Culture of ancient Rus' XIV - XV centuries

The idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land in the fight against foreign yoke became one of the leading ones in culture and runs like a red thread through works of oral folk art, writing, painting, and architecture.

From the second half of the 14th century. the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over the conquerors in the Battle of Kulikovo, which was important milestone on the path to liberating the country from foreign yoke. The leading role of Moscow in the unification of Russian lands is determined, its importance as one of the main cultural centers. The Kulikovo victory caused a rise in national self-awareness, which was reflected in all areas of culture. While maintaining essential local peculiarities In culture, the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land becomes leading.

The fight against the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke became main theme oral folk art. Many oral folk poetic works on this topic were included in a revised form in written literature. Among them are tales about the Battle of Kalka, about the devastation of Ryazan by Batu and the Ryazan hero Evpatiy Kolovrat, about the exploits of Mercury of Smolensk, about the Battle of the Neva and Battle on the Ice, about the Battle of Kulikovo.

The heroic epic reached its highest level. Ancient epics received new life. Composers of epics about the Tatar invasion turned to examples of Kyiv heroes grouped around the old prince Vladimir “Red Sun”. They tell how the Tatars approached Kyiv and how the Kyiv heroes drove out the invaders. In epics, Kyiv is represented as the embodiment of Russian statehood, as the ideal epic center of the entire Russian land. During this period, the creation of a cycle epic epic, associated with Kiev and Prince Vladimir, was ending. It fully demonstrated the interest in the heroic past of the Russian people, characteristic of all Russian culture of that time.

In the 14th century it took shape new genre oral folk art - a genre of historical song. Unlike the epic epic, in the historical song the heroes and events are depicted much closer to reality, the time of action is not conventionally epic, but specifically historical, although the plot and characters may be fictitious. This is a living, direct response to specific events. A historical song is a work not about the past, but about the present; it becomes historical only for subsequent generations.

A variation of this genre are songs about the Tatar Polon, and above all songs about Polonyanka girls. At the center of them are not the destinies of the state, but of private ones human destinies, through which one of the tragic moments of the people’s fate is revealed. The image of a pure and persistent girl who is captured embodies the image of the Russian land suffering under the heavy yoke.

Although the disastrous consequences of foreign invasions had a negative impact on the preservation of book wealth and on the level of literacy, the traditions of writing and book learning, established in the 11th - 12th centuries, were preserved.

The rise of culture from the second half of the 14th century. accompanied by the development of book publishing. The largest centers of book learning were monasteries, where there were book-writing workshops and libraries containing hundreds of volumes. The most significant were the book collections of the Trinity - Sergius, Kirillo - Belozersky and Solovetsky monasteries that have survived to this day.

The development of writing and bookmaking was accompanied by changes in writing techniques. In the XIV century. Expensive parchment was replaced by paper, which was delivered from other countries, mainly from Italy and France. The writing graphics have changed; Instead of a strictly “statutory” letter, the so-called half-charter appeared, and from the 15th century. and “cursive writing,” which speeded up the process of making a book. All this made the book more accessible and helped meet the growing demand.

Russian book XIV - XV centuries. played an outstanding role in the revival of literary monuments, and the dissemination of contemporary works of deep ideological and political resonance.

Russian literature XIV - XV centuries. inherited from ancient Russian literature its keen journalisticism, put forward the most important problems political life of Rus'. It was especially closely connected with the social political life chronicle. Being historical works, chronicles at the same time were also political documents that played big role in ideological and political struggle.

The central theme of literature was the struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders. Therefore, the military story became one of the most common genres. The works of this genre were based on specific historical facts and events, and the characters were real historical figures. Military stories are secular works, close to oral folk art, although many of them were processed in the spirit of church ideology.

The victory over the Mongol-Tatars on the Kulikovo Field in 1380 caused a rise in national self-awareness and instilled in the Russian people confidence in their abilities. Under its influence, a series of works arose that are united by one main idea - about the unity of the Russian land as the basis for victory over the enemy.

In the XIV - XV centuries great development Hagiographical literature has received its attention, a number of works of which are permeated with current journalistic ideas. Church preaching in them was combined with the development of thoughts about the leading role of Moscow and the close union of princely power and the church (with primary importance given to church power) as the main condition for the strengthening of Rus'. The hagiographic literature also reflected specifically ecclesiastical interests, which did not always coincide with the interests of the grand ducal authorities.

In hagiographic literature, the rhetorical-panegyric style (or expressive-emotional style) has become widespread. Lengthy and florid speeches were introduced into the text - monologues, the author's rhetorical digressions, reasoning of a moral and theological nature. Much attention was paid to describing the hero’s feelings, his state of mind, and psychological motivations for the actions of the characters appeared.

Painting reached its peak in Moscow at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries. Here at this time the Russian national school of painting was finally taking shape, the most a prominent representative which was the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev.

Cultural development of Russian lands in the XIV - XV centuries. was an extremely important stage in the formation of all-Russian culture, which absorbed the achievements of local cultures.

From the end of the 15th century comes new stage in the development of Russian architecture. The improvement of urban crafts and the increase in state financial resources were the material prerequisites for expanding the scale of stone construction in both the religious and civil spheres. An innovation of this time was the spread of brick and terracotta, brickwork replacing the traditional white stone. The growth of brick production and its use in construction opened up new technical and artistic opportunities for architects.

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CULTURE XIV-XV CENTURIES.

Folklore. Oral folk art - epics and songs, proverbs and sayings, fairy tales and conspiracies, ritual and other poetry - reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and the world around them. The epics about Vasily Buslaevich and Sadko glorify Novgorod with its bustling city life and trade caravans sailing to overseas countries.

It was during these centuries that the Kiev epic cycle about Vladimir the Red Sun finally took shape, in whose image one can discern the features of two great Russian princes: Vladimir Svyatoslavich and Vladimir Monomakh; about Ilya Muromets and other heroes of the Russian land. In addition to the facts of ancient Russian history, the epics also reflect later events associated with the Horde invasion and yoke: the battle on Kalka, victory on the Kulikovo field, liberation from the yoke of the Horde.

Many legends have folklore features - about the battle on Kalka, about the devastation of Ryazan by Batu and Evpatiy Kolovrat, the defender of Smolensk Mercury, "Zadonshchina" and "The Legend of Mamaev's massacre". The historical song about Shchelkan Dudentievich tells about the uprising of the Tver people against Chol Khan and his detachment:
"And there was a battle between them. The Tatars, hoping for autocracy, began the battle. And the people flocked and the people were confused, and they struck the bells and stood with the eve. And the whole city turned around, and all the people gathered that hour, and there was a jam in them And the people of Tver shouted and began to beat the Tatars..."

The song, on the one hand, quite accurately depicts the course of the uprising of 1327, and on the other hand, it ignores the fact that the Tatars eventually took revenge on the Tver people. The compilers of the song, without taking this circumstance into account, based on the rightness of the people, state otherwise: “It was not exacted from anyone.”

Literature. Historical thought. In literature great place heroic and hagiographic, or biographical, themes took over. In a number military stories tells about the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols, the fight against them by the brave Russians. Protection native land, fearlessness in the fight against its enemies, invaders is their constant motive: “It is better for us to buy our belly with death than with the filthy will of being.”

A sublime and patriotic story about Alexander Nevsky was written by his warrior. He glorifies the “courage and life” of his hero - “our Grand Duke, both smart and meek, sensible, and brave,” “invincible, never mind.” Describes the battles won by the “thoughtful” commander, his trip to the Horde and his death.

Later, on the basis of this story, “The Life of St. Alexander Nevsky” was created. His hero is depicted as an ideal ruler, similar to biblical and Roman heroes: with a face like Joseph, strength like Samson, wisdom like Solomon, and courage like the Roman emperor Vespasian.

Under the influence of this monument, the life of Dovmont, the Pskov prince of the 13th century, the winner of the Lithuanian princes and Livonian knights, was reworked: its short and dry edition turned into a lengthy one, filled with sublime and picturesque descriptions of the exploits of the Pskov hero.

Other stories and lives are dedicated to the princes who died in the Horde: Vasilko Konstantinovich of Rostov, Mikhail Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, Mikhail Yaroslavich and Alexander Mikhailovich of Tver, etc. All of them are presented as undaunted defenders of the Christian faith, that is, their land and people.

From the second half of the 14th century. a significant number of works talk about the fight against the Horde - the Battle of Kulikovo ("Zadonshchina", chronicle stories), Tokhtamyshev's ruin in 1382, the "coming" of Tamerlane to Rus'.

“Zadonshchina” occupies a special place among these monuments. Its author, Sophony Ryazanets, views the events of 1380 as a direct continuation of the struggle Kievan Rus with steppe nomadic predators. It is not without reason that his model is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” which tells the story of the campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich, Prince of Novgorod-Seversky, against the Polovtsians in 1185. The victory on the Kulikovo Field is retribution for the defeat on the Kayala River. From the Lay, Zephanius borrows images, literary style, individual phrases, and expressions.

Other Moscow monuments of the 14th - 15th centuries also provide high examples of folk poetic speech. This is the lyrical lament of “The Tale of the Ruin of Moscow by Khan Tokhtamysh”: “Who would not weep like this for the destruction of this glorious city.” In the devastated capital, the author continues, there reigned “crying and sobbing, and much crying, and tears, and inconsolable screaming, and much lamentation, and bitter sadness, and inconsolable grief, unbearable misfortune, terrible need, and mortal grief, fear, horror and trembling".

Chronicles occupied a leading place in literature and historical thought. After the break caused by Batu's invasion, chronicle writing resumed, more or less quickly, at the courts of princes, at the metropolitan and episcopal departments. Chronicles were already written in the 30-40s. XIII century in Rostov the Great, Ryazan, then in Vladimir (from 1250), Tver (from the end of the 13th century). Chronicle writing continued in Novgorod and Pskov.

All chronicles reflected local interests, the views of princes and boyars, church hierarchs; sometimes - the views of ordinary, “lesser” people. These are, for example, the records of one of the Novgorod chronicles about the rebellion of the mid-13th century:
"And the menshii rekosha at St. Nicholas (at the Church of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker) at the veche: "Brother! Qi how the prince says: “Give up my enemies!” And you kissed the Holy Mother of God (the icon of the Mother of God) of the menshii - what on earth for everyone, either life (life) or death for the truth of Novgorod, for their fatherland. And when the council of the rich, noble became angry, how to defeat the menshii and bring in the prince of his own free will.”

This passage is about an uprising, during which the Novgorodians were divided in two - the “smaller” (poor) against the “big” (rich); if the first opposed the second and the prince, then the second sought to “defeat” the first, and keep the prince “in their will.” It is characteristic that “for the Novgorod truth, for one’s fatherland,” i.e., for the interests Novgorod land, according to this entry, it is the “smaller” and not the “big” people who stand.

The compilation of chronicles and other works, the copying of manuscripts has been on the rise since the second half of the 14th century. Gradually the leading place passes to Moscow. In the capital itself, its monasteries (Simonov, Andronikov, etc.), the Trinity-Sergius Monastery at this and later times, the big number manuscripts of spiritual and secular content (Gospel, chronicles, lives of saints, words, teachings, etc.).

In the Moscow chronicles of the late XIV - XV centuries. the ideas of the unity of Rus', the Kyiv and Vladimir heritage, the leading role of Moscow in the unification of Russian lands and the fight against the Horde are promoted. A presentation of world history, including Russian history, is given in the "Russian Chronograph".

Architecture, painting. Andrey Rublev. The construction of wooden buildings - huts and mansions, chapels and churches - resumed after the Mongol-Tatar invasion quite quickly - life required housing and a temple, even the most modest one. Stone buildings appear at the end of the 13th century. In the XIV - XV centuries. their number is greatly increasing. The churches of St. Nicholas on Lipna near Novgorod (1292), Fyodor Stratilates on the Stream (1360), the Savior on Ilyin Street (1374) and others in the city itself have survived to this day.

They build in cities and monasteries stone walls, other fortifications. Such are the stone fortresses in Izborsk, Oreshk and Yama, Koporye and Porkhov, the Moscow Kremlin (60s of the 14th century), etc. In Novgorod the Great in the 15th century. built a complex of buildings of the Sophia House - the residence of the archbishop (the Faceted Chamber, the clock-bell, the palace of Bishop Evfimy), the boyar chambers.

Churches and cathedrals were usually painted with frescoes, and icons were hung in altars and on the walls. The names of the masters are sometimes given in chronicles. In one of the Moscow chronicles, for example, it is written: the Archangel Cathedral was painted (1344) by “Russian scribes... among them were the elders and chief icon painters - Zacharias, Joseph, Nicholas and their other retinue.”

Among the craftsmen who worked in Novgorod, Theophanes the Greek, or Grechin, who came from Byzantium, became especially famous. His frescoes in the churches of the Savior on Ilyin, Fyodor Stratelates amaze with their majesty, monumentality and great expression in the image biblical stories. He also worked in Moscow. Epiphanius the Wise, compiler of the lives of saints, called Theophan a “glorious sage”, “a very cunning philosopher”, “a deliberate isographer and an elegant painter of icon painters”. He writes that the master worked in a free, easy manner: standing on a stage in the church and applying paints to the walls, at the same time talking with the audience standing below; and every time there were quite a lot of them.

The highest degree of expressiveness, Russian perfection fresco painting and icon painting reached in the work of the brilliant Andrei Rublev. He was born around 1370, became a monk of the Trinity-Sergius, then the Moscow Spaso-Andronikov Monastery. Together with Theophan the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets, he painted the walls of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, then, this time in collaboration with friend Daniil Cherny, the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. Later, they also worked on frescoes and icons for the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery At the end of his life the master worked in Andronievo, where he died and was buried (around 1430).

The work of Andrei Rublev was highly valued already in the 15th - 16th centuries. According to contemporaries and descendants close in time, he is “an extraordinary icon painter and surpasses everyone in wisdom.” Epiphanius the Wise, a student of Sergius of Radonezh and the author of his life, placed in the latter miniatures depicting Rublev (the artist on the stage paints a wall icon of the Savior Not Made by Hands, the burial of Rublev by monks).

The era of national upsurge during the struggle of Dmitry Donskoy, Moscow with the Horde, the Kulikovo victory, success in uniting Russian forces was reflected in the work of the great artist - the world of his images and ideas called for unity, harmony, humanity.

His most famous work is “The Trinity” from the iconostasis of the aforementioned Trinity Cathedral. Written in the ancient tradition, it is deeply national in its softness and harmony, noble simplicity depicted figures and transparency, tenderness of colors. They reflect the characteristic features of Russian nature and human nature. They are also inherent in other icons and frescoes - “Savior”, apostles, angels. The work of the great artist was highly valued by his descendants - chronicles mention him, his icons were given as gifts influential people, princes. The Council of the Hundred Heads in 1551 ordered that “an icon painter should paint icons... as Andrei Rublev and other notorious (famous, illustrious) icon painters wrote.”

In the 15th century on the icons, in addition to traditional scenes from the Bible, the lives of saints, landscapes (forests and mountains, cities and monasteries), portraits (for example, on the icon “Praying Novgorodians” - a portrait of a boyar family), battle scenes (for example, the victory of the Novgorodians over Suzdal residents on one of the Novgorod icons).

The formation of major political centers in Rus' and the struggle between them for the great reign of Vladimir. Formation of the Tver and Moscow principalities. Ivan Kalita. Construction of the white stone Kremlin.

Dmitry Donskoy. Battle of Kulikovo, its historical meaning. Relations with Lithuania. Church and State. Sergius of Radonezh.

Merger of the Great Vladimir and Moscow principalities. Rus' and Union of Florence. The internecine war of the second quarter of the 15th century, its significance for the process of unification of Russian lands.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion interrupted the powerful rise of Russian culture. Destruction of cities, loss of traditions, extinction artistic directions, the destruction of monuments of writing, painting, and architecture is a blow from which it was possible to recover only by the middle of the 14th century.

In the ideas and images of Russian culture of the XIV-XVI centuries. reflected the mood of the era - a time of decisive successes in the struggle for independence, the overthrow of the Horde yoke, unification around Moscow, the formation of the Great Russian people.

Memory of the prosperous and happy country, how Kievan Rus remained in the consciousness of society (“lightly bright and beautifully decorated” - words from “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, no later than 1246), was preserved primarily by literature. Chronicle writing remained its most important genre; it was revived in all lands and principalities of Rus'. At the beginning of the 15th century. In Moscow, the first all-Russian chronicle was compiled - an important evidence of progress in the unification of the country. With the completion of this process, chronicle writing, subordinated to the idea of ​​substantiating the power of the Moscow prince and then the tsar, acquired an official character. During the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible (70s of the 16th century), an illustrated “Facebook Chronicle” was compiled in 12 volumes, containing more than one and a half ten thousand miniatures. In the XIV-XV centuries. The favorite theme of oral folk art is the struggle of Rus' with the “infidels.” A genre of historical song is emerging (“Song about Shchelkan”, about the Battle of Kalka, about the ruin of Ryazan, about Evpatiy Kolovrat, etc.). Historical songs also reflected major events XVI century - Kazan campaign of Ivan the Terrible, oprichnina, image of the Terrible Tsar. The victory in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 gave rise to a series of historical stories, of which “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev” and the inspired “Zadonshchina” stand out (its author, Sofoniy Ryazanets, used images and excerpts from “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”). Lives of saints were created in the 16th century. they are combined into the 12-volume “Great Cheti-Minea.” In the 15th century The Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin (“Walking across Three Seas”) describes his journey to India and Persia. Unique literary monument remains “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom” - the love story of the Murom prince and his wife, probably described by Ermolai-Erasmus in the middle of the 16th century. Domostroy, written by Ivan the Terrible's confessor Sylvester, is remarkable in its own way - a book about housekeeping, raising and educating children, and the role of women in the family.

IN late XV-XVI V. literature is enriched with brilliant journalistic works. Josephites (followers of the abbot of the Volotsk monastery Joseph, who defend the principle of non-interference of the state in the affairs of a rich and materially strong church) and non-acquisitors (Nil Sorsky, Vassi-an Patrikeev, Maxim Grek, who condemn the church for wealth and luxury, for craving for worldly pleasures) argue fiercely ). In 1564-1577. Ivan the Terrible and Prince Andrei Kurbsky exchange angry messages. “...Tsars and rulers who make cruel laws perish,” Kurbsky inspires the king and hears in response: “Is this really light - when priests and crafty slaves rule, while the king is a king only in name and honor, and not at all with power?” no better than a slave? The idea of ​​the “auto-power” of the tsar, the divinity of his power, acquires almost hypnotic power in Ivan the Terrible’s messages. Differently, but just as consistently, Ivan Peresvetov writes about the special calling of the autocratic tsar in “The Great Petition” (1549): when punishing boyars who have forgotten about their duty to society, the righteous monarch must rely on the devoted nobility. Meaning official ideology have ideas about Moscow as the “third Rome”: “Two Romes (“the second Rome” - Constantinople, devastated in 1453 - Author) fell, the third stands, the fourth will not exist” (Philo-fei).

Note that in 1564 in Moscow, Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets published the first Russian printed book- “Apostle.”

In the architecture of the XIV-XVI centuries. trends historical development Rus'-Russia was reflected with particular clarity. At the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. Stone construction is being resumed in Novgorod and Pskov, which suffered less than others from the Horde yoke. In the XIV century. appears in Novgorod new type churches - light, elegant, bright (Spas on Ilyin). But half a century passes, and tradition wins: harsh, heavy structures reminiscent of the past are being erected again. Politics imperiously invades art, demanding that it be the guardian of independence, which the unifier Moscow is so successfully fighting. It accumulates the signs of a capital city of a single state gradually but consistently. In 1367, the white stone Kremlin was built, at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. New red brick walls and towers are being erected. They are built by masters Pietro Antonio Solari, Aleviz Novy, and Mark Ruffo, imported from Italy. By that time, the Assumption Cathedral (1479), an outstanding architectural monument, in which an experienced eye will see both traditional features of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture and elements of the building art of the Renaissance. Next to another job Italian masters- The Chamber of Facets (1487-1489) - Pskov craftsmen build the Annunciation Cathedral (1484-1489). A little later, the same Aleviz the New completes the magnificent ensemble of Cathedral Square with the Archangel Cathedral, the tomb of the Grand Dukes (1505-1509). Behind the Kremlin wall on Red Square in 1555-1560. In honor of the capture of Kazan, the nine-domed Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral) was erected, topped with a high multifaceted pyramid - a tent. This detail gave it the name “tent” architectural style, which arose in the 16th century. (Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, 1532). The zealots of antiquity fight against “outrageous innovations,” but their victory is relative: at the end of the century, the desire for splendor and beauty is revived.

Painting of the second half of the XIV-XV centuries is the golden age of Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius. The paintings of the Novgorod (Savior on Ilyin) and Moscow (Annunciation Cathedral) churches of Theophanes the Greek and the icons of Rublev (“Trinity”, “Savior”, etc.) are addressed to God, but tell about man, his soul, about the search for harmony and ideal. Painting, while remaining deeply religious in themes, images, genres (wall paintings, icons), acquires unexpected humanity, gentleness, and philosophy.

The excursion cycle “Russian Literature and Fine Arts” is aimed at students in grades 9–11. It includes the following excursion topics:

1. Old Russian painting and literature.
2. Russian literature and fine arts of the 18th century.
3. Russian literature and fine arts art XIX century.

The reader is offered a methodological development of the excursion cycle "Literature and painting Ancient Rus'» of two classes. It is addressed to teachers of humanities and aesthetics subjects, museum educators, and tour guides.

Purpose of the cycle:
Using the example of monuments of ancient Russian painting included in the exhibition of the Russian Museum, demonstrate close relationship literature and art in the culture of Ancient Rus'.

Excursion objectives:

1. Based on an integrative approach, supplement and develop students’ ideas about the Old Russian period national history, especially emphasizing the conditionality of all aspects of human activity, including art, by the Christian worldview.
2. Mark the height of aesthetic and moral ideals, reflected in the monuments of ancient Russian culture, and in connection with this the need and importance of studying the literature and art of the Russian Middle Ages.
3. Observing the similarities and divergences in the development of literature and art throughout Old Russian period, to identify patterns, “parallelism” of those processes that are characteristic of both one and another type of creativity.
4. Draw the attention of tourists to the gradual increase in the author’s principle in works of both literature and painting towards the end of this period. To trace the process of emergence in the depths of ancient Russian art of a new attitude towards man, towards the image of the real earthly world.

Visual range:

1. Archangel Gabriel (“Angel of Golden Hair”). XII century
2. Boris and Gleb. XIII century
3. Our Lady of Belozerskaya. XIII century
4. Miracle of George about the serpent, with life. I half XIV century
5. Descent into hell. (Novgorod). XIV century
6. Battle of Novgorodians with Suzdalians. XV century
7. Saved by the Ardent Eye. XIV century
8. Apostles Peter and Paul. (School of A. Rublev). 1408.
9. Dormition. (“Cloud Assumption”. From Kemi). XVI century
10. Dionysius. Descent into hell. 1502.
11. The parable of the blind man and the lame man. XVI century
12. "Our Father". Con. XVII.
13. S. Ushakov. Trinity. 1671.

Literary monuments:

1. The Tale of Bygone Years. Con. XI – beginning XII century
2. The Legend of Boris and Gleb. Con. XI – beginning XII century
3. Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh. Con. XI – beginning XII century
4. A word about Igor's regiment. XII century
5. The Legend of the City of Kitezh. XIII century
6. The story of the ruin of Ryazan by Batu. XIII century
7. Miracle of George about the serpent with life. XIII century
8. Life of Alexander Nevsky. XII century
9. The legend about the battle of the Novgorodians with the Suzdalians. End XIV - beginning XV century
10. Zadonshchina. Con. XIV century
11. Epistle of Epiphanius the Wise to Kirill of Tverskoy.
12. Epiphanius the Wise. Life of Sergius of Radonezh. Ser. XV century
13. Correspondence of Ivan the Terrible. XVI century
14. Life of Archpriest Avvakum. XVI century
15. Apocrypha (“Descent into Hell”, “Cloud Assumption”).
16. Household stories of the 17th century: The Tale of the Mountain of Misfortune. The story of Frol Skobeev. The story of Savva Grudtsyn. XVII century

Guidelines:
Before the excursion, it is necessary to conduct preparatory conversation, tuning them to perceive the most complex material - ancient Russian monuments. It is best if the integrative method is consistently applied in literature lessons, and the teacher works closely with the museum educator, having agreed in advance on the main emphasis in the presentation of material in lessons and on excursions in the Russian Museum. If such a conversation is not held at school, the museum teacher can start the lesson, for example, in the school museum office.
In our opinion, it is necessary to dwell on the following points:
- Indicate the time frame of the Old Russian period of Russian culture.
- The adoption of Christianity at the end of the 10th century is a turning point in Russian history.
- Introducing Rus' to the high achievements of Byzantine culture.
- The difficulty of studying ancient Russian monuments.
- The similarity of the development paths of literature and art. Emphasize that during this period art followed literature, drawing ideas and images from it and expressing them with its own specific means.

1. Medieval art united visible world and invisible, created by man - with the entire cosmos. Art is the peaceful conquest and ceremonial dressing of the surrounding world. This is just as typical for visual arts and architecture, as well as for literature.

2. Literature, art and Russian history are closely related. Literature is one of the ways to master the world around a person. And like the work of a farmer, the copying of books has always been a “sacred” task in Rus'. (The author of praise for Yaroslav the Wise and books wrote in the chronicle: “They are like rivers that water the universe,” and Yaroslav himself fought with a farmer, with a sower who “sowed” the earth with “bookish words”). Books could only be for the most important topics. Literature was not of an entertaining nature, it was a “school”, and its individual works to one degree or another. Literature spoke only about what exists or existed. Fictional heroes were absent from ancient Russian literature. If stories about miracles were introduced, the authors presented them as reality, and readers were obliged to believe them.

3. The attention of listeners should be drawn to the fact that, of course, in literary monuments the secular element was expressed much stronger and more clearly than in ancient Russian painting. It is in literature that we find descriptions of political passions, civil strife, the preaching of active love for the motherland, education of citizenship, the desire to correct the shortcomings of society, travel stories. However, as in Byzantium, in Rus' there was, in addition to cultic art, multi-genre secular art. Particularly interesting are the frescoes of the staircase towers of St. Sophia of Kyiv, secular and semi-secular reliefs on the facades of ancient Russian churches, multi-genre miniatures of manuscripts, ritual and everyday scenes on objects applied arts. A. N. Grabar notes that “secular medieval art just like the religious, it was intended not only to satisfy aesthetic needs. It also sought to show something, teach something, and these functions, of course, changed depending on the category of things and the place chosen for this or that image...”

4. The sources of origin of ancient Russian literature and art were different. If the art of Kievan Rus adopted the ecclesiastical and secular forms of Byzantine art, then literature relied more on its own traditions:
1) The Eastern Christian Church allowed worship in the national language - there was neither Latin nor Greek period. From the very beginning - in its own literary language.
2) Rich Bulgarian translated literature passed to Rus'. The ancient Bulgarian language differed only slightly from Russian. He gave Russian literature many words with abstract meaning. The combination of Old Bulgarian with everyday Old Russian enriched the synonymy.
3) Under Yaroslav the Wise, his own translation school was created: (“And the scribe collected many and translated from Greek into Slovenian writing”).
4) The art of oral speech was already developed in Rus'. The Initial Russian Chronicle reflected oral traditions, toponymic legends, historical songs, glories, and proverbs.

Apparently, separate writing systems existed in the Russian land for a long time, but, of course, only a unified alphabet system could truly serve the communication of people, the accumulation of cultural experience, the development artistic word. Such a unified system was transferred to Rus' from Bulgaria along with the adoption of Christianity. Christianity had its own extensive composition of written works, obligatory during the performance of divine services, intended for monastic readings, for the propaganda of Christianity, for training church ministers. There were works of history, church songs, theology, preaching, etc. In the 10th century, two alphabets appeared in Rus' from Bulgaria: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. Subsequently, the Cyrillic alphabet prevailed and became established.

5. During the excursion, it is important to constantly emphasize the ensemble nature of the literature and art of Ancient Rus'. Give as an example the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv - an example of the synthesis of architecture, painting, and applied art. Recall that in the 11th century, a system of temple painting developed that was adopted by Kievan Rus and became traditional: the image of the Pantocrator in the central dome, Gospel scenes on the vaults, the Mother of God, the Eucharist and the holy order in the central apse, Old Testament scenes in the choirs, etc. .
Each new work is, first of all, an addition to existing ones, but an addition not in form, but in theme, in plot.

For example, “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” is a life supplemented by the “miracles” of the holy martyrs, church services for them, etc. - a kind of literary ensemble.

From comparisons of literature with fine art and architecture, an important aspect of the ensemble structure of literature clearly emerges: the connection of literary works according to the “enfilade principle” (D. S. Likhachev) occurred not only due to the weakness of the author’s principle and the weakness of the desire to preserve the original text, which allowed for variation and to combine different works, but above all, it was an important aesthetic principle of the Middle Ages. It reflects the desire to create majestic and extensive works, to fully embrace all the heterogeneous material.

Art was largely designed for official ceremonies, intended for the design of divine services, occupied a very large place in the way of monastic life, etc. Works of literature, painting, and architecture were solemnly unfolded according to the “enfilade principle,” “strung together” one after the other. The work of art itself was a kind of “procession”.

Any genre system dynamic, in a state of moving equilibrium. Because the church life conservative, the genres used in church life and their combinations are the most stable. The genres associated with state life change and develop along with the development of state life itself. New genres are formed for the most part at the intersection of folklore and literature. Such works as “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” or “The Prayer of Daniil the Zatochnik” are semi-literary and semi-folklore in genre terms; “The Tale of Bygone Years” differs from Byzantine chronicles. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is also noted for its genre originality; it combines two folklore genres: “glory” and “lamentation” - the glorification of princes with mourning of sad events. In “The Lay” folklore elements are organically merged with book elements.

The process of genre formation actively developed during the 11th–13th centuries, and subsequently resumed in the 16th century. and proceeded quite intensively in the 17th century.

It should be noted various ways relationships between words and images in ancient Russian culture:

1. Word and image were more closely connected in Ancient Rus' than in modern times. “This was required by the very convention of fine art: the image was a sign close to the kind of sign that was a word, written speech. Literature and fine art equally used a common system of symbols and allegories, common techniques for implementing metaphors and common images. Both in literature and in painting, much was not depicted, but was only designated, reduced to the level of a heraldic image.”
2. The fine art of Ancient Rus' was emphasized by plot. The plots were predominantly literary. Characters and individual scenes from the Old and New Testaments, saints and scenes from their lives, and various Christian symbols were, to one degree or another, based on literature. The subjects of the frescoes were the subjects of written sources, and the contents of the icons, especially icons with stamps, were associated with written sources. Miniatures illustrated the lives of saints, paleos, chronicles, chronographs, cosmographies and six-day stories, historical stories, legends, etc. Even the portrait images of saints, princes and sovereigns, ancient philosophers or biblical characters were based not only on the pictorial tradition, but also on the literary one. Verbal portrait was no less important for the artist than the visual canon. The word underlay many works of art and was its original “protograph” and “archetype”. Consequently, the evidence of fine art (especially face lists and hagiographical marks) is very important for establishing the history of the text of works, and the history of the text is for dating images.
3. Real life observation was often reflected in painting not directly, but through a literary source, through a plot already reflected in writing. With the development of writing, with the appearance of an increasing number of works on topics of Russian history, Russian lives of saints, Russian everyday stories Russian reality was more often reflected in painting.
4. However, the opposite phenomenon was often observed: the image preceded the word. Numerous legends about icons have formed a separate literary genre, legends about the founding of temples and monasteries, which contain descriptions and assessments of works of architecture and painting, were widespread. The very creativity of artists or their works often became the object of a literary story (the tale of the Pantocrator fresco in the dome of St. Sophia Cathedral, the story of the mayor Shchila, the story “About Spasov’s wonderful vision of the image of Manuel, King of the Greeks,” etc.). One of the favorite motifs of ancient Russian literature is the motif of images coming to life. The image of Pantocrator in the dome of the St. Sophia Cathedral addressed the “scribes” who wrote it: “Scribes, scribes, oh scribes! Do not write me with a blessing hand, write me with a clenched hand. Because in this hand of mine I hold this Great Novgrad, and when this hand of mine spreads, then this city will come to an end.”
5. The role of words (inscriptions, signatures and accompanying texts) in ancient Russian icons, frescoes and miniatures is great. The art of painting seemed to strive to “speak.” The texts that accompany the stamps in hagiographic icons are not texts mechanically transferred from one or another hagiography, they are processed in a special way. Texts are abbreviated, phrases are often not completed. An important detail is that the past tense in them is often transferred to the present. The inscription explains not the past, but the present - what is reproduced on the mark of the icon, and not what once was. Images of saints in the middles of icons and on the walls of churches address the worshipers, showing them open books, unfolded scrolls. Scrolls with texts are held by Kirill Belozersky and Alexander Svirsky. Nikola usually holds the Gospel - open or closed. The prophets hold scrolls on which their most important prophecies about Christ are written. Christ in the Deesis composition is depicted with an open Gospel with an appeal to the judges and those judged: “Do not judge the sons of humanity, but judge righteous judgment...” It should be noted that “the word is rarely introduced into the depiction of realistic schools, but it is very often in conventional painting , depicting not a fleeting moment, but an “eternal” one. The word in the image seems to stop time. […] It is placed on icons to express the essence of what is depicted – and at the same time, the essence does not change.” The “image” of the word is revived in the twentieth century in all types of conventional art.
6. The study of connections between literature and art is not limited to the search for common plots, themes, motifs, philosophical and theological concepts. It is much more important to trace in what stylistic connection this or that plot, motif, theme appears in literature and painting. For example, to determine the nature of the painting of Theophan the Greek, it is important not only that it reflected some of the themes of the hesychasts, but also that they are in a general stylistic system. It is important that Theophan’s painting style is close to the style of hesychast theology; they are subject to the same pre-Renaissance principles that shape the style.

When studying the history of literature, the testimony of other arts helps to separate the significant from the insignificant, the natural from the accidental.

“The displays of the fine arts help to characterize each era separately, revealing the common origins, the general ideological and ideological basis of literary phenomena. The convergence between the arts and the study of their divergences among themselves make it possible to reveal such patterns and facts that would remain hidden to us if we studied each art (including literature) in isolation from each other.”

In this regard, it is necessary to search for analogies in various spheres of culture that can explain a lot. Among such common phenomena for the literature and painting of Ancient Rus' at some stages of development, one can name their subordination to a unique etiquette in the choice of themes, plots, means of depiction, in the construction of images and in characteristics; a common combination of tradition and creativity across eras of development; common regional features in literature and other arts, the commonality of their destinies and the content of regional, centrifugal tendencies, their simultaneous overcoming and the gradual formation of a single literature and fine arts of a single state. On the basis of the economic and political unification of individual Russian lands, the unification of all Russian culture occurs. The comparative study of literature in its relationship to other arts is of great importance for characterizing the essence foreign influences, their changes, their conditioning by certain social needs.

Data from a comparative study of literature and fine arts allow us to speak of a single “style of the era.”

The concept of artistic style in literature “combines the general perception of reality characteristic of the writer and artistic method writer, determined by the tasks that he sets for himself.” In this sense, the concept of style is applicable to various types of art. The same depiction techniques can appear in literature and painting of a particular era. Aesthetic principles can extend beyond the arts. For example, the features of a single style of “monumental historicism” clearly manifested themselves in all forms aesthetic creativity in the 10th–13th centuries, the Baroque style affected not only architecture, but also painting, sculpture, literature, and even music and philosophy (17th century).

Very important for understanding the process of adding style in ancient Russian art the problem of genres.

The main task of Russian art after the adoption of Christianity was to introduce Russian people to Christian rituals and dogmatics, to feudal etiquette, which required symbolic-attributive, “personal”, historical, symbolic-dogmatic and many other images.

All of the above speaks in favor of a comparative study of monuments of ancient Russian literature and fine art, in particular easel painting, presented at the exhibition of the Russian Museum.

Working materials:

1. From the “Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh” (XI century)“[...] What is a person, how do you think about him? Great art thou, O Lord, and wonderful are thy works; the human mind cannot comprehend your miracles... For who does not praise and glorify your power and your great miracles and blessings arranged in this world: how the sky is structured, or how the sun, or how the moon, or how the stars and darkness and light, and the earth was laid on the waters, O Lord, by your providence! Various animals and birds and fish are decorated with your craft, Lord! And let us marvel at this miracle, how he created man from dust, how diverse human faces; If we collect all people, they do not all have the same appearance, but each has its own facial appearance according to God’s wisdom […].”


2. From “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (End of the 12th century)[…] After all, brothers, a sad time has come,
   […] The struggle of princes against the filthy has ceased,
   for brother said to brother:
   “This is mine, and that is mine.”
   And the princes began to talk about small things
   "this is great" to say
   And inflict sedition on themselves.
   And the filthy from all sides came with victories
   to the Russian land.

   […] That was during those battles and those campaigns,
   and such an army has never been heard of!
   From early morning until evening,
   from evening until light
   red-hot arrows fly, sabers rattle on helmets
   damask spears crack
   in the unknown field,
   among the Polovtsian land.
   The black soil under the hooves was sown with bones
   and drenched in blood:
   they ascended the Russian land in grief.

   […] All grandchildren of Yaroslav and Vseslav!
   Bow your banners,
   Sheathe your damaged swords,
   for you have lost the glory of your forefathers.
   You are your sedition
   started causing trouble
   to the Russian land
   for Vseslav's wealth.
   Because of the strife, violence has come
   from the Polovtsian land […]



3. From “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” (XIII century)
   “[...] Isaiah the prophet said about such people: “A good prince in countries is quiet, friendly, meek, humble - and in this way he is like God.” Without being seduced by wealth, without forgetting the blood of the righteous, he judges orphans and widows with justice, is merciful, kind to his household and hospitable to those who come from foreign countries. God helps such people, for God does not love angels, but people, in his generosity he generously bestows and shows his mercy in the world […]. And his days multiplied in great glory, for he loved priests, and monks, and beggars, and he revered and listened to metropolitans and bishops as to Christ himself.

   In those days there was violence from non-believers; they persecuted Christians, forcing them to fight on their side. Prince great Alexander went to the king to pray for his people from this misfortune.”



4. From “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu” (XII century)
   “[...] And King Batu, the accursed Ryazan land, began to fight, and went to the city of Ryazan […].

   And in the city many people, both wives and children, were flogged with swords. And others were drowned in the river, and the priests and monks were flogged without a trace, and the whole city was burned, and all the famous beauty and wealth of Ryazan, and their relatives - the princes of Kyiv and Chernigov - were captured. But they destroyed the temples of God and shed a lot of blood in the holy altars. And not a single living person remained in the city: they still died and drank the single cup of death... And all this was for our sins.”



5. From a letter from Epiphanius the Wise to Kirill Tverskoy
   “[...] When I lived in Moscow, there lived a famous sage, a very cunning philosopher, Theophanes, a Greek by birth, a master book painter and an excellent painter among icon painters, who with my own hand painted many different stone churches - more than forty, which exist in cities: in Constantinople, and in Chalcedon, and in Galata, and in Caffa, and in Veliky Novgorod, and in Nizhny. But in Moscow he painted three churches: the Annunciation of the Holy Virgin, St. Michael and one more. […] When he depicted or wrote all this, no one saw him ever look at the samples, as some of our icon painters do, who constantly peer [at them] in bewilderment, looking here and there, and not They write as much with paints as they look at samples. He seemed to be painting a painting with his hands, while he himself constantly walks, talks with those who come and thinks about the lofty and wise with his mind, while with his sensual, intelligent eyes he sees kindness [...].

   No matter how much anyone talked to him, they could not help but marvel at his mind, his allegories [“parables”] and his cunning structure. When I saw that he loved me and that he did not neglect me, I added shamelessness to insolence and asked him: “I ask your wisdom to paint me an image of the great St. Sophia of Constantinople, which was erected by the great Justinian, like the wise Solomon. ; some said that in quality and size this is the Moscow Kremlin of the inner city, such is its circumference and its base when you go around: if a wanderer enters here and wants to walk without a guide, then he will not get out without getting lost, no matter how he seems wise, [and this] in view of the many pillars and near-pillars, descents and sunrises, translations and passages, and various chambers and churches, stairs and storehouses, tombs, different names of compartments and chapels, windows, passages and doors, entrances and exits, as well stone pillars. Write to me the so-called Justinian sitting on a horse and holding a copper apple in his right hand (they say its size is such that two and a half buckets of water can be poured into it); and depict all of the above on a book sheet, so that I can put it at the beginning of the book and, remembering your work and looking at such a temple, could imagine that I am in Constantinople.” He, the sage, wisely answered me: “Impossible, - he said, - neither you can receive it, nor can I write it to you, but, however, at your insistence, I will write to you in part, and this is not a part, but a hundredth part, a small part of the lot, but thanks to this small image we wrote, the rest you will imagine and understand.” Having said this, he boldly took a brush and quickly painted an image of a temple, like the original church in Constantinople, and gave it to me. That sheet was of great benefit to other Moscow icon painters, since many copied it for themselves, competing with each other and adopting from each other […].”

   Although Epiphanius's letter contains many rhetorical embellishments, the authenticity of the facts presented in it does not raise any doubts. Epiphanius knew Feofan well and, apparently, received all the information about his life directly from the artist himself.

6. From the “Life of Sergius of Radonezh” by Epiphanius the Wise (XV century)
   “[...] The glorious youth, the son of a glorious father, whom we are talking about, an ascetic who is always remembered, born from noble and pious parents, grew up as from good root a good branch, embodying all the virtues of this good root. After all, from a young age he was like a noble garden and grew like a rich fruit, he was a handsome and well-behaved youth […].

   How can I list his other virtues: calmness, meekness, silence, humility, lack of anger, simplicity without tricks? He loved all people equally, never flew into a rage, did not argue, did not take offense, did not allow himself any weakness or laughter […]. And the words of the Psalter were always on his lips, he was always adorned with abstinence, he always rejoiced in bodily hardships, he diligently wore poor clothes. He never tasted beer or honey, never brought them to his lips, and never even inhaled their smell. Striving for a fasting life, he considered all this unnecessary for human nature [...].



7. From the “Kalyazin Petition” (XVII century)
   Petition from the pilgrims of the Kalyazin Monastery to Archbishop Simeon against Archmarite Gabriel.

   “[...] Yes, he, the archimarite, ordered Elder Uar to walk around the cells with a club at midnight, knock on the doors, wake up our brethren, and orders us to go to church often. And we, your pilgrims, at that time we sit around a bucket of beer without trousers in our cells, walking around the bucket, as a rule we say, we, your pilgrims, will not have time to correct the cell rule, to drink beer from a bucket, let alone go to church often and talk in books […]".

8. From “The Life of Archpriest Avvakum” (XVI century)
   “[...] The country is barbaric, the foreigners are not peaceful, we don’t dare leave behind the horses, and we can’t keep up with the horses, hungry and languid people. The poor archpriest wanders and wanders and even falls - it’s much slippery! At a certain time, she fell down, wandering, and another languid man came across her, and immediately fell down; both are screaming but can’t get up. The man shouts: “Mother Empress, forgive me!” And the archpriest shouts: “Why, dad, did you run me over?” […]".

Literature:

1. Wagner G.K. Art of Ancient Rus' / G.K. Wagner, T.F. Vladyshevskaya. – M.: Art, 1993. – 255 p.
2. Wagner G.K. The problem of genres in ancient Russian art. – M.: Art, 1974. – 460 p.
3. Grabar A.N. Secular fine art of pre-Mongol Rus' and “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” // Tr. dept. Old Russian lit. / Rep. ed. I'M WITH. Lurie; Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Institute of Russian literature (Pushkin House). – M.–L.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1962. – T. 18. – 607 p.
4. Lazarev V.N. Painting and sculpture of Kievan Rus / History of Russian art: vol. 1. - M.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1953.
5. Lazarev V.N. Moscow school of icon painting. – M.: Art, 1971. – 235 p.
6. Lazarev V.N. Russian icon painting from origins to early XVI century. – M.: Art, 1983. – 311 p.
7. Likhachev D.S. Poetics of Old Russian Literature. – L.: Nauka, 1971. – 372 pp..
8. Likhachev D.S. Development of Russian literature of the X–XVII centuries: Epochs and styles. – L.: Nauka, 1973. – 118 p.
9. Mneva N. Art of Moscow Rus'. – M.: Art, 1965. – 252 p. – (Essays on the history and theory of fine arts).
10. Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus'. The beginning of Russian literature XI - beginning. XII century / Comp. L.A. Dmitriev, D.S. Likhachev. – M.: Fiction, 1979.
11. Smirnova E.S. Culture of Ancient Rus'. – L.: Education, 1967. – 303 p.

Old Russian literature. ©Mikhailova Natalya Alekseevna.

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Ancient literature

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