine treaty of 911.

The synthesis of Slavic pre-Christian culture with the cultural layer that came to Rus' with the adoption of Christianity from Byzantium and Bulgaria and introduced the country to the Byzantine and Slavic Christian cultures, and through them to the cultures of ancient and Middle Eastern cultures, created the phenomenon of Russian medieval culture. Its originality and high level were largely due to its existence as a language of church services and, as a result, its emergence as a literary Slavic language, understandable to the entire population (unlike Western Europe and Slavic countries that adopted Catholicism, where the language of church services was Latin, the language unfamiliar to the majority of the population and, as a result, early medieval literature was predominantly Latin).

Development of culture in the 11th century. was caused by the rapid growth of various crafts and trade, revitalization of foreign trade and interstate relations. It became the starting point and primary basis of the culture of Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians, and influenced the culture of neighboring peoples.

IN literature With some convention, several directions can be distinguished in Kievan Rus: socio-political; artistic and secular; world (translated) literature. But the boundaries of genres were often elusive and blurred. In socio-political literature, chronicle writing played the most significant role. No later than the beginning of the 11th century. The first chronicles began to be compiled in Kyiv and Novgorod. Gradually growing, they by the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. compiled a systematic collection, finally edited and literary processed by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. The code is known as “The Tale of Bygone Years” (PVL). PVL is called an encyclopedia of ancient Russian life of the 9th - 11th centuries, giving an idea not only of the history of Rus', but also of its language, religion, worldview, scientific knowledge, art, etc. Later, chronicles began to be compiled in other large cities. In addition to chronicles, especially famous are such works of socio-political direction as “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion (11th century); the lives of the first Russian “saints” Boris and Gleb (XI century); the famous “Instruction to Children” by Vladimir Monomakh (XII century).

The most famous works of fiction of Kievan Rus are the works of Kirill Turovsky and Kliment Smolyatich, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik and “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

It was also popular in Rus' world literature- theological works, natural science treatises, Greek novels, Byzantine chronicles were translated. The latter, in particular, include the translation of the Byzantine “Chronicle of George Amartol”.

In the XI - early XII centuries. development continued epic genre. The plot of the epic "Nightingale Budimirovich" is connected with the matchmaking of the Norwegian king Harald to the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, Elizabeth. A number of epic songs arose in connection with the fight against Polovtsian raids at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. The image of Prince Vladimir Monomakh, the initiator of the fight against the nomads, merged with the image of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. The era of Monomakh dates back to the appearance of the cycle of epics about Alyosha Popovich, the epic "Stavr Godinovich".

Reached a high level in Rus' education, which was received mainly at monasteries. The picture of literacy even among ordinary citizens is painted by frequent finds of birch bark letters at archaeological excavations in Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk and other cities.

Development has reached outstanding scope stone architecture, whose monuments have been preserved in Kyiv, Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Chernigov, Polotsk and many other cities. With the introduction of Christianity, Russian architecture was influenced by Byzantium, but its own architectural traditions were gradually developed. From the end of the 10th century. The remains of the Decimal Church in Kyiv have reached us. In Vladimir in 1158 - 1161. the majestic and austere Assumption Cathedral was erected; Not far from Bogolyubov, a small, extremely elegant Church of the Intercession on the Nerl was erected. The best works of Russian architecture include the Cathedral of the Savior in Chernigov, the churches of Sofia in Novgorod, and the Golden Gate in Vladimir.

The high development of the culture of pre-Mongol Rus' is evidenced by painting XI - early XIII centuries. If the painting of Novgorod and Pskov masters expressed the democratic traditions of the Free City and was distinguished by simplicity and strict laconicism of writing, then the masters of Vladimir and Suzdal retained Byzantine sophistication in their works and softened the asceticism of iconographic images with lyricism. Under Byzantine influence, its main forms developed here: mosaics, miniatures, icon painting, frescoes.

Reached a brilliant peak applied arts, especially in the use of such original techniques as niello, cloisonné, granulation, filigree, sometimes used simultaneously. Oral folk art developed steadily - the epic epic glorified heroism in battle and enterprise in business.

On the eve of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, ancient Russian culture reached a high level comparable to the best examples of European and world culture of that time and actively interacted with it.

In the 9th century. An Old Russian state arose - Kievan Rus, uniting East Slavic and some non-Slavic tribes. The political unification of these tribes contributed to their ethnic consolidation, the formation of a single ancient Russian nation and the formation of its culture. However, for a long time it retained the local characteristics that had developed in the previous era of tribal unions. The difference in the level of socio-economic development of different regions of the Old Russian state also played a certain role here.

The rich cultural heritage of the Eastern Slavs was a powerful basis for the formation and development of the original ancient Russian culture. Already in the VII-VIII centuries. They developed a basic complex of craft and agricultural tools that were used over the next centuries. The main types of production activities were determined, during which labor skills were formed, and practical knowledge about nature was accumulated. Pagan religion served to consolidate and transfer industrial and social experience. Oral folk art is also associated with paganism, which not only remained one of the important components of the culture of the following centuries, but also had a huge impact on literature.

The state of Kievan Rus developed on a multi-ethnic basis. The composition of the Old Russian nationality, in addition to the East Slavic tribes - its main component - also included some non-Slavic tribes. Elements of their culture merged into ancient Russian culture, manifesting themselves in the ethnographic characteristics of the population of a number of regions.

However, the culture of Ancient Rus' did not become a simple continuation of the culture of the previous time. Profound changes in socio-economic and political life, expressed in the maturation of feudal relations, in the emergence of the state and in the formation of the ancient Russian people, led to qualitative changes in the life of the Eastern Slavs and caused a rapid rise in development, as a result of which their culture in a relatively short historical period reached a high level and took its rightful place in the world medieval culture.

The formation and development of feudal relations led to the emergence and growth of differences between folk culture and the culture of the princely militia, which especially increased after the adoption of Christianity. Throughout the Middle Ages, official culture borrowed a lot from folk culture, the custodian of original principles (for example, it widely used the rich traditions of oral folk art). The close interaction of the “two cultures,” the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land that united them, and the spirit of high patriotism that permeated them gave the entire ancient Russian culture a certain ideological unity and a national character.

Formed on the basis of the traditions of the Eastern Slavs, ancient Russian culture at the same time actively interacted with the culture of other countries and peoples.

Kievan Rus, being one of the largest states of the Middle Ages, occupied an important geographical position. Transit trade routes connecting Northern Europe with Byzantium and Western Europe with the countries of the East ran through its territory. The development of trade and political ties of Ancient Rus' with the countries of the West and East predetermined the breadth and diversity of its cultural contacts, which developed in different ways and varied in intensity. The most multifaceted were cultural ties with Byzantium, which especially intensified after Russia adopted Christianity.

As for assessing the nature, scale and significance of Byzantine influence on ancient Russian culture, two opposing points of view are equally unacceptable. Supporters of one of them, defending the idea of ​​Byzantine political, ideological and cultural dominance in Rus', consider Byzantine civilization almost the only source of the culture of Ancient Rus', and ancient Russian art as a provincial branch of Byzantine art. The opposite concept consists in upholding the complete independence of ancient Russian culture, in recognizing it as free from any external influences.

The Byzantine influence on ancient Russian culture is obvious and does not need proof. Undoubtedly, its great positive significance for Rus', but there is no need to talk about any Byzantine “dominance”.

Firstly, Byzantine influence was not a source, but a consequence of the development of ancient Russian culture; it was caused by the internal needs of society, its readiness to perceive the achievements of a more highly developed culture.

Secondly, it was not violent. Rus' was not a passive object of his application; on the contrary, it played an active role in this process.

Thirdly, borrowed cultural achievements underwent deep transformation under the influence of local traditions, were creatively processed and became the property of the original ancient Russian culture.

The influence of Byzantium was neither comprehensive nor permanent. Cultural ties between states developed most intensively from the end of the 10th to the middle of the 12th century. The impact of Byzantine culture on the upper strata of society was significant; the wider population experienced much less of it. This influence was especially strong in the field of canon law and religious fine arts. Secular culture was less affected by him, although translated secular literature became widespread in Ancient Rus'. If in architecture from the middle of the 12th century. This influence weakens, but in painting it was long-lasting and stable.

The cultural contacts of Kievan Rus with the countries of Central and Western Europe were of a different nature. In the pre-Mongol period, Rus' was not inferior in its cultural development to most European countries; its cultural interaction with European countries was mutual and equal. The development of these ties was facilitated by the fact that both regions belonged to the Christian world. As for the differences between Catholicism and Orthodoxy, the Russian Church in the initial period of its history was not yet strong enough to prevent communication with the “Latins”, and had to show religious tolerance towards the Catholic world.

The cultural ties of Kievan Rus with Western Europe especially strengthened in the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries, during the heyday of Romanesque art in the West and the gradual weakening of Byzantine influence in Rus'. They affected various areas of culture. Thanks to the development of trade, there was an exchange of handicrafts and applied arts, and, consequently, technical skills. The products of Russian jewelers were highly valued in other countries.

In the field of architecture, these connections were expressed in the fact that from the middle of the 11th century. Individual elements of the Romanesque style began to penetrate into Rus' (Novgorod, Polotsk), especially clearly manifested in the decor of Vladimir-Suzdal churches, and in literature and folklore this was expressed in the spread of “wandering” folklore stories and in the exchange of literary works, especially with Slavic countries.

Certain Russian motifs (for example, those associated with the image of Ilya Muromets) entered German and Scandinavian folklore. In the West, Russian chronicles were known, which were used in the compilation of Latin chronicles. The development of cultural ties between Rus' and Western Europe was difficult from the middle of the 13th century. in connection with the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the establishment of the Golden Horde yoke.

The original culture of Ancient Rus', which developed in constant contact with the cultures of other countries and peoples, became an important component of the culture of the medieval world.

From the beginning of the 12th century. In the history of Rus', a period of political fragmentation begins. The single state breaks up into independent lands and principalities, but elements of their political unity continue to be preserved. This process was a natural and progressive stage in the development of society and its statehood. The separation of individual principalities not only did not stop the development of culture, but also contributed to its further flourishing. The most perfect and remarkable monuments of art and literature of Ancient Rus' were created during this period.

With the advent of new cultural centers, local features in the culture of various lands and principalities became more noticeable, determined by their socio-economic and political development, the direction and nature of their cultural ties, and the influence of local traditions. But this did not indicate the beginning of the collapse of the ancient Russian people and their culture. On the contrary, the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land continued to be one of the leading ones, which was reflected in folklore and literary monuments (for example, in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, in “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, etc.).

With the exception of some separatist tendencies that appeared in Novgorod culture, in general there was no desire to justify and justify political fragmentation. As N.G. Chernyshevsky rightly noted, “specific fragmentation did not leave any traces in the concepts of the people, because it never had roots in their heart.” Despite the diversity of local schools, styles, and traditions, ancient Russian culture continued to remain united at its core.

Folklore

Written sources testify to the richness and diversity of folklore of Kievan Rus. A significant place in it was occupied by calendar ritual poetry: incantations, spells, songs that were an integral part of the agrarian cult. Ritual folklore also included wedding songs, funeral laments, songs at feasts and funeral feasts.

Mythological tales were also widespread, reflecting the pagan ideas of the ancient Slavs. For many centuries, the church, trying to eradicate the remnants of paganism, waged a stubborn struggle against “filthy” customs, “demonic games” and “scoundrels”. Nevertheless, these types of folklore survived in folk life until the 19th-20th centuries, having lost their original religious meaning over time.

There were also forms of folklore not associated with pagan cults, such as proverbs, sayings, riddles, fairy tales, and work songs. Authors of literary works widely used them in their work. Fairy-tale motifs and images are reflected in the chronicle and in hagiographic literature (for example, in the “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon”).

Written monuments have brought to us numerous traditions and legends about the ancestors of tribes and princely dynasties, about the founders of cities, about the fight against foreigners. Folk tales about the events of the II-VI centuries. reflected in the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign”: its author mentions the “Trojan centuries” (II-IV centuries), the “Busov time” (IV century), and the movement of the Slavs to the Balkans in the 6th century. The Tale of Bygone Years preserved the legends about the struggle of the Slavs with the Avars in the 7th century.

The importance of historical genres of folklore increases with the formation of the state and the beginning of the formation of the Old Russian nationality. For many generations, the people created and preserved a kind of “oral chronicle” in the form of prosaic legends and epic tales about the past of their native land. The “oral chronicle” preceded the written chronicle and served as one of its main sources. Such legends used by chroniclers include legends about Kiy, Shchek and Horiv and the founding of Kiev, about the calling of the Varangians, about campaigns against Constantinople, about Oleg and his death from a snake bite, about Olga’s revenge on the Drevlyans, about Belgorod jelly, about Mstislav’s single combat and Rededi and many others. Chronicle narrative about the events of the 9th-19th centuries. almost entirely based on folklore material.

By the 10th century refers to the emergence of a new epic genre - the heroic epic, which was the pinnacle of oral folk art. Epics are oral poetic works about the past. They are based on real historical events; the prototypes of some epic heroes are real people. Thus, the prototype of the epic Dobrynya Nikitich was the uncle of Vladimir Svyatoslavich - governor Dobrynya, whose name is repeatedly mentioned in the chronicle. However, epics rarely retained the accuracy of factual details. But the merit of epics does not lie in their exact adherence to historical facts. Their main value is that these works were created by the people and reflect their views, assessment of the essence of historical events and understanding of the social relations that developed in the Old Russian state, its ideals.

Most of the epic stories are connected with the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich - the time of the unity and power of Rus' and the successful fight against the steppe nomads. But the true hero of the epic epic is not Prince Vladimir, but the heroes who personified the people. The favorite national hero was Ilya Muromets, a peasant son, a courageous patriotic warrior, a defender of “widows and orphans.” The people also sang the praises of the peasant plowman Mikula Selyaninovich.
The epics reflected the idea of ​​Rus' as a single state. Their main theme is the struggle of the people against foreign conquerors; they are imbued with the spirit of patriotism. The ideas of the unity and greatness of Rus', service to the homeland were preserved in epics even during times of political fragmentation and the Golden Horde yoke. For many centuries, these ideas and images of heroic heroes inspired the people to fight the enemy, which predetermined the longevity of the epic epic, preserved in people's memory.

Oral poetry also existed in the princely milieu. The princes and their exploits were glorified in squad songs. Echoes of these songs can be heard, for example, in the chronicle description of Prince Svyatoslav and in the description of his campaigns. The princely squads had their own “song-makers” - professionals who composed songs of “glory” in honor of the princes and their warriors. Such court singers were probably Boyan, mentioned in the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” and the “notorious singer of Mitus,” mentioned in the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle.

Oral folk art continued to live and develop even after the advent of written literature, remaining an important element of the culture of the Middle Ages. His influence on literature continued in subsequent centuries: writers and poets used the plots of oral poetry and the arsenal of its artistic means and techniques.

Religion. Acceptance of Christianity

An important milestone in the history of ancient Russian culture is the adoption of Christianity by Russia, which influenced the entire medieval culture and became its ideological basis.
Pre-Christian religion, usually called pagan according to the old church tradition, was a whole complex of primitive views, beliefs and cults that reflected the dependence of people on the surrounding natural conditions, but at the same time served as a form of consolidation and transmission of centuries-old economic experience, specific practical knowledge, accumulated over many generations.

In paganism, several layers of different times can be distinguished, dating back to different historical eras. The most archaic layer consisted of: spiritualization of nature, belief in good and evil spirits (goblin, water spirits, mermaids, beregins, etc.) who supposedly controlled the elements and individual earthly objects (forests, water sources, etc.), veneration of the earth , water, fire, plants and some animals. The later layer is represented by communal agrarian cults and the family-tribal cult of ancestors. Later, tribal cults were formed: each tribe had its own patron gods. Written sources have preserved the names of gods who symbolized the main natural elements and acted as patrons of various sectors of the economy: the god of thunderstorms and lightning Perun, the solar deities Dazhdbog and Svarog, the god of the winds Stribog, the deity of the feminine principle of nature and women's work Mokosh, the patron of cattle breeding Veles (Volos) and etc. During the formation of the state, the cult of Perun became a princely-squad cult.

The preservation of tribal cults and polytheism prevented the real unification of tribes. Vladimir's attempt to create a single pantheon of the most revered gods, headed by Perun, and to give it a national character was not crowned with success. The young state needed appropriate ideological design. With the establishment of feudal relations, paganism had to give way to a religion that sanctified social inequality. Christianity became such a religion with its monotheism, hierarchy of saints, the idea of ​​posthumous retribution, the developed doctrine of domination and submission, and the preaching of non-resistance to evil through violence.

The new religion did not immediately take root in life. The Baptism of Rus', which took place in 988, practically meant only the proclamation of Christianity as the official religion and the prohibition of pagan cults. Even the purely formal Christianization of the population met with strong resistance and lasted for a long period. Pagan beliefs, connected by thousands of threads with everyday economic activity, turned out to be extremely tenacious. For many centuries, the “otai” (secretly) people worshiped pagan gods and made sacrifices to “the demon, the swamp and the well.” Even in the princely milieu, which was most interested in establishing a new religion, during the 11th-13th centuries. vestiges of pagan beliefs and rituals remained (for example, the cult of the Family and the Earth), which was reflected in druzhina poetry and applied art.

Christianity was never able to supplant paganism. Finding itself unable to completely eradicate ancient Slavic beliefs and cults, it was forced to adapt to the people's pagan consciousness, assimilate these cults, and absorb their elements. As a result, archaic beliefs and rituals were preserved not only in the form of pagan customs, holidays, and cults that were unrecognized and persecuted by the church, but also continued to exist under the outer shell of the official church cult. The “idolatry” persecuted by the church was preserved in the form of veneration of icons, especially “miraculous” ones. In the cult of “holy places” and “revealed” icons, traces of veneration of natural objects are visible - plants, water sources. A concession to pagan polytheism was the cult of saints who assumed the functions of pre-Christian patron gods.

Among the people, images of the Christian religion were associated with everyday work life, with the real needs of people. The ancient Slavic gods - patrons of various areas of human activity, managers of nature, healing gods - continued to exist under the names of saints of the Orthodox pantheon. Thus, the image of Elijah the Prophet merged with the image of Perun the Thunderer, saints Modest, Blasius, and George became patrons of livestock. The cult of the Mother of God was based on the veneration of the ancient goddess of fertility; in her image, as in the image of Paraskeva Friday, the earth, earthly fertility, and the fertile principle as a whole were personified. Christian holidays coincided with the holidays of the pagan agrarian calendar and were associated with certain stages of agricultural work.

Thus, Christianity, adopted from the outside, being introduced into the masses, was significantly transformed under the influence of local traditional beliefs and cults. At the same time, Christianity also influenced the worldview, subordinating the popular consciousness to the official ideology.

In Russian historical science, the adoption of Christianity by Russia is assessed as a progressive phenomenon. The new religion contributed to the formation and strengthening of early feudal statehood and the international position of Rus', which took its rightful place among Christian states. It contributed to the further consolidation of the East Slavic tribes into a single nation, the state unity of all Russian lands. The adoption of Christianity led to the expansion of international cultural ties of Rus' and created conditions for its introduction to the cultural achievements of Byzantium and the entire Christian world.

The great role of the church in the development of Russian culture is also recognized: in the spread of writing and “bookishness,” and the creation of significant artistic values. But at the same time, the church hindered the development of secular culture, scientific knowledge, and folk art. It should be noted, however, that in the pre-Mongol period this tendency had not yet fully manifested itself, since the church was not yet strong enough to subjugate the entire culture and establish control over it. This explains the fact that the secular trend is so noticeable in the culture of this time.

Writing. Education. Book business

The appearance of writing was due to the internal needs of society at a certain stage of its development: the complication of socio-economic relations and the formation of the state. This meant a qualitative leap in the development of culture, since writing is the most important means of consolidating and transmitting knowledge, thoughts, ideas, preservation and dissemination of cultural achievements in time and space.
The existence of writing among the Eastern Slavs in the pre-Christian period is beyond doubt. This is evidenced by numerous written sources and archaeological finds.

Based on them, one can get a general picture of the formation of Slavic writing.
In the legends of the monk Khrabra “On Writings” (late 9th - early 10th centuries) it is reported that “before the Slovenes did not have books, but with lines and cuts they read and read.” Researchers date the emergence of this primitive pictographic symbol (“lines and cuts”) to the first half of the 1st millennium AD. e. Its scope was limited. These were, apparently, the simplest counting signs in the form of dashes and notches, family and personal signs of property, signs for fortune telling, calendar signs that served to date the start dates of various agricultural works, pagan holidays, etc. Such a letter was unsuitable for recording complex texts, the need for which appeared with the emergence of the first Slavic states. The Slavs began to use Greek letters to write their native speech, but “without structure,” that is, without adapting the Greek alphabet to the peculiarities of the phonetics of the Slavic languages ​​(Proto-Cyrillic alphabet).

The creation of the Slavic alphabet is associated with the names of the Byzantine missionary monks Cyril and Methodius. But the most ancient monuments of Slavic writing know two alphabets - Cyrillic and Glagolitic. There has been a long debate in science about which of these alphabets appeared earlier, and the creators of which of them were the famous “Thessaloniki brothers” (from Thessaloniki, the modern city of Thessaloniki). At present, it can be considered established that Cyril in the second half of the 9th century; The Glagolitic alphabet (Glagolitic) was created, in which the first translations of church books were written for the Slavic population of Moravia and Pannonia. At the turn of the 9th century. On the territory of the First Bulgarian Kingdom, as a result of the synthesis of the Greek script, which had long been widespread here, and those elements of the Glagolitic alphabet that successfully conveyed the features of the Slavic languages, the alphabet arose, which later received the name Cyrillic. Subsequently, this easier and more convenient alphabet supplanted the Glagolitic alphabet and became the only one among the southern and eastern Slavs.

The adoption of Christianity contributed to the widespread and rapid development of writing and written culture. Of significant importance was the fact that Christianity was accepted in its Eastern, Orthodox version, which, unlike Catholicism, allowed worship in national languages. This created favorable conditions for the development of writing in the native language.

Together with liturgical books and theological literature, the first inter-Slavic language, which arose on the basis of one of the dialects of the ancient Bulgarian language, also penetrated into Rus' from Bulgaria, which adopted Christianity 120 years earlier. This language, usually called Old Church Slavonic (or Church Slavonic), became the language of worship and religious literature. At the same time, on a local East Slavic basis, the Old Russian language was formed, serving various spheres of cultural, social and state life. It is the language of business writing, historical and narrative literature, both original and translated. This is the language of Russian Truth, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” Russian chronicles, “Teachings” by Vladimir Monomakh and other monuments.

The development of writing in the native language led to the fact that the Russian church from the very beginning did not become a monopolist in the field of literacy and education. The spread of literacy among the democratic strata of the urban population is evidenced by birch bark letters discovered during archaeological excavations in Novgorod and other cities. These are letters, memos, owner's notes, educational exercises, etc. Writing, therefore, was used not only to create books, state and legal acts, but also in everyday life. Inscriptions on handicraft products are often found. Ordinary townspeople left numerous graffiti on the walls of churches in Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Vladimir and other cities.

In Ancient Rus' there was also school education. After the introduction of Christianity, Vladimir ordered the children of the “best people,” i.e., the local aristocracy, to be sent “to book teaching.” Yaroslav the Wise created a school in Novgorod for the children of elders and clergy. Training was conducted in the native language. They taught reading, writing, the basics of Christian doctrine and arithmetic. There were also schools of higher type that prepared for state and church activities. One of them existed at the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. Many prominent figures of ancient Russian culture emerged from it. In such schools, along with theology, they studied philosophy, rhetoric, grammar, historical works, sayings of ancient authors, geographical and natural science works.

Highly educated people were found not only among the clergy, but also in secular aristocratic circles. Such “bookish men” (as the chronicle calls well-educated and well-read people) were, for example, princes Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod Yaroslavich, Vladimir Monomakh, Yaroslav Osmomysl, Konstantin Vsevolodovich Rostovsky and others. Knowledge of foreign languages ​​was widespread among the aristocratic community. Women also received education in Yumzhe families. The Chernigov princess Euphrosyne studied with the boyar Fyodor and, as it is said in her life, although she “did not study in Athens, she studied Athenian wisdom,” mastering “philosophy, rhetoric and all grammar.” Princess Euphrosyne of Polotsk “was book smart” and wrote books herself.

Education was highly valued. In the literature of that time one can find many eulogies to books, statements about the benefits of books and “book teaching”: books are “the essence of the river that waters the universe”; “If you search diligently in the books of wisdom, you will find great benefit for your soul”; “having books more than gold”; “The juice of honey is sweet and sugar is good, but the bookish mind is kinder about it.”

Most of the written monuments of pre-Mongol times were lost during numerous fires and foreign invasions. Only a small part of them has survived - only about 150 books. The oldest of them are the “Ostromir Gospel”, written by Deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir in 1057, and two “Izborniki” by Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich in 1073 and 1076. The high level of professional skill with which these books were executed testifies to the well-established production of handwritten books already in the first half of the 11th century, as well as to the well-established skills of “book construction” by that time.

The correspondence of books was concentrated mainly in monasteries. However, in the 12th century. in large cities the craft of “book describers” also arose. This indicates, firstly, the spread of literacy among the urban population, and secondly, the increasing need for books, which the monastery scribes could not satisfy. Many princes kept book scribes with them, and some of them copied the books themselves. Of the 39 scribes of the 11th-13th centuries known to us by name. only 15 were members of the clergy, the rest did not indicate their affiliation with the church. Nevertheless, the main centers of book production continued to be monasteries and cathedral churches, in which there were special workshops with permanent teams of copyists. Here not only books were copied, but also chronicles were kept, original literary works were created, and foreign books were translated. One of the leading centers was the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, in which a special literary movement developed that had a great influence on the literature and culture of Ancient Rus'. As the chronicles testify, already in the 11th century. In Rus', libraries containing up to several hundred books were created at monasteries and cathedral churches.

Some randomly preserved copies do not fully reflect the wealth and diversity of books of Kievan Rus. Many literary works that undoubtedly existed in pre-Mongol times have come down to us in later copies, and some of them have completely perished. According to historians of Russian books, the book fund of Ancient Rus' was quite extensive and numbered in hundreds of titles.

The needs of the Christian cult required a large number of liturgical books, which served as a guide for the performance of church rites (Mineaion, Triodi, Books of Hours). The adoption of Christianity was associated with the appearance of the main books of the Holy Scriptures.
Translated literature of religious and secular content occupied a large place in the book fund of Ancient Rus'. The selection of works for translation was determined by the internal needs of society, the tastes and demands of the reader. At the same time, the translators did not set as their goal an accurate translation of the original, but sought to bring it as close as possible to reality, to the demands of the time and environment.

Works of secular literature were subjected to especially significant processing. Elements of folklore widely penetrated into them, and techniques from original literature were used. Subsequently, these works were repeatedly revised and became Russian in character.

The appearance of works by Christian writers of the 3rd-7th centuries is associated with the tasks of spreading Christian doctrine. (“Church Fathers”) and collections of their works. The works of John Chrysostom became especially widespread in the collections “Zlatostruy”, “Zlatoust”, etc.

In Rus', as well as throughout the medieval world, collections of sayings of famous poets, philosophers, and theologians were popular. In addition to quotations from the Holy Scriptures and the writings of the “church fathers,” they included excerpts from the works of ancient writers and philosophers. The most popular was the collection “Bee”, which contained especially many sayings of ancient authors. In Rus', these collections were revised and supplemented in accordance with the needs of the time. They were widely used by ancient Russian writers in their works.

The lives of saints occupied a large place in literature, serving as an important means of introducing the Christian worldview and morality. At the same time, they were fascinating reading, in which elements of the miraculous were intertwined with folk fantasy, giving the reader a variety of information of a historical, geographical and everyday nature. On Russian soil, many of the lives were revised and supplemented with new episodes. In Rus', such a specific type of religious literature as the apocrypha spread - Jewish and Christian legendary works that were not recognized as reliable by the official church and were even considered heretical.

Being closely connected by their origin with ancient mythology, pre-Christian religion and Middle Eastern folklore, the apocrypha reflected popular ideas about the universe, good and evil, and the afterlife. The entertaining nature of the stories and their closeness to oral folk legends contributed to the spread of apocrypha throughout the medieval world. The most popular in Rus' were “The Virgin’s Walk through the Torment”, “Revelations of Methodius of Patara”, legends associated with the name of the biblical king Solomon, etc. On Russian soil, apocryphal literature received further development, its plots were used in literature, fine arts, and folklore.

Of particular interest, associated with the desire to determine the place of Rus', of all the Slavs in world history, were aroused by historical works. Byzantine historical literature was represented by the chronicles of George Amartol, John Malala, “The Chronicler Soon” of Patriarch Nicephorus and some other less significant works. Based on these works, an extensive compilation on world history was compiled - “The Greek and Roman Chronicler”.

In Rus', works were also known that reflected medieval ideas about the universe, about natural phenomena, semi-fantastic information about the animal and plant world (“Physiologist”, various “Six Days”). One of the most popular works throughout the Middle Ages was “Christian Topography” by Cosmas (Kozma) Indikoplov, a Byzantine merchant who committed in the 6th century. travel to India.
Secular military stories, widespread in world medieval literature, were also translated. Among them is one of the largest works of this genre - “The History of the Jewish War” by Josephus, in Russian translation called “The Tale of the Devastation of Jerusalem.” The story of the life and exploits of Alexander the Great, “Alexandria,” which dates back to Hellenistic literature, was very famous. This is a typical adventure novel of the Hellenistic era, in which there is a lot of the legendary and fantastic. The Russian reader was attracted to “Alexandria” by the image of a courageous warrior hero, the description of strange countries with their fantastic inhabitants and numerous battles. Subsequently, adapting to the demands of the time, “Alexandria” was reworked and corresponded less and less to the original.

Another military story, popular until the 17th century, was “Devgenie’s Deed.” This is a Byzantine epic poem of the 10th century that has undergone fairly free revision. about the exploits of Digenis Akrit, a courageous Christian warrior, defender of the borders of his state. The plot of the work, individual episodes, and the image of the hero bring it closer to the Russian heroic epic, which is even more emphasized in the translation by the use of elements of oral folk poetry.

Stories of a fairy-tale-didactic nature, the plots of which go back to the literature of the Ancient East, were also especially popular in Rus'. Their peculiarity is the abundance of aphorisms and wise sayings, which the medieval reader was a big hunter of. One of them was “The Tale of Akira the Wise,” which arose in Assyro-Babylonia in the 7th-5th centuries.
BC e. This is an action-packed work, a significant part of which consists of moralizing parables.

One of the most widespread works of world medieval literature is “The Tale of Barlaam and Joashath,” known in different versions in more than 30 languages ​​of the peoples of Asia, Europe and Africa. The story is a Christian version of the life of Buddha. It contains a large number of moralizing parables, which use everyday examples that are understandable to everyone to explain current worldview problems. In Rus' it was the most widely read work for several centuries, until the 17th century. This story is also reflected in oral folk art.

Translated literature contributed to the enrichment and development of original ancient Russian literature. However, this does not give grounds to associate its occurrence only with the influence of translated works. It was caused by the internal political and cultural needs of the emerging early feudal society. Translated literature did not precede the development of Russian original literature, but accompanied it.

Literature. Social thought

Russian written literature arose on the basis of rich traditions of oral folk art, rooted in the depths of centuries. Behind many original works of ancient Russian literature is folklore as one of the most important sources. Oral poetry had a great influence on the artistic features and ideological orientation of written literature, on the formation of the Old Russian language.
A characteristic feature of Russian medieval literature is its keen journalisticism. Monuments of literature are at the same time monuments of social thought. Their content is based on the most important problems of society and the state.

Chronicle writing became one of the main original genres of emerging Russian literature. Chronicles are not just monuments of literature or historical thought. They are the largest monuments of the entire spiritual culture of medieval society. They embodied a wide range of ideas and concepts of that time, reflecting the diversity of phenomena in social life. Throughout the Middle Ages, chronicle writing played an important role in the political and cultural life of the country.

The most significant chronicle monument is “The Tale of Bygone Years,” written in 1113 by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor and which has come down to us as part of later chronicles of the 14th-15th centuries.

However, “The Tale of Bygone Years” is not the very first chronicle work. It was preceded by other chronicles. The existence of codes compiled in the 70s and 90s can be considered precisely established. XI century in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. The opinion about the existence of the Novgorod chronicle of the 50s is quite justified. XI century Chronicle work was also carried out in other centers (for example, at the Church of the Tithes in Kyiv). Echoes of chronicle traditions different from the Kiev-Pechersk tradition are found in later chronicle codes.

As for the time of the emergence of Russian chronicles and its initial stages, much here continues to remain unclear. There are several hypotheses on this issue. A. A. Shakhmatov believed that the “Most Ancient” code was compiled in 1039 in connection with the establishment of the Kyiv Metropolis. According to D.S. Likhachev, the first historical work was “The Legend of the Initial Spread of Christianity in Rus',” compiled in the 40s. XI century and served as the basis for the code of the 70s. M. N. Tikhomirov connected the beginning of the chronicle with the “Tale of the Russian Princes” (Xv.), compiled, in his opinion, shortly after the baptism of Rus' and had a non-ecclesiastical character. B. A. Rybakov considers the first chronicle code to be created in 996-997. at the Tithe Church in Kyiv and summarized the material of brief weather records and oral legends.

By the end of the 10th century. attributed the beginning of Russian chronicles to L.V. Cherepnin. Thus, the formation of original Russian literature is associated with the emergence of chronicles, which most fully reflected its characteristic features.

Like any chronicle, The Tale of Bygone Years is distinguished by the complexity of its composition and the variety of material included in it. In addition to brief weather records and more detailed stories about political events, it included texts of diplomatic and legal documents, and retellings of folklore legends, and excerpts from monuments of translated literature, and records of natural phenomena, and independent literary works - historical stories, lives, theological treatises and teachings, words of praise. This allows us to talk about the chronicle as a synthetic monument of medieval culture, as a kind of encyclopedia of medieval knowledge. But this is not a simple mechanical summary of heterogeneous material, but an integral work, distinguished by the unity of theme and ideological content.

The purpose of the work is formulated by the author in its title: “This is the story of the past years, where the Russian land came from, who began to reign first in Kyiv, and where the Russian land came from.” From these words it follows that the origin and history of the state were considered by the author in inextricable connection with the origin and history of the Kyiv princely power. At the same time, the history of Rus' was given against the broad background of world history.

“The Tale of Bygone Years” is a monument to medieval ideology. The author’s position affected both the selection of material and the assessment of various facts and events. The main attention is paid to the events of political history, the actions of princes and other representatives of the nobility. The economic life and way of life of the people remain in the shadows. The chronicler is hostile to mass popular movements, viewing them as “execution of God.” The religious worldview of its compiler was also clearly evident in the chronicle: he sees the final cause of all events and people’s actions in the action of divine forces, “providence.” But religious reasoning and references to the will of God often hide a practical approach to reality, attempts to identify real cause-and-effect relationships between events.

The “Tale,” which arose at a time when the state had already begun to disintegrate into separate lands and principalities, is imbued with the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land, which was conceived as the unity of all lands under the rule of the great princes of Kyiv. The author sharply condemned princely strife and substantiated the need for “unity” in the face of external danger. He turns to the princes: “Why are you fighting among yourselves? And abominations are destroying the Russian land.” The theme of heroic struggle against external enemies runs through the entire chronicle. The patriotic orientation and the ability to rise to the level of understanding the interests of the whole people bring the Tale closer to the oral folk epic and become the leading trends of all ancient Russian literature.

Having served as the basis for local chronicles during the period of political fragmentation, “The Tale of Bygone Years” played a huge role in establishing and preserving the idea of ​​the unity of Rus' in the minds of subsequent generations who lived during the times of princely strife and the harsh trials of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. She had a great influence on the formation of the self-awareness of the Russian people over the next several centuries.
From the 12th century A new period begins in the history of Russian chronicles. In conditions of political fragmentation, it acquires a regional character. The number of chronicle writing centers is increasing significantly. In addition to Kyiv and Novgorod, chronicles were kept in Chernigov and Pereyaslavl, in Polotsk and Smolensk, in Vladimir and Rostov, in Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky, in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Ryazan and other cities.

Chroniclers focused attention on local events, considering the history of their lands as a continuation of the history of Kievan Rus and preserving the “Tale of Bygone Years” as part of local chronicles. Family princely chronicles, biographies of individual princes, and historical stories about relations between princes are created. Their compilers were, as a rule, not monks, but boyars and warriors, and sometimes the princes themselves. This strengthened the secular direction in chronicle writing.

Local individual traits appeared in the chronicles. Thus, in the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle, which tells about the life of Prince Daniil Romanovich and is distinguished by its secular character, the main attention was paid to the struggle of the princely power with the rebellious boyars, and a description of internecine wars. The chronicle contains almost no discussions of a religious nature, but echoes of druzhina poetry are clearly audible in it.

The local character is especially distinguished by the Novgorod chronicles, which scrupulously and accurately recorded the events of intra-city life. It most fully reflected the democratic orientation and the role of the urban population in public life. The style of the Novgorod chronicles is distinguished by simplicity and efficiency, the absence of church rhetoric.
The Vladimir-Suzdal chronicle reflected the interests of the increasingly stronger grand-ducal power. In an effort to establish the authority of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and substantiate the claims of its princes to political and ecclesiastical supremacy in Rus', the chroniclers did not limit themselves to describing local events, but tried to give the chronicle an all-Russian character. The leading tendency of the Vladimir vaults is the substantiation of the need for a unified and strong power of the Vladimir prince, which seemed to be the successor to the power of the great princes of Kyiv. Religious arguments were widely used for this purpose. This tradition was adopted in the XIV-XV centuries. Moscow chronicle.

One of the oldest monuments of ancient Russian literature is “The Word of Law and Grace.” It was written in the 30-40s. XI century court prince Hilarion, who later became the first Russian metropolitan of Kyiv. Using the form of a church sermon, Hilarion created a political treatise, which reflected the pressing problems of Russian reality. Contrasting “grace” (Christianity) with “law” (Judaism), Hilarion rejects the concept of God’s chosenness inherent in Judaism and affirms the idea of ​​​​transferring heavenly attention and favor from one chosen people to all humanity, the equality of all peoples. Its edge is directed against the Byzantine claims to cultural and political supremacy in Eastern Europe. Hilarion opposes this position with the idea of ​​​​the equality of all Christian peoples, regardless of the time of their baptism, and puts forward the theory of world history as a process of gradual and equal introduction of all peoples to Christianity. Rus', having adopted Christianity, took its rightful place among other Christian states. This provides a religious justification for the state independence and international significance of Rus'. The “Word” is permeated with patriotic pathos, pride in the Russian land, which “is known and heard by all, the land.”

The emergence of original hagiographic literature is associated with the struggle of Rus' to establish church independence. And this typically church genre is characterized by the penetration of journalistic motives into it. Princely lives became a type of hagiographic literature. An example of such a life is “The Tale of Boris and Gleb.” The cult of Boris and Gleb, who became victims of internecine struggle (they were killed in 1015 by their brother Svyatopolk), had a deep political meaning: it sanctified the idea that all Russian princes are brothers. At the same time, the work emphasized the duty of “conquering” the younger princes by the elders. The “Tale” differs significantly from the canonical life of the Byzantine type. Its main idea is not the martyrdom of saints for the faith, but the unity of the Russian land, the condemnation of princely civil strife. And in form, the “Tale,” although it uses hagiographic techniques, is essentially a historical story with the exact names of names, facts, and a detailed description of real events.

The “Reading about Boris and Gleb” written by Nestor has a different character. It is much closer to the hagiographic canon.

By removing all specific historical material, the author made the presentation more abstract and strengthened the edifying and ecclesiastical elements. But at the same time, he retained the main ideological tendency of the “Tale”: condemnation of fratricidal feuds and recognition of the need for younger princes to obey the elders in the family.

Important social, political and moral issues are raised in the “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh. This is the political and moral testament of an outstanding statesman, imbued with deep concern for the fate of Rus', which has entered a difficult period in its history. The princely congress held in Lyubech in 1097 recognized the fact of the fragmentation of Rus' and, putting forward the principle “let each one keep his fatherland,” sanctioned a new form of political system. Monomakh’s “teaching” was an attempt to prevent princely discord and preserve the unity of Rus' in conditions of fragmentation. Behind the demands to observe the norms of Christian morality there is clearly a certain political program.

The central idea of ​​the “Instruction” is the strengthening of state unity, for which it is necessary to strictly comply with the requirements of the established legal order, to subordinate the interests of individual principalities, the personal and family interests of princes to national tasks. The prince must live in peace with other princes, unquestioningly obey the “eldest,” not oppress the younger ones, and avoid unnecessary bloodshed. Monomakh reinforces his instructions with examples from his own life. Attached to the “Instruction” is a letter from Monomakh to Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich of Chernigov, in which he, wishing the good of the “brothers” and the “Russian land”, advocating the unity of actions of the Russian princes against external enemies, makes a proposal for reconciliation to his long-time enemy and his murderer son, thereby demonstrating the triumph of public duty over personal feelings.

One of the duties of Prince Monomakh is considered to be righteous justice, the protection of the “smerds,” “the wretched,” and “widows” from the oppression he inflicts. This trend, aimed at mitigating the severity of social contradictions, was reflected in legislation (the Charter of Vladimir Monomakh, included in Russian Pravda).

The question of the place of princely power in the life of the state, its responsibilities and methods of implementation becomes one of the central ones in literature. The idea arises of the need for strong power as a condition for successfully fighting external enemies and overcoming internal contradictions. This thought permeates the “Prayer of Daniel the Imprisoner” (first quarter of the 13th century). Condemning the dominance of the boyars and the tyranny committed by them, the author creates an ideal image of the prince - the defender of orphans and widows, all the disadvantaged, caring for his subjects. The idea of ​​the need for a “princely thunderstorm” is developing. But by “thunderstorm” we do not mean despotism and arbitrariness, but the capacity and reliability of power: only princely “strength and thunderstorm” can protect subjects “like a solid fence” from the arbitrariness of “strong people,” overcome internal discord and ensure external security.

The relevance of the issues, the brightness of the language, the abundance of proverbs and aphorisms, sharp satirical attacks against the boyars and the clergy ensured this work great popularity for a long time.

The most outstanding work of ancient Russian literature, in which its best aspects were embodied, is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (late 12th century). It tells about the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians in 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich. But the description of this hike is not the author’s goal. It only serves as a reason for him to think about the fate of the Russian land. The author sees the reasons for the defeats in the fight against the nomads, the reasons for the disasters of Rus' in princely civil strife, in the selfish policies of princes thirsting for personal glory. “A sad time arose” when “the princes began to commit sedition on themselves; and abominations from all countries come with victories to the Russian land.”

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is a pan-Russian work; it has no local features. It testifies to the high patriotism of its author, who managed to rise above the narrow interests of his principality to the height of all-Russian interests. Central to the Lay is the image of the Russian land. The author addresses the princes with an ardent appeal to stop strife and unite in the face of external danger in order to “block the gates of the Field,” stand up “for the Russian land,” and protect the southern borders of Rus'.

The author belonged to the druzhina environment. He constantly used the inherent concepts of “honor” and “glory,” but filled them with broader, patriotic content. Condemning the princes for seeking personal “glory” and “honor,” he primarily advocated for the honor and glory of the Russian land.

“The Word” is a secular work. It lacks church rhetoric, Christian symbols and concepts. It is closely connected with oral folk art, which is manifested in the poetic animation of nature, in the widespread use of pagan symbols and images of pagan mythology, as well as forms typical of folklore (for example, crying) and figurative and expressive means. The connection with folk art is evidenced by both the ideological content and the artistic form of the work.

The Tale of Igor's Campaign embodied the characteristic features of ancient Russian literature of this period: a living connection with historical reality, citizenship and patriotism. The appearance of such a masterpiece testified to the high degree of maturity of the literature of Ancient Rus', its originality, and the high level of development of culture as a whole.

Architecture. Painting

Until the end of the twentieth century. There was no monumental stone architecture in Rus', but there were rich traditions of wooden construction, some forms of which subsequently influenced stone architecture. After the adoption of Christianity, the construction of stone churches began, the construction principles of which were borrowed from Byzantium. In Rus', the cross-domed type of church became widespread. The interior space of the building was divided by four massive pillars, forming a cross in plan.

On these pillars, connected in pairs by arches, a “drum” was erected, ending in a hemispherical dome. The ends of the spatial cross were covered with cylindrical vaults, and the corner parts with domed vaults. The eastern part of the building had projections for the altar - an apse. The interior space of the temple was divided by pillars into naves (spaces between rows). There could have been more pillars in the temple. In the western part there was a balcony - the choir, where the prince and his family and his entourage were present during the service. A spiral staircase, located in a specially designed tower, led to the choir. Sometimes the choirs were connected by a passage to the princely palace.

The first stone building was the Church of the Tithes, erected in Kyiv at the end of the 10th century. Greek masters. It was destroyed by the Mongol-Tatars in 1240. In 1031-1036. In Chernigov, Greek architects erected the Transfiguration Cathedral - the most “Byzantine”, according to experts, temple of Ancient Rus'.

The pinnacle of southern Russian architecture of the 11th century. is the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev - a huge five-nave temple built in 1037-1054. Greek and Russian masters. In ancient times it was surrounded by two open galleries. The walls are made of rows of cut stone alternating with rows of flat bricks (plinths). Most other ancient Russian churches had the same masonry walls. The Kiev Sophia was already significantly different from the Byzantine examples in the stepped composition of the temple, the presence of thirteen domes crowning it, which was probably reflected in the traditions of wooden construction. In the 11th century Several more stone buildings, including secular ones, were erected in Kyiv. The Assumption Church of the Pechersk Monastery marked the beginning of the spread of single-domed churches.

Following the Kyiv Sofia, St. Sophia Cathedrals were built in Novgorod and Polotsk. Novgorod Sophia (1045-1060) differs significantly from the Kyiv Cathedral. It is simpler, more concise, stricter than its original. It is characterized by some artistic and constructive solutions unknown to either southern Russian or Byzantine architecture: masonry of walls made of huge, irregularly shaped stones, gable ceilings, the presence of blades on the facades, an arcature belt on a drum, etc. This is partly explained by the connections of Novgorod with Western Europe and the influence of Romanesque architecture. Novgorod Sophia served as a model for subsequent Novgorod buildings of the early 12th century: the St. Nicholas Cathedral (1113), the cathedrals of the Antoniev (1117-1119) and Yuryev (1119) monasteries. The last princely building of this type is the Church of St. John on Opoki (1127).

From the 12th century a new stage began in the development of Russian architecture, which differs from the architecture of the previous time in the smaller scale of buildings, the search for simple, but at the same time expressive forms. The most typical was the cubic temple with a roof covering and a massive dome. While maintaining the general features of architecture in different centers of Rus', its local features were developed.

From the second half of the 12th century. Byzantine influence noticeably weakened, which was marked by the appearance in ancient Russian architecture of tower-shaped temples, unknown to Byzantine architecture. The earliest example of such a temple is the Cathedral of the Savior Euphrosyne Monastery in Polotsk (before 1159), as well as the Cathedral of Michael the Archangel in Smolensk (1191-1194) and the Church of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa in Chernigov (late 12th century). The upward direction of the building was emphasized by a tall slender drum, a second tier of zakomaras and decorative kokoshniks at the base of the drum.

The influence of the Romanesque style becomes more noticeable. It did not affect the foundations of ancient Russian architecture - the cross-domed structure of the temple with a roof covering, but it affected the external design of the buildings: arcature belts, similar buttresses on the external walls, groups of semi-columns and pilasters, columnar belts on the walls, perspective portals and, finally, a fancy stone carvings on the outer surface of the walls. The use of Romanesque style elements spread in the 12th century. in the Smolensk and Galician-Volyn principalities, and then in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus'.

Unfortunately, the architectural monuments of the Galicia-Volyn land are poorly preserved. 30 stone buildings of Galich are known only from archaeological data. An example of the local architectural school was the Assumption Cathedral, built in Galich under Yaroslav Osmomysl. The peculiarity of Galician architecture was the organic combination of Byzantine-Kyiv spatial composition with Romanesque construction techniques and elements of Romanesque decorative decoration.

The establishment of a republican system in Novgorod led to a significant democratization of culture, which may not have affected the architecture. Princely construction was reduced. Boyars, merchants, and groups of parishioners began to act as customers for churches. Churches were the centers of public life in certain districts of the city; they often served as a warehouse for goods, a place for storing the property of citizens, and brotherhoods gathered in them. A new type of temple arose - a four-pillar cubic temple with one dome and three apses, distinguished by its small size and simplicity in the design of the facades, such as the Church of the Annunciation in Arkazhi near Novgorod (1179), Peter and Paul on Sinichaya Gorka (1185-1192), Paraskeva Fridays at the Market (1207). The princes also built similar temples in their country residence on Gorodishche. The Church of the Savior-Nereditsa, built in 1198, belonged to this type, but was badly damaged during the Great Patriotic War (the frescoes were destroyed).

The oldest monument of Pskov architecture is the surviving Church of the Savior in the Mirozhsky Monastery (mid-12th century), which differs from Novgorod buildings in the absence of pillars. The squat, three-domed cathedral of the Ivanovo Monastery resembles the Church of the Savior-Nereditsa. Of the monuments of Staraya Ladoga, only the churches of St. George and the Assumption, which are close in their architectural appearance to the Novgorod monuments, have survived.

Stone construction in the Vladimir-Suzdal land begins at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. with the construction of the cathedral in Suzdal by Vladimir Monomakh, but it reached its highest peak in the 12th - early 13th centuries. In contrast to the harsh architecture of Novgorod, the architecture of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' was ceremonial in nature, distinguished by refined proportions and graceful lines.

The influence of Romanesque architecture especially affected Vladimir-Suzdal architecture. According to the chronicle, Andrei Bogolyubsky, while building his capital, collected “masters from all lands,” among them were “Latins.” Strong ties with Galician-Volyn Rus also had an impact, from where construction techniques were probably borrowed. The outer and inner surfaces of the walls were laid out from precisely fitted and smoothly polished white stone blocks, and the gap was filled with stones and filled with lime mortar. This is typical Romanesque masonry. Many decorative elements, in particular relief stone carvings, are of Romanesque origin.

The first buildings of this type are the Transfiguration Cathedral in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky and the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha, near Suzdal, erected in 1152. These are single-domed four-pillar churches, which are also characterized by heavy proportions and decorative simplicity of facades.

Construction in Vladimir under Andrei Bogolyubsky achieved great growth. City fortifications were erected, from which the white stone Golden Gate remained. In the countryside princely residence of Bogolyubovo, a castle was built, which consisted of a complex of buildings surrounded by walls with white stone towers." The Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, which was the center of the entire ensemble, was connected by passages to a two-story stone palace. Only the remains of these structures have reached us. In 1158-1161 The Assumption Cathedral was built, richly decorated with carved stone.The recognized masterpiece of ancient Russian architecture is the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165), distinguished by its perfection and lightness of proportions, harmony and upward aspiration.

In the last quarter of the 12th century. The construction of the architectural ensemble of Vladimir is largely completed. After the fire of 1184, the Assumption Cathedral was rebuilt and received its final forms.

Ensembles of the Rozhdestvensky (1192-1196) and Knyaginin (1200-1201) monasteries were formed.
A special place in the Vladimir architecture of this time is occupied by the Dmitrievsky Cathedral, erected in 1194-1197. in the center of the princely palace. It is distinguished by the richness of white stone carvings and represents a magnificent synthesis of architecture, sculpture and painting. In the plastic design of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral, the artistic style of local masters is much more clearly manifested in comparison with the sculpture of previous times. Stone carving acquires a unique originality: under the influence of the traditions of folk wooden carving, it becomes flatter and more ornamental, in contrast to the “round” Romanesque.

Russian stone carvers preferred more cheerful motifs to the gloomy and terrifying subjects that prevailed in Western European Romanesque sculpture. The carved decor of the Demetrius Cathedral is called a “poem in stone” - biblical, apocryphal and pagan motifs are intricately intertwined in it.

The traditions and techniques developed by the masters of the Vladimir school continued to develop in Suzdal, Yuryev-Polsky, and Nizhny Novgorod. St. George's Cathedral of Yuryev-Polsky (1230-1234) was covered with decorative carvings from top to bottom. Relief images against the background of a continuous carpet pattern formed complete subject compositions. Unfortunately, the cathedral has not been preserved in its original form.

After its vaults and upper parts of the walls collapsed, it was rebuilt in 1471, while the blocks of white stone were partially lost and mixed up. St. George's Cathedral is the last monument of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture. It is called the “swan song” of Russian architecture of the pre-Mongol era.

With the adoption of Christianity from Byzantium, new types of monumental painting came to Rus' - mosaics and frescoes, as well as easel painting (icon painting). Byzantium not only introduced Russian artists to a painting technique that was new to them, but also gave them an iconographic canon, the immutability of which was strictly protected by the church. This to a certain extent fettered artistic creativity and predetermined a longer and more stable Byzantine influence in painting than in architecture.

The earliest surviving works of ancient Russian painting were created in Kyiv. According to the chronicles, the first temples were decorated by visiting Greek masters, who introduced into the existing iconography a system of arranging subjects in the interior of the temple, as well as a style of planar writing. The mosaics and frescoes of the St. Sophia Cathedral are distinguished by their harsh beauty and monumentality. They are executed in a strict and solemn manner, characteristic of Byzantine monumental painting. Their creators skillfully used a variety of smalt shades and skillfully combined mosaics with frescoes. Of the mosaic works, the images of Our Lady Oranta in the altar apse and the chest-length image of Christ Pantocrator in the central dome are especially significant. All images are permeated with the idea of ​​greatness, triumph and inviolability of the Orthodox Church and earthly power.

Unique monuments of secular painting are the wall paintings of the two towers of the Kyiv Sofia. Scenes of princely hunting, circus competitions, musicians, buffoons, acrobats, fantastic animals and birds are depicted here. By their nature they are far from ordinary church paintings. Among the frescoes of Sofia are two group portraits of the family of Yaroslav the Wise.

The mosaics of the Golden-Domed Cathedral of the St. Michael's Monastery are distinguished by a rather free composition, lively movements and individual characteristics of individual characters. The mosaic image of Dmitry Solunsky is well known - a warrior in a gilded shell and a blue cloak. By the beginning of the 12th century. expensive and labor-intensive mosaic is completely replaced by fresco.

In the XII-XIII centuries. In the painting of individual cultural centers, local features are becoming more and more noticeable. In the second half of the 12th century. A specific Novgorod style of monumental painting is being formed, which reaches its fullest expression in the paintings of the churches of St. George in Staraya Ladoga, the Annunciation in Arkazhi and especially the Savior-Nereditsa. In these fresco cycles, in contrast to the Kyiv ones, there is a noticeable desire to simplify artistic techniques, to expressive interpretation of iconographic types, which was dictated by the desire to create art that is accessible to the perception of a person inexperienced in theological subtleties, capable of directly influencing his feelings. To a lesser extent, the democracy of Novgorod art was manifested in easel painting, where local features are less pronounced. The icon “Golden Haired Angel” belongs to the Novgorod school, attracting attention with the lyricism of the image and light color.

From the painting of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' of pre-Mongol times, fragments of frescoes from the Dmitrievsky and Assumption Cathedrals in Vladimir and the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha, as well as several icons, have reached us. Based on this material, researchers consider it possible to talk about the gradual formation of the Vladimir-Suzdal school of painting. The fresco of the Demetrius Cathedral depicting the Last Judgment is distinguished by the best preservation. It was created by two masters - a Greek and a Russian. The faces of the apostles and angels, painted by the Russian master, are simpler and more sincere, they are endowed with kindness and gentleness, they do not contain the intense psychologism characteristic of the manner of the Greek master. Several large icons of the 12th - early 13th centuries belong to the Vladimir-Suzdal school. The earliest of them is the “Our Lady of Bogolyubsk” (mid-12th century), stylistically close to the famous “Our Lady of Vladimir” - an icon of Byzantine origin. The icon “Dmitry of Thessalonica” is of great interest (it is believed that this is a portrait image of Prince Vsevolod the Big Nest). Dmitry is depicted sitting on a throne in expensive clothes, wearing a crown, with a half-naked sword in his hands.

The spread of writing and the appearance of handwritten books led to the emergence of another type of painting - book miniatures. The oldest Russian miniatures are in the Ostromir Gospel, which contains images of the three evangelists. The bright ornamental surroundings of their figures and the abundance of gold make these illustrations look like jewelry (like cloisonné enamel). The “Izbornik” of Prince Svyatoslav (1073) contains a miniature depicting the prince’s family, as well as marginal drawings that are similar to the secular painting of Kyiv Sofia.