During the Tatar-Mongol invasion, wooden architecture was burned, stone architecture was destroyed, technology was lost, the first buildings of this period were falling apart, but the craft was gradually being restored, the construction of cities, temples, and defensive structures began. The soul of the people, its specialness and greatness was most clearly manifested in the construction of temples. Ancient traditions were not interrupted.

Tver became the first city in North-Eastern Rus' where, after the invasion, stone construction began again (the Church of the Transfiguration in 2006). The temple was built in the style of the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture. It was a six-pillar, cross-baptismal temple, decorated with white stone reliefs, copper doors, and majolica floors.

Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior

Architecture in the XIV–XV centuries. Lines of comparison Novgorod PskovMoscow Features Lightness and elegance Severity and founder youth Splendor and grandeur Material Stone Brick Examples Church of Fyodor Stratilates on the Stream Church of St. Basil on Gorka Archangel and Assumption Cathedrals Architects Anonymous Russian masters Italians: Aristotle Fiorovanti, Marco Ruffo, Antonio Solari

Compare the features of the churches of Novgorod, Pskov, and Moscow. The church was founded in 1360 by decree of the Novgorod mayor Semyon Andreevich. Construction was completed within a year. Orthodox church, an architectural monument of the 15th-16th century, located in Pskov. Cathedral of the Archangel. Located on Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin. The Assumption Cathedral was the first stone church in Moscow

Ivan III urgently needed an experienced and talented architect, since in 1474 a disaster occurred in the Moscow Kremlin - the almost completed new Assumption Cathedral collapsed. The Pskov craftsmen, who examined the collapsed building, concluded that “the lime is not adhesive and the stone is not hard,” but they themselves did not undertake the construction of a new cathedral, and Semyon Tolbuzin, on the advice of Sophia Paleologue, was immediately sent to Italy to find a suitable specialist

Originally from the Italian city of Bologna, from a family of hereditary architects, Aristotle Fioravanti’s work in Moscow began with the dismantling of the ruins of the Assumption Cathedral by Myshkin and Krivtsov. Clearing the site for the new cathedral took only a week; in 7 days, everything that took three years to build was completely removed. The demolition of the remains of the walls was carried out using a “ram” of oak logs bound with iron, which was suspended from a “pyramid” of three beams and, swinging, hit the wall. When this was not enough, wooden stakes were driven into the lower part of the remaining fragments of the walls and set on fire. The dismantling of the walls would have been completed earlier if the workers had time to remove the stone from the yard faster. However, the architect was in no hurry to start construction. Fioravanti understood that he could not ignore the customs and tastes of the Russian people, and should not artificially transfer here the forms of Western architecture familiar to him. Therefore, having finished laying the foundation, Aristotle went to travel around the country to get acquainted with ancient Russian architecture. Aristotle Rudolfo Fioravanti ()

The snow-white Assumption Cathedral resembles the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral. High smooth walls, divided into wide vertical blades, were decorated with an elegant belt of small columns and arches. The temple has six pillars, five domes, and five apses. Built of white stone in combination with brick (the vaults, drums, the eastern wall above the altar apses, the eastern square pillars hidden by the altar barrier are made of brick; the remaining round pillars are also made of brick, but are faced with white stone). Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin

Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin The cathedral was built in the years. under the leadership of the Italian architect Aleviz Novy on the site of the old cathedral of the 14th century and consecrated on November 8, 1508 by Metropolitan Simon. The cathedral was built in 1489 by Pskov craftsmen on a white stone basement of the late 14th - early 15th centuries (remaining from the old cathedral) and was originally three-domed. The cathedral was seriously damaged by fire in 1547 and restored in 1564, with the addition of two domes on the west side. In 1572, a porch was added to the cathedral, which later received the name Grozny. Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin

The Intercession Cathedral, erected over the years in the immediate vicinity of the Kremlin, is rightfully considered the pinnacle of Russian architecture (it is also called St. Basil's Cathedral after the famous holy fool buried near its walls). Versions of the creation of the temple The Intercession Cathedral was built over the years by order of Ivan the Terrible in memory of the capture Kazan and the victory over the Kazan Khanate. There are several versions about the creators of the cathedral. According to one version, the architect was the famous Pskov master Postnik Yakovlev, nicknamed Barma. According to another, widely known version, Barma and Postnik were two different architects, both participating in the construction; this version is now outdated. According to the third version, the cathedral was built by an unknown Western European master (presumably an Italian, like previously a significant part of the buildings of the Moscow Kremlin), hence the unique style, combining the traditions of both Russian architecture and European architecture of the Renaissance, but this version is so far and did not find any clear documentary evidence. According to legend, the architect(s) of the cathedral were blinded by order of Ivan the Terrible so that they could not build another similar temple. However, if the author of the cathedral is Postnik, then he could not have been blinded, since for several years after the construction of the cathedral he participated in the creation of the Kazan Kremlin.

Moscow architecture of the 16th century Churches: tent style The Cathedral of the Intercession on the Moat or St. Basil's Cathedral is located on Red Square in Moscow. Having conquered Kazan, Ivan the Terrible ordered the architects Posnik and Barma to build a church. In one of the chapels of the temple, the famous Moscow holy fool Vasily the Blessed, also known as Vasily Nagoy, was later buried. After his name, the Church of the Intercession received the popular nickname St. Basil's Church. The legend said that he himself collected money in the floor for the future Church of the Intercession, brought it to Red Square and threw it over his right shoulder, nickel to nickel, kopeck to kopeck, and no one, not even thieves, touched these coins. And before his death, in August 1552, he gave them to Ivan the Terrible, who soon ordered the construction of a temple on this site.

Chamber of Facets Chamber of Facets is an architectural monument in the Moscow Kremlin, one of the oldest civil buildings in Moscow. Built in the year by decree of Ivan III by Italian architects Marco Ruffo and Pietro Antonio Solari. The name is taken from the eastern facade, decorated with faceted stone rustication (diamond rustication), characteristic of Italian Renaissance architecture. The Faceted Chamber was intended for ceremonial receptions and celebrations

The cross-domed style prevailed in the architecture of Ancient Rus'. Since the XIV - XV centuries. In the north of Rus', a tent style developed in wooden architecture. In the 16th century, it began to become widespread in the construction of stone churches. An outstanding monument of tent-roofed architecture was the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, erected in 1532 in honor of the birth of Vasily III's long-awaited heir - the future Ivan the Terrible. Erected in Kolomenskoye in 1532 (presumably by the Italian architect Peter Francis Hannibal, according to Russian chronicles by Peter Fryazin or Petrok Maly) on the right bank of the Moscow River
31 Painting Artist Century Features of creativity Work Theophan the Greek End of the 14th century Used new colors: blue, green, cherry Iconostasis in the Annunciation Cathedral in Moscow, frescoes of the Church of the Transfiguration Andrei Rublev Beginning of the 15th century Humanized iconographic images Icon “Holy Trinity” Dionysius Beginning of the 16th century .Refined drawing, delicate colors Icons and frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral (Moscow)

Theophanes the Greek (ca. after 1405), Russian icon painter, master of monumental painting. Originally from Byzantium. Worked in Rus' in the 2nd half. 14 start 15th centuries Theophanes the Greek came to Rus' from Constantinople. Having brought the best traditions of Byzantine art, he organically combined them with Russian art, becoming the greatest master of Russian painting. Andrei Rublev was presumably born around 1360, died on January 29, 1430. He was a monk of the Trinity-Sergius and then the Spaso-Andronnikov monasteries. In 1405, together with Theophan the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets, Andrei Rublev painted the Annunciation Cathedral, in 1408 he worked on the painting of the restored Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir together with Daniil Cherny. Between 1425 and 1427 takes part in the painting of the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, and in the years. working on the frescoes of the Spaso-Andronnikov Monastery.

Option 1

The Mongol-Tatar invasion interrupted the powerful rise of Russian culture. The destruction of cities, the loss of traditions, the disappearance of artistic movements, the destruction of monuments of writing, painting, and architecture - a blow from which it was possible to recover only by the middle of the 14th century. In the ideas and images of Russian culture of the XIV-XVI centuries. reflected the mood of the era - a time of decisive successes in the struggle for independence, the overthrow of the Horde yoke, unification around Moscow, the formation of the Great Russian people.
The memory of a prosperous and happy country, which Kievan Rus remained in the consciousness of society (“bright and beautifully decorated” - words from “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, no later than 1246), was preserved primarily by literature. Chronicle writing remained its most important genre; it was revived in all lands and principalities of Rus'. At the beginning of the 15th century. In Moscow, the first all-Russian chronicle was compiled - an important evidence of progress in the unification of the country. With the completion of this process, chronicle writing, subordinated to the idea of ​​substantiating the power of the Moscow prince and then the tsar, acquired an official character. During the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible (70s of the 16th century), an illustrated “Facebook Chronicle” was compiled in 12 volumes, containing more than one and a half ten thousand miniatures. In the XIV-XV centuries. The favorite theme of oral folk art is the struggle of Rus' with the “infidels.” A genre of historical song is emerging (“Song about Shchelkan”, about the Battle of Kalka, about the ruin of Ryazan, about Evpatiy Kolovrat, etc.). The most important events of the 16th century were also reflected in historical songs. - Kazan campaign of Ivan the Terrible, oprichnina, image of the Terrible Tsar. Victory in the Battle of Kulikovo 1380 gave rise to a series of historical stories, of which “The Tale of Mamayev’s Massacre” and the inspired “Zadonshchina” stand out (its author, Sophony Ryazanets, used images and excerpts from “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”). Lives of saints were created in the 16th century. they are combined into a 12-volume set of “Great Chetiy-Menya”. In the 15th century The Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin (“Walking across Three Seas”) describes his journey to India and Persia. “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom” remains a unique literary monument - the love story of the Murom prince and his wife, probably described by Ermolai-Erasmus in the middle of the 16th century. “Domostroy,” written by Ivan the Terrible’s confessor Sichvester, is remarkable in its own way—a book about housekeeping, raising and educating children, and the role of women in the family.
At the end of the XV-XVI centuries. literature is enriched with brilliant journalistic works. The Josephites (followers of the abbot of the Volotsk monastery Joseph, who defend the principle of non-interference of the state in the affairs of a rich and materially strong church) and non-acquisitors (Nil Sorsky, Vassian Patrikeev, Maxim the Greek, who condemn the church for wealth and luxury, for craving for worldly pleasures) argue fiercely. In 1564-1577 Ivan the Terrible and Prince Andrei Kurbsky exchange angry messages. “...Tsars and rulers who make cruel laws perish,” Kurbsky inspires the king and hears in response: “Is this really light - when priests and crafty slaves rule, while the king is a king only in name and honor, and not at all with power?” no better than a slave? The idea of ​​the “autocracy” of the tsar, the divinity of his power, acquires almost hypnotic power in Ivan the Terrible’s messages. Differently, but just as consistently, Ivan Peresvetov writes about the special calling of the autocratic tsar in “The Great Petition” (1549): when punishing boyars who have forgotten about their duty to society, the righteous monarch must rely on the devoted nobility. The meaning of the official ideology is the idea of ​​Moscow as the “third Rome”: “Two Romes (“the second Rome” - Constantinople, devastated in 1453 - Author) have fallen, the third stands, the fourth will not exist” (Philofey).

Let us note that in 1564 in Moscow, Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets published the first Russian printed book - “The Apostle”.

In the architecture of the XIV-XVI centuries. the trends in the historical development of Rus'-Russia were reflected with particular clarity. At the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. Stone construction is being resumed in Novgorod and Pskov, which suffered less than others from the Ordish yoke. In the XIV century. A new type of temple appears in Novgorod - light, elegant, bright (Spas on Ilyin). But half a century passes, and tradition wins: harsh, heavy structures reminiscent of the past are being erected again. Politics imperiously invades art, demanding that it be the guardian of independence, which the unifier Moscow is so successfully fighting. It accumulates the signs of a capital city of a single state gradually but consistently. In 1367 The white stone Kremlin was erected at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries. New red brick walls and towers are being erected. They are built by masters Pietro Antonio Solari, Aleviz Novy, and Mark Ruffo, imported from Italy. By that time, on the territory of the Kremlin, the Italian Aristotle Fioravanti had already erected the Assumption Cathedral (1479), an outstanding architectural monument in which an experienced eye will see both traditional features of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture and elements of the construction art of the Renaissance. Next to another work of Italian masters - the Chamber of Facets (1487-1489) - Pskov masters are building the Annunciation Cathedral (1484-1489). A little later, the same Aleviz the New completes the magnificent ensemble of Cathedral Square with the Archangel Cathedral, the tomb of the Grand Dukes (1505-1509). Behind the Kremlin wall on Red Square in 1555-1560. In honor of the capture of Kazan, the nine-domed Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral) was erected, topped with a high multifaceted pyramid - a tent. This detail gave the name “tent” to the architectural style that arose in the 16th century. (Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, 1532). The zealots of antiquity fight against “outrageous innovations,” but their victory is relative: at the end of the century, the desire for splendor and beauty is revived. Painting of the second half of the XIV-XV centuries is the golden age of Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius. The paintings of the Novgorod (Savior on Ilyin) and Moscow (Annunciation Cathedral) churches of Theophanes the Greek and the icons of Rublev (“Trinity”, “Savior”, etc.) are addressed to God, but tell about man, his soul, about the search for harmony and ideal. Painting, while remaining deeply religious in themes, images, genres (wall paintings, icons), acquires unexpected humanity, gentleness, and philosophy.

Option 2

Culture and spiritual life of Rus' in the 14th-16th centuries.

By the 14th century, in conditions of fragmentation and the influence of neighboring peoples, features developed in the language, customs, and culture of the peoples of different parts of Rus'. The 14th-16th centuries were associated with the struggle against the Horde yoke and the formation of a Russian centralized state around Moscow. The literature is represented by historical songs, where the victory on the “Kulikovo Field” and the heroism of Russian soldiers were glorified. In “Zadonshchina” and “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev” he talks about the victory over the Mongol-Tatars. Afanasy Nikitin, who visited India, left his notes “Walking across Three Seas,” where he talks about the customs and beauties of this region. An outstanding event in Russian culture was book printing. In 1564, Ivan Fedorov published the first printed book in Russia, “The Apostle,” and later “The Primer.” In the 16th century, an encyclopedia of patriarchal conditions of family life was created. Painting increasingly began to move away from church channels. Theophanes the Greek in the 14th century. painted the churches of Novgorod and Moscow. Andrei Rublev, known for Trinity, worked with him. Dianisy painted the Vologda Cathedral near Vologda and others. It is characterized by: brightness, festivity, sophistication. The development of architecture is associated with large-scale construction in Moscow, where the walls of the Kremlin, the Arkhangelsk Annunciation Cathedral, the Assumption Cathedrals, the Faceted Chamber, and the Ivan the Great Bell Tower were erected. Crafts, especially foundry, reached a high level. Andrei Chokhov created the Tsar Cannon, which weighs 40 tons and its caliber is 89 cm. In the culture of the 14th-16th centuries. More and more secular elements are appearing, a kind of return and revival of Russian culture is taking place.

Option 3

Answer from Slesareva Anastasia[guru]
The development of Russian culture during this period was influenced by many factors. This is also the development of previous traditions, especially those related to Christian values ​​and church interests. New factors influencing culture also appeared: the gathering of Russian lands around the Moscow Principality and the creation of a single centralized state, the establishment of national identity in the fight against the Golden Horde yoke. From century to century, the role of Moscow and the Moscow Grand Dukes becomes more and more noticeable. Muscovite Rus' turned into a center not only of unification processes, but also of cultural development.
Literature. In Russian literature, the theme of the fight against the Horde yoke occupied a large place. The works of the Kulikovo cycle (“Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev”) stand out especially. They are imbued with a sense of patriotism and admiration for the exploits of Russian soldiers.

In the second half of the 15th century. the old genre of walks (descriptions of travel) is experiencing a new birth.

Chronicle traditions were preserved and multiplied. In the XIV century. In Moscow, an all-Russian chronicle was created, and the Chronograph, compiled in 1442, includes a description of world history.

In the first half of the 16th century. A group of educated people formed around Metropolitan Macarius who created the famous “Great Chetya Menaion”. This is a collection of the most widely read books in Rus': hagiographic literature, teachings, legends, etc. - as a rule, not of a liturgical nature, but directly related to the Orthodox tradition.
An important cultural event was the advent of printing. It is associated with the names of Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets, who created the first printed book “Apostle” (1564). The first Russian primer with grammar was published in Lvov. The church's reaction to printing was so negative that even in the 17th century. The printed book could not supplant the handwritten one.
Socio-political thought. Among Russian written sources of the XV-XVI centuries. There are many works in which the authors reflect on the fate of Russia.
Architecture. Moscow becomes the capital of a huge power, the accumulation of wealth in the hands of the Moscow prince makes it possible to begin stone construction on an unprecedented scale. Dmitry Donskoy in 1366-1367 began construction of the new Moscow Kremlin. On the site of the wooden fortifications built under Ivan Kalita, a new white-stone Kremlin arose.
The construction of Moscow fortifications continued throughout the 16th century. A semi-ring of Kitay-Gorod fortifications was added to the Kremlin, and at the end of the century, “city master” Fyodor Kon erected the “White City” about 9.5 km long. F. Kon also built the walls of the Kremlin in Smolensk.

In the second half of the 16th century. From the traditions of wooden architecture, but already in stone, the tent style emerges. Tent-roofed church architecture did not spread widely, since it contradicted church canons and was prohibited by church authorities. Painting. Theophanes, a native of Byzantium, lived in Novgorod and then in Moscow. His frescoes and icons are characterized by a special emotionality. The decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral influenced not only architecture, but also painting. This led to the fact that only technical writing techniques were improved. Craft. In the XIV-XVI centuries. The development of the craft continued. The main centers of handicraft production were cities, monasteries, and some large estates. At the end of the 15th century. The Cannon Yard is being created in Moscow. The first cannons appeared in Rus' in the last third of the 14th century. In subsequent centuries, a whole school of cannon masters emerged. One of its representatives was Andrei Chokhov, creator of the famous Tsar Cannon.

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Magnitogorsk State University

Test

on Russian history

on the topic: Russian culture of the 14th - early 16th centuries

Completed by: Yakovleva O.V.

1st year student of OOO

historical faculty

Checked by: Surganov O.V.

Magnitogorsk

2000

Introduction

1. Russian culture of the XIV - mid-XV centuries

1.1 Book business

1.2 Literature. Chronicle

1.3 Architecture

1.4 Painting

1.5 Accumulation of scientific knowledge

2. Russian culture of the 15th - early 16th centuries

2.1 Book business

2.2 Chronicles. Literature

2.3 Architecture

2.4 Painting

Conclusion

List of sources and literature used

Introduction

Russian culture painting chronicle

In the middle of the 13th century, Rus' was subjected to a Mongol-Tatar invasion, which had catastrophic consequences for its economy and culture. It was accompanied by the extermination and captivity of a significant part of the population, the destruction of material assets, cities and villages. The Golden Horde yoke, established for two and a half centuries, created extremely unfavorable conditions for the restoration and further development of the economy and culture.

As a result of the political events of the 13th - 14th centuries, various parts of the ancient Russian people found themselves divided and separated from each other. Entry into different state entities complicated the development of economic and cultural ties between individual regions of the formerly united Rus' and deepened the differences in language and culture that existed before. This led to the formation of three fraternal nationalities on the basis of the Old Russian nationality - Russian (Great Russian), Ukrainian and Belarusian. The formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality, which began in the 14th century and ended in the 16th century, was facilitated by the emergence of a common language (while maintaining dialect differences) and culture, and the formation of a common state territory.

Two main, closely interconnected circumstances of the historical life of the people at this time determined the content of culture and the direction of its development: the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke and the struggle to eliminate feudal fragmentation and create a unified state.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion led to deepening feudal fragmentation. In the culture of disunited feudal principalities, along with separatist tendencies, unifying tendencies also became more and more clearly evident.

The idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land and the fight against foreign yoke became one of the leading ones in culture and runs like a red thread through works of oral folk art, writing, painting, and architecture.

The culture of this time is also characterized by the idea of ​​​​the inextricable connection of Rus' XIV - XV centuries with Kievan Rus and Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. This tendency was clearly manifested in oral folk art, chronicles, literature, political thought, and architecture.

In this essay we examined the development of Russian culture in the 14th century. - beginning of the 16th centuries. This period can be divided into two stages: XIV - mid-15th century and end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. Within the first period, in turn, two stages of the historical and cultural process can be distinguished. The first of them (around the middle of the 14th century) was marked by a noticeable decline in various spheres of culture, although already from the end of the 13th century. there were signs of an incipient revival. From the second half of the 14th century. - the second stage - the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over the conquerors in the Battle of Kulikovo, which was an important milestone on the path to the liberation of the country from foreign yoke. The Kulikovo victory caused a rise in national self-awareness, which was reflected in all areas of culture. While maintaining significant local cultural characteristics, the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land becomes leading.

The turn of the 15th - 16th centuries was a turning point in the historical development of Russian lands. Three interconnected phenomena are characteristic of this time: the formation of a unified Russian state, the liberation of the country from the Mongol-Tatar yoke and the completion of the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality. All of them had a direct impact on the spiritual life of Russia, on the development of its culture, and predetermined the nature and direction of the historical and cultural process.

Overcoming feudal fragmentation and the creation of a unified state power created favorable conditions for the economic and cultural development of the country and served as a powerful stimulus for the rise of national self-awareness. The beneficial influence of these factors affected the development of all Russian culture at the end of the 15th - first half of the 16th century, especially clearly manifested in socio-political thought and architecture.

And in spiritual culture, the idea of ​​unity and the struggle for independence against foreign invaders continued to remain one of the leading ones.

During the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Rus' was isolated from the countries of Central and Western Europe, which had advanced forward in their development. For the Russian state, establishing ties with Western European culture was an important condition for overcoming backwardness and strengthening its position among the European powers. At the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries, relations with Italy and other countries successfully developed, which had a beneficial effect on Russian culture; outstanding architects and other craftsmen came to work in Russia.

The most important factor in the development of culture is the influence of the church on the spiritual life of society and the strength of its position in the state. Throughout the period under review, these relationships were far from uniform.

The development of progressive trends in culture, elements of a rationalistic worldview turned out to be associated with circles opposed to the autocracy.

1. Russian culture of the XIV - mid-XV centuries

1. 1 Book business

Although the disastrous consequences of foreign invasions had a negative impact on the preservation of book treasures and on the level of literacy, the traditions of writing and book learning, established in the 11th-12th centuries, were preserved and were further developed.

The rise of culture from the second half of the 14th century was accompanied by the development book business. The largest centers of book learning were monasteries, which had book-writing workshops and libraries containing hundreds of volumes. The most significant were the book collections of the Trinity-Sergius, Kirillo-Belozersky and Solovetsky monasteries that have survived to this day. From the end of the 15th century. An inventory of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery has reached us (4, p. 67).

But the church did not have a monopoly on the creation and distribution of books. As evidenced by the scribes' notes on the books, a significant part of them did not belong to the clergy. Book-writing workshops also existed in cities and at princely courts. Books were produced, as a rule, to order, sometimes for sale.

The development of writing and bookmaking was accompanied changes in writing technique. In the XIV century. replaced expensive parchment paper, which was delivered from other countries, mainly from Italy and France. The writing graphics have changed; instead of a strict “statutory” letter, the so-called half-charter appeared, and from the 15th century. and “cursive writing,” which speeded up the process of making a book. All this made the book more accessible and helped meet the growing demand (9, p..47).

Book production was dominated by liturgical books, the necessary set of which was in every religious institution - in a church, a monastery. The nature of the reader's interests was reflected "father's" books, i.e. books intended for individual reading. There were many such books in monastery libraries. The most common type of "chetya" book in the 15th century. collections of mixed composition have become, which researchers call “libraries in miniature.”

The repertoire of "four" collections is quite extensive. Along with translated patriotic and hagiographic works, they contained original Russian works; Next to religious and edifying literature, there were works of a secular nature - excerpts from chronicles, historical stories, journalism. It is noteworthy that these collections contain articles of a natural science nature. Thus, in one of the collections of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery of the early 15th century. included articles “On the latitude and longitude of the earth”, “On stages and fields”, “On the distance between heaven and earth”, “Lunar current”, “On earthly structure”, etc. The author of these articles decisively broke with the fantastic ideas of church literature about structure of the Universe. The earth was recognized as a sphere, although it was still placed at the center of the universe (4, P.32). Other articles give a completely realistic explanation of natural phenomena (for example, thunder and lightning, which, according to the author, occur from the collision of clouds). There are also articles on medicine, biology, and extracts from the works of a Roman scientist and doctor of the 2nd century. Galena.

Russian books of the 14th and 15th centuries played an outstanding role in the revival of literary monuments of the past and in the dissemination of contemporary works of deep ideological and political resonance.

1. 2 Literature. Chronicle

Russian literature of the 14th - 15th centuries inherited from ancient Russian literature its acute journalisticism and put forward the most important problems of the political life of Rus'. It was especially closely connected with socio-political life chronicle. Being historical works, the chronicles were at the same time political documents that played a large role in the ideological and political struggle (1, p. 12).

In the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, chronicle writing experienced a decline. But it, having been interrupted for a while in some, was resumed in new political centers. Chronicle writing continued to be distinguished by local features, great attention to local events, and tendentious coverage of events from the perspective of one or another feudal center. But the theme of the unity of the Russian land and its struggle against foreign conquerors ran through all the chronicles.

At first, Moscow chronicles also had a local character. , appeared in the first half of the 14th century. However, with the increasing political role of Moscow, it gradually acquired a national character. As it developed, Moscow chronicles became the focus of advanced political ideas. It not only reflected and ideologically consolidated Moscow’s successes in unifying Russian lands, but also actively participated in this work, vigorously promoting unifying ideas.

The growth of national self-awareness was evidenced by the revival all-Russian chronicle at the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries. The first all-Russian code, which broke with narrow local interests and took the position of the unity of Rus', was compiled in Moscow at the beginning of the 15th century (the so-called Trinity Chronicle, died during the Moscow fire of 1812). Moscow chroniclers did a lot of work to unite and process disparate regional vaults. Around 1418, with the participation of Metropolitan Photius, a compilation was undertaken new chronicle collection (Vladimir polychron), the main idea of ​​which was the union of the Moscow grand-ducal power with the urban population of the feudal centers for the purpose of the political unification of Rus'. These vaults formed the basis for subsequent chronicle vaults. One of the most significant works of Russian chronicle writing was Moscow arch 1479 (1, p.49).

All Moscow chronicles are permeated by the idea of ​​the need for state unity and strong grand-ducal power. They clearly demonstrate the historical and political concept that emerged at the beginning of the 15th century, according to which the history of Rus' in the 14th and 15th centuries is a direct continuation of the history of Ancient Rus'. The chronicles propagated the idea, which later became official, that Moscow inherited the political traditions of Kyiv and Vladimir and was their successor. This was emphasized by the fact that the vaults began with the “Tale of Bygone Years.”

Unifying ideas that corresponded to the vital interests of various strata of feudal society were developed in a number of other centers. Even in Novgorod, which was distinguished by particularly strong separatist tendencies, in the 30s of the 15th century an all-Russian city in nature was created. Novgorod-Sofia vault, which included the arch of Photius. It also took on an all-Russian character Tver chronicle, in which the strong power of the Grand Duke was promoted and the facts of the liberation struggle against the Golden Horde were noted. But it clearly exaggerated the role of Tver and the Tver princes in the unification of Rus' (1, p. 50).

The central theme of literature was the struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders. Therefore, one of the most common genres became military story. The works of this genre were based on specific historical facts and events, and the characters were real historical figures.

An outstanding monument of narrative literature of the military genre is “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu.” The main part of its content is the story of the capture and destruction of Ryazan by the Tatars and the fate of the princely family. The story condemns feudal strife as the main reason for the defeat of the Russians and at the same time, from the point of view of religious morality, what is happening is assessed as punishment for sins. This testifies to the desire of church ideologists to use the very fact of the disaster to promote Christian ideas and strengthen the influence of the church.

The struggle against the Swedish and German feudal lords was reflected in the secular druzhina story about Alexander Nevsky, which contained a detailed description of the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice. But this story has not reached us. It was reworked into the life of Alexander Nevsky and received a religious overtones. The story about the Pskov prince Dovmont, dedicated to the struggle of the Pskov people against German and Lithuanian aggression, underwent a similar transformation (1, p. 52).

Monument Tver literature from the beginning of the 14th century is “The Tale of the Murder of Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich in the Horde.” This is a topical political work that had an anti-Moscow orientation. Based on an oral folk poetic work, “The Tale of Shevkal” was written, dedicated to the uprising in Tver in 1327.

The victory over the Mongol-Tatars on the Kulikovo Field in 1380 caused a rise in national self-awareness and instilled in the Russian people confidence in their abilities. Under its influence arose Kulikovo cycle works that are united by one main idea - about the unity of the Russian land as the basis for victory over the enemy. The four main monuments included in this cycle are different in character, style, and content. They all talk about the Battle of Kulikovo as the greatest historical victory of Rus' over the Tatars (4, pp. 24-25).

The most profound and significant work of this cycle is "Zadonshchina" - poem written by Sophony Ryazan shortly after the Battle of Kulikovo. The author did not strive to give a consistent and thorough depiction of events. Its goal is to glorify the great victory over the hated enemy, to glorify its organizers and participants (4, p.345). The poem emphasizes the role of Moscow in organizing the victory, and Prince Dmitry Ivanovich is presented as the true organizer of the Russian forces.

IN Chronicle story about For the first time, the Battle of Kulikovo is given a coherent account of the events of 1380. It emphasizes the unity and cohesion of the Russian forces around the Grand Duke, and the campaign against the Tatars is regarded as an all-Russian affair. However, in the story there is a noticeable deviation from real historical facts, which are interpreted from the point of view of religious morality: the final reason for the defeat of the Tatars is “divine will”; in the spirit of religious concepts, the behavior of the Ryazan prince Oleg is condemned; Dmitry Donskoy is depicted as a Christian ascetic, endowed with piety, love of peace and love of Christ.

"The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev" - the most voluminous and most popular work of the Kulikovo cycle. It is ideologically and artistically contradictory; two different approaches to understanding events coexist in it. On the one side. The Kulikovo victory is regarded as a reward for the Christian virtues characteristic of the Russians; on the other hand, a real view of things: the author of “The Legend” is well versed in the political situation of that time, highly appreciates the heroism and patriotism of the Russian people, the foresight of the Grand Duke, and understands the importance of unity between the princes. In "The Legend" the idea of ​​a close union of the church and princely power is justified (description of the relationship between Dmitry Donskoy and Sergius of Radonezh) (4, p. 189).

Only in connection with the biography of Dmitry Donskoy is the Battle of Kulikovo in "A Sermon on the Life and Death of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich, Tsar of Russia". This is a solemn panegyric to the deceased prince, in which his deeds are praised and their significance for the present and future of Rus' is determined. The image of Dmitry Ivanovich combines the features of an ideal hagiographic hero and an ideal statesman, emphasizing the Christian virtues of the prince. This reflects the desire of the clergy for a union with grand-ducal power.

The events of 1382, when Tokhtamysh attacked Moscow, formed the basis of the story “About the capture of Moscow from Tsar Tokhtamysh and the capture of the Russian land.” The story is characterized by such a feature as democracy, therefore it occupies a special place in the literature of the 14th - 15th centuries, covering events from the perspective of the broad masses, in this case the population of Moscow. There is no individual hero in it. Ordinary townspeople who took the defense of Moscow into their own hands after the princes and boyars fled from it are the true hero of the story (9, pp. 53-54).

At the time under review, there was great development hagiographic literature, a number of whose works are permeated with current journalistic ideas. Church preaching in them was combined with the development of thoughts about the leading role of Moscow and the close union of princely power and the church (with primary importance given to church power) as the main condition for the strengthening of Rus'. The hagiographic literature also reflected specifically ecclesiastical interests, which did not always coincide with the interests of the grand ducal authorities. The Life of Metropolitan Peter, written by Metropolitan Cyprian, was of a journalistic nature, who saw the commonality of the fate of Metropolitan Peter, not recognized at one time by the prince of Tver, with his own and with his complex relationship with the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich.

Has become widespread in hagiographic literature rhetorical-panegyric style (or expressive-emotional style). The text included lengthy and florid speeches-monologues, the author's rhetorical digressions, and reasoning of a moral and theological nature. Much attention was paid to describing the hero’s feelings, his state of mind, and psychological motivations for the actions of the characters appeared. The expressive-emotional style reached the pinnacle of its development in the works of Epiphanius the Wise and Pachomius Logothetes.

1.3 Architecture

Stone construction in Russia ceased for half a century as a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. It resumed only at the end of the 13th century. Since that time, the traditions of regional traditions have come to life and received new development. architectural schools that developed in the previous period (2, P.87).

One of the largest centers for the development of art in the 14th - 15th centuries was Novgorod, which was experiencing economic and political growth at that time. The high level of urban life and the peculiarities of the socio-political system of the Novgorod feudal republic determined the characteristic features Novgorod art, the presence of a strong democratic current in it. As before, Novgorod buildings were erected at the expense of individual boyars, merchant associations and groups of "street residents", and they reflected the tastes of the customers.

Based on the architectural traditions of pre-Mongol times, Novgorod architects searched for new artistic, construction and technical solutions. The direction of these searches was determined already in the very first building, erected after a significant break - in the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipne (1292). The architects introduced a lot of new things into the traditional type of four-pillar, single-domed, cubic-shaped temple. They replaced the roof covering with a three-lobed one, abandoned the division of the facades with blades, reduced the number of apses from three to one, lowering it to half the height of the temple. This gave the building massiveness and solidity. Novgorod builders switched to masonry from roughly hewn limestone slabs using boulders and partly brick, which further enhanced the impression of strength and power. Here the characteristic feature of Novgorod art clearly manifested itself (2, p. 45).

New quests and old traditions were reflected in the Church of the Savior on Kovalevo (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field (1352). This is an intermediate link in the process of developing the style in Novgorod architecture, which is represented by buildings of the second half of the 14th century. Classic examples of this style are the Church of Fyodor Stratelates (1360-1361) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street (1374). A characteristic feature of this style is the elegant external decoration of temples. Their facades are decorated with decorative niches, triangular depressions, and sculptural inset crosses. Many niches were filled with fresco paintings.

Subsequently, the new architectural style remained almost unchanged. Moreover, in the 15th century, a desire to reproduce the architectural forms of the 12th century appeared. This revival of cultural traditions revealed the separatism of the Novgorod aristocracy, its desire to preserve the “antiquity and duty” of the independent Novgorod boyar republic (2, pp. 46-47).

Large civil construction was also carried out in Novgorod. In the Kremlin in 1433, German and Novgorod craftsmen built a faceted chamber intended for ceremonial receptions and meetings of the Council of Gentlemen. In the lord's courtyard, the Clock Bell (1443) was erected - an octagonal tower on a rectangular base. Some Novgorod boyars built themselves stone chambers with box vaults. In 1302, a stone building was founded in Novgorod, which was subsequently rebuilt several times. The fortifications of Staraya Ladoga, Porkhov, Koporye, Yama, and Oreshka were erected (2, p. 47).

It was unique architecture of Pskov, separated from Novgorod in the middle of the 14th century and became the center of an independent feudal republic. The Pskovites achieved great success in fortress construction. Stone walls were erected in 1330 Izborsk - one of the largest military structures of Ancient Rus'. In Pskov itself, a large stone Kremlin was built, the total length of the walls of which was about nine kilometers. The entire architecture of Pskov had a fortress appearance; the buildings were stern and laconic, almost devoid of decorative decoration.

Characteristic of Pskov architecture are stone belfries, consisting of several spans. Pskov craftsmen developed a special system of covering the building with mutually intersecting arches, which made it possible to later free the temple from the pillars. This technique played a significant role in the creation of the type of small pillarless “posad” church. Pskov architects won all-Russian fame with their skill. They played a big role in Moscow construction in the 15th - 16th centuries.

The first city of North-Eastern Rus' in which the stone construction, was Tver. Here, in 1285 -1290, the Cathedral of the Transfiguration of the Savior was built - a six-pillar cross-domed temple, decorated with white stone reliefs. The Vladimir Assumption Cathedral served as a model for it. At the beginning of the 14th century, another stone church was built, but then there was a long break in construction, caused by the weakening of Tver as a result of its defeat after the uprising of 1327. Only from the end of the 14th century did a new rise begin. From the Tver buildings of that time, the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the village of Gorodnya on the Volga has reached us (2, p. 48).

Start stone construction in Moscow dates back to the second quarter of the 14th century. Under Ivan Kalita, four stone churches were built in the Moscow Kremlin: the Assumption Cathedral, the churches of Ivan the Climacus and the Savior on Bor, and the Archangel Cathedral. None of them have reached our time, but there is reason to believe that they were built in the spirit of the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture. Several stones that survived from the Church of the Savior on Bor indicate that it was decorated with carvings.

In 1367, it was built in Moscow stone Kremlin, the only one in all of North-Eastern Rus' at that time. This testified to the growing political power of Moscow. On the eve of the Battle of Kulikovo, the Assumption Cathedral was built in Kolomna, which was larger in size than all Moscow churches. The oldest surviving monuments of Moscow architecture are the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod (about 1400), the Cathedral of Savvin Storozhevsky Monastery near Zvenigorod (1405) and the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422) (3, p. 24).

The models for them were the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl and the Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir, although the buildings of the early 15th century were more squat and austere, and their decoration was more modest. The emphasized interest in the architecture of Vladimir was determined by the political idea of ​​the Vladimir inheritance, which permeated all Moscow politics and was reflected in other spheres of culture.

This does not mean at all that Moscow architects only copied existing models. They showed particular interest in the development and creation of a new, skyward composition of the entire temple building. This was achieved due to the stepped arrangement of the vaults and the placement of several rows of kokoshniks at the base of the drum. The desire to overcome “cubicity” and impart dynamism to the entire composition was especially clearly manifested in the Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (circa 1427). This trend became leading in Moscow architecture.

1.4 Painting

The second half of the 14th - early 15th centuries is called the "golden age" wall painting Ancient Rus'. Developing successfully Novgorod monumental painting, based on local traditions and using the achievements of Byzantine art. Made a great contribution to its development Feofan the Greek, who worked first in Novgorod and then in Moscow. He came from Byzantium to Rus' in the 70s of the 14th century as a mature painter and gave his skills to his new homeland. Feofan’s best work, which most fully reveals the originality and power of his work, is the fresco painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street. Feofan the Greek is characterized by a bold painting style, freedom in handling iconographic traditions, virtuosity of execution, interest in character and the inner world of a person (6, p.54). In his characters he embodied the spirituality of man, the strength of his inner emotionality, and the desire for the sublime. Feofan's stormy, temperamental painting is a vivid manifestation of the expressive-emotional style in Russian art of this time.

The frescoes of Theophan the Greek in the Church of the Savior on Ilyin are similar in style to the frescoes of the Church of Fyodor Stratelates. Some researchers consider them the work of Theophanes, others - the work of his students (6, p.54).

A remarkable monument of Novgorod painting was the complex of frescoes of the Volotov Church (destroyed during the Great Patriotic War), in which the freedom of artistic creativity and the desire to overcome the traditional canons of church painting were clearly manifested. These frescoes were distinguished by extreme dynamics in the construction of the composition and deep emotional richness.

The frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Kovalevo look different, which are characterized by features of asceticism. Researchers see in them the influence of the South Slavic artistic tradition and believe that they were painted by Serbian artists.

In the 15th century, monumental painting increasingly adopted the dogmatic features of official church ideology. But in Novgorod, icon painting still remained associated with democratic circles, as evidenced by the simplicity of the interpretation of the subjects, the wide distribution of popular icons of saints who assumed the functions of pagan deities - patrons of various economic activities. The narrow boundaries of religious themes expanded.

Reached high prosperity painting in Moscow at the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV century. Here at this time the Russian national school of painting was finally taking shape, the most prominent representative of which was the brilliant Russian artist Andrey Rublev. His predecessor in painting Moscow churches was Feofan the Greek, who moved to Moscow in the 90s. The Moscow paintings of Feofan have not survived.

Andrei Rublev was born around 1360. He was a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, and then of Spaso-Andronikov. In 1405, together with Theophan the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets, he painted the walls of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin. In 1408, Rublev, together with Daniil Cherny worked on the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, and then they decorated the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery with frescoes and icons. At the end of his life, A. Rublev painted the Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery. Andrei Rublev died around 1430 and was buried in the Andronikov Monastery (9, p. 58).

The earliest currently known works by Rublev are considered to be the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, created by him together with Daniil Cherny. One of them is “Procession of the Righteous to Paradise.” These works revealed the characteristic features of Rublev’s style, which is characterized by lyrical tranquility. Rublev's characters are softer, more humane than in Feofan's paintings.

Rublev's most famous work is Trinity icon - written by him for the iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral. It expresses with rare artistic force the humanistic idea of ​​harmony and philanthropy, and gives a generalized ideal of moral perfection and purity. The images of the Archangel Gabriel and the Apostle Paul from the same iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral are remarkable in their depth of psychological characterization and mastery of execution. The national character of Rublev's work found particularly vivid expression in his "Spas" from Zvenigorod.

In the work of A. Rublev, wrote the researcher of ancient Russian art V.N. Lazarev, “the process of isolation of Russian painting from Byzantine, which began already in the 12th century and developed in continuous growth until the 15th century, receives its logical conclusion. Rublev finally abandons Byzantine severity and Byzantine asceticism. He extracts from the Byzantine heritage its ancient Hellenistic core... He translates the colors of Russian nature into the high language of art, giving them in such impeccably correct combinations that they are inherent, like the creation of a great musician, with absolute purity of sound" (9, C .59).

1. 5 Accumulation of scientific knowledge

Rus' was by no means completely illiterate. Knowledge of writing and counting was required in many branches of economic and other activities. Birch bark letters from Novgorod and other centers, various written monuments (chronicles, stories, etc.), inscriptions on handicraft products (coins, seals, bells, weapons, jewelry, artistic castings, etc.) indicate that literate people have never been transferred to Rus', and not only among monks, but also among artisans and merchants. They were also among the boyars and nobles. Wealthy people kept written records of their farms; Various kinds of account books, documents of spiritual monasteries - monasteries, and copies of documents from earlier times have been preserved from the 16th century (7, p. 67).

At the disposal of scientists, despite all the losses of the Batu era and the later Horde “armies,” there is still a lot of handwritten material for the XIV-XVI centuries. These are documents (spiritual letters, treaties of the great, including Moscow, and appanage princes, economic acts of the Russian metropolis, episcopal sees, monasteries), lives of saints, chronicles and much more. Manuals on grammar, arithmetic, and herbal treatment (alphabet books, herbalists, etc.) appear.

Practical observations and knowledge of construction technology (necessary for the construction of buildings), dynamics (calculation of the flight range of stones, balls from battering and other devices; from cannons that appeared at the end of the 14th century), applied physics (minting coins, casting guns, etc.) were accumulated. assembly and repair of clock mechanisms), applied chemistry (production of paints, inks). arithmetic and geometry (description of lands, trade affairs, etc.).

Descriptions of natural phenomena (eclipses, earthquakes, etc.) are quite frequent in chronicles. Translated works were popular - “Christian Topography” by Kozma Indikoplov (a 6th-century traveler), “Six Days” by John, Exarch of the Bulgarian, “Gromnik”, etc. Astronomical observations are given in Russian handwritten collections; medical - in the same chronicles (descriptions of diseases). And the 15th-century collection, released from the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery, included comments by Galen, a Roman scientist of the 2nd century AD, on the work of Hippocrates, the ancient Greek “father of medicine” (5th-4th centuries BC). The “Book of Soshnomu Letter” (mid-14th century) was of outstanding importance for its time - it described methods for calculating land areas and taxes on them (6, p. 78).

Russian travelers expanded their range of geographical knowledge. They left descriptions of their travels. These are the Novgorodian Stefan, who visited Constantinople (mid-14th century); Gregory Kalika (probably visited the same city in the 14th century; later, under the name of Vasily Kalika, became the Archbishop of Novgorod); deacon of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Zosima (Constantinople, Palestine; 1420); Suzdal monk Simeon (Ferrara, Florence; 1439); famous Afanasy Nikitin, Tver merchant (India; 1466-1472). Russian people, penetrating north into Siberia, compiled descriptions, “drawings” of the lands they saw; ambassadors - article lists with information about foreign countries.

2. Russian culture of the 15th - early 16th centuries

2.1 Book business

During the period under review, it became more widespread handwritten book. The main centers for storing books continued to be monasteries, which had significant libraries. They collected mainly church literature, but there were also books of secular content: chronicles, chronographs, legends, stories. But the books, judging by the owner's records on some of them, were not only in monasteries, but also in boyar estates, among townspeople and even among the peasants. (7, P.89).

The production of handwritten books was mainly concentrated in monastic workshops-scriptoria, although professional scribes in cities and even in rural areas were also involved in their copying. Books were sold in markets. The Stoglavy Council, in order to protect the market from manuscripts of undesirable content, by a special decision prohibited the sale of manuscripts without first checking them by clergy. In this, as in other resolutions of the Stoglavy Council, the desire of the church to establish control over spiritual culture was manifested. Due to the increased need for books, the writing process accelerated: cursive writing became established not only in business writing, but also in book writing.

The largest event in the history of Russian culture was the emergence book printing. Printing met state needs, served to strengthen autocratic power, and strengthened the role of the church. The church service book was one of the means of disseminating official ideology. Therefore, book printing in Russia began on the initiative of the state authorities, supported by the church.

The first attempts at book printing in Russia date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553. The first editions were anonymous, that is, they did not contain the names of publishers or imprints. In total, seven such publications are currently known. Their imperfection suggests that they were created during the formation of printing. There is no information yet about the first printers. Book printing began to develop most vividly in the second half of the 16th century, when, with funds from the royal treasury, it was established printing house in Moscow (9, S.63).

2. 2 Chronicle. Literature

Traditional literary genres, as before, were imbued with journalistic content. Journalistic works proper also appear in the form of messages and letters, intended not for one addressee, but for a wide audience.

The goals of the ideological justification of the autocracy were subordinated historical works, first of all chronicles. In this regard, the official nature of chronicle writing has significantly increased. The Middle Ages were generally characterized by turning to historical material to substantiate certain political positions. Chronicle writing became a state matter and, as a rule, was associated with government circles. Previous chronicles included in the chronicle were subject to certain processing for political purposes.

The compilation undertaken on the initiative and under the leadership of Metropolitan Macarius was of great cultural significance. "The Great Four Menyas". Macarius set the goal of collecting together “all the books of the world that are found in the Russian land.” A large team of writers, editors, and copyists worked for more than 20 years to implement this plan. As a result, a grandiose vault original and translated literary monuments, consisting of twelve large format volumes (more than 27 thousand pages). It included works intended for “spiritually beneficial” reading, their composition was selected and approved by the church and was supposed to regulate the annual “reading circle” for each day (5, P.45).

All material in this collection is arranged by month. Each volume includes the lives of all the saints whose memory is celebrated in a given month, and all literature directly or indirectly related to these saints: the writings of the Greek “fathers of the church” and Russian church writers, epistles of metropolitans, church charters, charters. This also included the popular collections in Rus' “Bee”, “Golden Chain”, “Izmaragd”; in addition to them, “The Tale of the Ruin of Jerusalem” by Josephus, “Cosmography” by Cosmas Indikoplov, “The Walk” by Abbot Daniel, etc. Of course, not all works read in Rus' in the 16th century are included in this collection. There are no chronicles and chronographs, as well as works recognized by the church as “not useful.” Nevertheless, the “Great Chetya - Menaion” is a most valuable monument of Russian culture; this is the most valuable collection of works of literature before the middle of the 16th century: many of them survived only because they were included in this collection (5, p. 46).

2. 3 Architecture

Since the end of the 15th century, a new stage has begun in the development of Russian architecture The improvement of urban crafts and the increase in state financial resources were the material prerequisites for expanding the scale of stone construction in both the religious and civil spheres. An innovation of this time was the spread of brick and terracotta, brickwork replacing the traditional white stone. The growth of brick production and its use in construction opened up new technical and artistic opportunities for architects.

The unification of Russian lands in a single state destroyed the isolation of local architectural schools, contributed to their interpenetration, mutual enrichment and the formation on this basis of an all-Russian architectural style, combining simplicity of design with increased external decorativeness (2, p. 132).

Moscow was becoming an all-Russian artistic center. The grandiose construction that took place there attracted the best specialists from other feudal centers. Italian masters were invited to Moscow - Aristotle Fioravanti, Anton Fryazin, Marco Ruffo, Pietro Antonio Solari, Aleviz Novy and others, who introduced Russian masters to the architectural and construction techniques of the Italian Renaissance.

Since Moscow became the all-Russian capital, it was completely The Moscow Kremlin was rebuilt, the ensemble of which received its final design at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. The appearance of the residence of the “sovereign of all Rus'” should have corresponded to the increased importance and authority of the grand ducal power. The reconstruction of the Kremlin began with the construction of the Assumption Cathedral, entrusted to Aristotle Fioravanti. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir served as a model for it. However, the Moscow Assumption Cathedral (1475-1479) was not a simple imitation of a model. Aristotle Fioravanti managed to create a completely new, original work, in which the traditions of Russian architecture were enriched with elements of Italian architecture. Simple and clear in its forms, but at the same time grandiose and solemn. The Assumption Cathedral has become a classic example of monumental church architecture of the 16th century. The five-domed structure that crowned the cathedral became widespread in the construction of other church buildings (3, p. 145).

The Annunciation Cathedral, built by Pskov craftsmen in 1484-1489 and part of the grand-ducal palace complex, is associated with Russian architectural traditions. Its appearance combines Pskov, Vladimir-Suzdal and early Moscow features,

In 1505-1508, Aleviz the New built the Archangel Cathedral, the appearance of which clearly expressed the secular features that had already emerged in the architecture of the Assumption Cathedral. Having retained the main structure (a cube topped with a five-domed structure), Aleviz Novy in the exterior decoration of the cathedral deviated from ancient Russian traditions, using lush architectural details of the Italian Renaissance.

In addition to religious buildings, secular buildings were also erected in the Kremlin. A new grand-ducal palace is being built, which, according to old traditions, consisted of separate buildings connected by passages, porches, and vestibules. The Faceted Chamber (Marco Ruffo and Pietro Latopio Solari, (1487-1491)) has been preserved from this palace. It served as a throne room in which ceremonial palace ceremonies and receptions of foreign ambassadors took place. The chamber is a spacious square room with a powerful pillar in the middle, on which is supported by four cross vaults. In 1485, the construction of brick walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin began. At the same time, the architects solved not only fortification, but also artistic problems. The walls and towers of the Kremlin, together with the rest of its buildings, formed a single picturesque ensemble. The built in 1505-1508 the pillar-shaped church-bell tower of Ivan Climacus (Ivan the Great).In this ensemble the ideas of greatness and strength of the united Russian state were embodied (3, p.149).

Other cities followed Moscow's example. Following the model of the Moscow Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals, cathedrals were erected in Volokolamsk, Dmitrov, Uglich, Rostov, as well as large monasteries: Pafnutevo-Borovsky, Kirillo-Belogorsk, Novgorod Khutypsky, Mozhaisk Luzhsky, etc. Stone palaces also appeared in specific capitals. From the palace built in Uglich at the end of the 15th century, the main chamber, built of brick and richly decorated with patterned brickwork in the upper part of the pediments, has survived.

In religious architecture, in addition to the creation of monumental cathedrals modeled on those in Moscow, there was another direction associated with the construction of small townsman and patrimonial churches. The invention of a new system of brick floors - the so-called cross vault - led to the emergence new type buildings - small pillarless temple with a single, undivided space. In the town's churches, secular elements were more clearly manifested.

Back in the 15th century, the desire of Russian architects to give the building a dynamic upward thrust was revealed (for example, the Cathedral of the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery). This was also expressed in the construction of pillar-shaped churches. The further development of this trend, the search for new architectural forms led to the emergence tent style in Russian architecture. The national originality of Russian architecture was most clearly expressed in tent-roofed buildings. The tent style made a decisive break with the traditional cross-domed type of church adopted from Byzantium. The introduction of this purely Russian form into church construction became an important victory of the folk principle in architecture, one of the sources of which was Russian folk wooden architecture: tent-roofed churches were erected “for wooden work,” i.e. modeled on wooden tent-roofed buildings (3, P.112). The appearance of this style is the highest achievement of Russian architecture of the 16th century.

The most outstanding stone monument tent architecture - Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, erected in 1532. The idea of ​​upward striving, ascent, embodied in the Church of the Ascension, reflected the spiritual atmosphere of the first half of the 16th century, the growth of national self-awareness, feelings and moods of the people of that time. The chronicler expressed the admiration of his contemporaries for this building in the following words: “..that church is wonderful in height and lightness, such has never been seen before in Rus'” (5, p.98).

The Cathedral of the Intercession "on the moat", erected in honor of the capture of Kazan, is a group of ten pillar-shaped churches placed on a common pedestal - a high basement - and united by internal passages and an external gallery - a walkway. The central temple is crowned with a large tent, around which are located the domes of eight chapels. All of them have an “octagon” shape, coming from the traditions of wooden architecture. The architectural and decorative decoration of the building is unusually rich and varied. The small internal area of ​​the building (in some aisles no more than 5-6 people can be accommodated), its lush external decoration and picturesque composition indicate that the Intercession Cathedral was designed for external perception and was more of a monument temple than a religious building. The unification of nine different, dissimilar churches on a common basis symbolized the unification of Russian lands and principalities in a single state (3, pp. 157-158).

In the 16th century, the fortress construction, which reflected achievements in the field of military engineering. But at the same time, practical problems of urban planning were also solved. The fortifications of this time represent integral architectural ensembles; they played a large role in shaping the appearance of cities and determined their overall layout.

In 1508-1511. The stone walls of the Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin were erected. Then kremlins were built in Tula (1514), Kolomna (1525-1531), Zaraysk (1531), Serpukhov (1556) and other cities, and the walls of the Novgorod Kremlin were reconstructed. In Moscow in 1535-1538. A second line of fortifications was erected, encircling the trade and craft district of the capital. China town. Many monasteries also became powerful fortresses: stone walls and towers of the Trinity-Sergius, Kirillo-Belozersky, Solovetsky, Pafnutyevo-Borovsky, Joseph-Volokolamsky and other monasteries were built (3, p. 158).

The grandiose fortress construction required enormous material resources and a large amount of labor...."

Among all types of art, architecture received the greatest development in the 16th century and took a huge step forward, which predetermined the subsequent development of Russian architecture

2. 4 Painting

The political and ideological situation of the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries affected the development painting. The largest representative of the Moscow school of painting of the last quarter of the 15th - early 16th centuries was Dionysius(c. 1440-1502 or 1503). Contemporaries called him an artist, “more notorious than anyone else,” that is, the most famous. He painted a number of icons, part of the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, and painted the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Ferapontov Monastery. His works are characterized by refined designs, exquisite colors, and lush decorativeness. They are permeated with moods of solemn festivity, bright joy, in tune with the spirit of the times (6, p.143).

Painting of the 16th century is characterized by an expansion of the range of themes, an increase in interest in non-church themes from world and especially Russian history. Official ideology had an increasing influence on the ideological content of painting. The glorification and exaltation of royal power and the church became the main theme of the work of the craftsmen who carried out the orders of the Grand Duke and Metropolitan.

The official state idea of ​​the historical succession of power of the Moscow princes from the princes of Vladimir and Kyiv, and through them from the Byzantine emperors, was embodied in the painting of the Annunciation Cathedral, completed under the direction of Feodosia, son of Dionysius. The Byzantine emperors and empresses and the most revered Russian princes are depicted here (6, p. 144).

The same idea was reflected in the unpreserved, but known from the description of the 17th century, painting of the Golden Chamber of the Kremlin Palace (1547-1552). Along with biblical stories and parables used to glorify the activities of Ivan the Terrible in an allegorical form, it widely presented themes of Russian history: the adoption of Christianity in Kievan Rus, the legendary wedding of Prince Vladimir with the crown of Monomakh, etc. Allegorical figures were also depicted here - “Chastity”, “Reason”, “Truth”, etc. (6, p. 149)

The regulation of artistic creativity and its subordination to church canons had a negative impact on the development of painting. However, the church could not completely stop this process. And in these difficult conditions, new trends made their way, although with great difficulty. They are more noticeable in the work of masters associated with the townspeople's circles, and primarily in the cities of the middle Volga region - Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod (7, p. 212). There was a process of accumulation of elements of a new direction in painting, which clearly manifested itself in the next, 17th century.

Conclusion

Thus, culture in the XIV - early XVI centuries. developed in complex and contradictory conditions. The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke slowed down the pace and progress of the development of the ancient Russian people. And only the high level of Russian culture gave it the opportunity to survive during the most difficult period of its history. Despite the horrors of the Mongol conquest, Russian culture retained its traditional character. Territories that were not subjected to military defeat, although subordinate to the Horde (Pskov, Novgorod), played a major role in the transfer of traditions and cultural and historical experience.

If the beginning of the 14th century was characterized by stagnation and decline after the terrible blow of the Mongol hordes, then after 1380 its dynamic rise began, in which the beginning of the merging of local art schools into an all-Moscow, all-Russian culture can be traced.

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The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke had a negative impact on the pace and course of cultural development of the ancient Russian people. Massive destruction delayed the development of stone construction for almost half a century.

The rise of Moscow and the gathering of Russian lands around it contributed to the restoration of broken ties between Russian lands. By the end of the 15th century, when Moscow turned into the most important economic, military-political and spiritual center, the process of formation of the Russian nationality intensified and the trends in the formation of a single national culture intensified. The fight against foreign conquerors caused a new rise in oral folk art. The legends, epics and tales created by the people called the Russian people to fight to overthrow the hated yoke. One of the most famous legends of this period is “The Tale of the Invisible City of Kitezh,” a city that sank to the bottom of the lake, but did not surrender to the enemy.

Chronicle writing did not lose its significance during this period, despite the destruction of almost all of its centers, with the exception of Novgorod, where it was not interrupted. Already at the end of the XIII-beginning. XIV centuries New chronicle centers emerged (Tver, Moscow), and a new rise in the chronicle genre began.

The formation of a centralized state was a powerful stimulus for the development of culture. The need to strengthen the internal and foreign policy position of the state led to an unprecedented increase in state needs for the development of the most diverse areas of material and spiritual culture.

A major role in strengthening the defining positions of the Orthodox Church was played by the Council of the Hundred Heads in 1551, which attempted to regulate art. The work of Rublev was proclaimed as a model in painting, from the point of view of his iconography, that is, the arrangement of figures, the use of certain colors, etc. In architecture, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was put forward as a model, in literature - the works of Metropolitan Macarius and his circle. While limiting the freedom of creativity, the decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral at the same time contributed to the preservation of a high level of craftsmanship.

On a national scale, education was still primary, ecclesiastical in nature, and available only to a select few. Literacy was widespread primarily among feudal lords, clergy and merchants. The most common was training in monasteries. At home and in private schools, people of the clergy usually taught; secular “masters of literacy” were extremely rare. The basis of any educational process was theological disciplines. As a rule, they also taught reading and writing, and sometimes the beginnings of arithmetic. Liturgical books were usually used as “textbooks”; only in the second half of the century did special grammars and arithmetic appear.

The development of writing was accompanied by a change in the writing technique itself, adapting to the increased demand for books and various kinds of documents. The most important cultural phenomenon of the 16th century. was the beginning of printing. In 1564 The deacon of one of the Moscow churches, Ivan Fedorov, published “The Apostle” - the first Russian printed book. Subsequently, Fedorov published the first primer in Lvov. However, in the 16th century. They printed mainly liturgical books. 16th century He gave vivid works of social thought related to the development of a centralized state, the strengthening of royal power, and the formation of a new social system - the nobility.

New socio-political conditions have brought new problems to the forefront. Much attention in Russian literature began to be paid to issues of autocratic power, the place and importance of the church in the state, and the international position of Russia. This contributed to the development of new literary genres. At the same time, genres and trends traditional for Russian literature have retained their significance.

Chronicle writing continued to develop, from now on subordinated to a single center and a single goal - the strengthening of the Russian centralized state, the authority of the royal and church authorities.

"The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom" describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and proves the need to establish royal power in Rus'. The “Degree Book” contains portraits and descriptions of the reigns of the great Russian princes and metropolitans, arranged in 17 degrees, starting from Vladimir I (Svyatoslavich) to Ivan IV. The facial chronicle corpus (Nikon Chronicle) represents a unique world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century.

The development of architecture during this period reflected the growing international authority of the Russian state. A new stage is coming in both temple and civil construction, characterized by an organic combination of national traditions and the latest achievements of domestic and European architecture. Many monuments of the late XV-XVI centuries. are outstanding achievements not only of Russian, but also of world architecture.

The completion of the construction of the Moscow Kremlin ensemble was an important milestone both in the history of Russian architecture and in the history of the Russian state.

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin. Among them is the Prince's Palace, consisting of several interconnected buildings. What remains of this palace is the Chamber of Facets (1487-1491), built by Italian architects Pietro Antonio Solari and Mark Fryazin. The flourishing of domestic architecture was also manifested in the emergence of a new style - tent construction, based on the national traditions of wooden architecture, carving, embroidery, and painting. Unlike cross-domed churches, tented churches do not have pillars inside and the entire mass of the building rests only on the foundation. One of the first monuments of this style is the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, built in 1532 by order of Grand Duke Vasily III, in honor of the birth of his son Ivan, the future Tsar Ivan the Terrible.

The most famous monument of hipped-roof architecture is the Intercession Cathedral, which at the end of the century received the name St. Basil's Cathedral after the famous Moscow holy fool, buried under one of its chapels. The cathedral was built in 1555-1561. Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan by Russian troops.

Tent churches were built in Suzdal, Zagorsk and other cities.

Fine art developed in line with the general cultural process and is characterized by two main trends: the blurring of the boundaries of local schools and a noticeable strengthening of secular elements. The Moscow school dominated in icon painting, which developed on the basis of a synthesis of local schools and became the basis of the all-Russian national icon painting school. Icon painters of towns and cities increasingly deviated from classical norms, there was greater diversity in subjects and colors, and elements of “everydayism” appeared. The icons of the Mother of God cycle “Rejoices in You” have become widespread, which indicates the special role assigned by the people’s consciousness to the Mother of God.

From the end of the 15th century. Fine art is characterized by a growing interest in real historical figures and events, and the range of painting themes is expanding. Since the Orthodox Church could no longer resist this trend, the clergy tried to take control of its development. Cathedral 1553-1554 allowed the faces of kings, princes, as well as “existential writing” to be depicted on icons, i.e. historical stories. This decision contributed to the development of the genre of historical portraiture. On the frescoes of the gallery of the Annunciation Cathedral, traditional images of saints, great Russian princes and Byzantine emperors are side by side with portraits of ancient poets and thinkers: Homer, Virgil, Plutarch, Aristotle, etc. The Golden Chamber of the royal palace was decorated with the “letter of existence” (the frescoes have not survived).

The largest Russian painter of this period was Dionysius, who continued the traditions of Andrei Rublev. He painted the frescoes of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary at the Ferapontov Monastery (1490-1503). The growth of cities and towns and the development of crafts contributed to the further development of decorative and applied arts in the 16th century, the main center of which was Moscow. The best artisans united in royal and metropolitan workshops.

The crafts of that time were distinguished by great diversity: wood carving, sewing, silversmithing, embossing, bell casting, copper casting, enamel, etc. Artistic sewing achieved outstanding success, in which gold and silver threads were used instead of silk threads, pearls and precious stones were widely used . The best examples of gold and silversmithing are kept in the Kremlin in the Armory Chamber.