What traits are characteristic of a nobleman? Life and traditions of the Russian nobility of the 18th century

To Chapter I

1. Select the necessary keywords to describe Andrei Petrovich Grinev, Avdotya Vasilievna, Savelich, Beaupre, Palashka.
2. What are the characteristics of a nobleman? everyday life XVIII centuries, recreated in Chapter I of the novel? How can one compare the nature of the upbringing of Petrusha Grinev and Mitrofanushka from the comedy by D.I. Fonvizin "Minor"?
3. What do you think is the central episode of Chapter I? What is its main meaning?

To Chapter II

1. Grinev could meet with Pugachev at various circumstances. On the pages of the novel, the meeting takes place as a result of a snowstorm. What is its symbolic meaning?
2. Read the lines that give a portrait of the “counselor.” Is there in Pushkin's text means of expression, promoting highest brightness portrait? What are these means? Pay attention to them. Recreate the portrait verbally.
3. How does Pyotr Grinev characterize the decision to give his “counselor” his rabbit sheepskin coat? Why didn’t Grinev listen to Savelich and insist on his decision?
4. Which word in Savelich’s remarks most accurately conveys his attitude to what is happening?
5. The German general does not understand the meaning of the words from Andrei Petrovich Grinev’s note “keep a tight rein.” What is the meaning of this catchphrase?

To Chapter III

1. What is Grinev’s first impression of Belogorsk fortress? What surprised and amazed the young man?
2. How does the character of the fortress commandant appear from the details of his conversation with his subordinates, his wife, and the newly arrived officer?
3. Name artistic media, with the help of which the characters of Captain Mironov and his wife were recreated.
4. Name the most typical words and combinations of words characteristic of Captain Mironov’s speech.
5. What are the customs in the Mironov house? Is their characterization given by Shvabrin fair?

To Chapter IV

1. “...My life in the Belogorsk fortress became not only bearable for me, but even pleasant,” writes Pyotr Grinev at the beginning of the chapter. Why did the hero's mood change?
2. Tell us about Grinev’s activities in the fortress.
3. What is the climax of the chapter? Compose quotation plan to answer the question.
4. What is the reason for the fight and who initiated it?
5. Which human qualities Mop are revealed in this chapter?

To Chapter V

1. Define the meaning of the word "barber".
2. Name the epithets that characterize the feelings of Masha Mironova and Pyotr Grinev. What other means of expression does Pushkin use when talking about the characters’ love?
3. Who and for what reasons told Grinev’s parents about his duel?
4. Why do you think Grinev’s parents refused Pyotr Andreevich parental blessing?
5. How does Masha characterize her reaction to the letter from Peter Grinev’s parents?
6. What qualities of Savelich’s character manifested themselves in his attitude to the events taking place?

To Chapter VI

1. The titles of the chapters very accurately reflect their content. What is the main meaning and what shades are contained in the title of Chapter VI - “Pugachevism”?
2. How accurate is the description of Pugachev given in the secret order from his superiors?
3. Describe the reaction to the impending events on the part of various characters located in the Belogorsk fortress. Compose thesis plan answer.
4. Which chapter episode made the most impression on you? Why?

To Chapter VII

1. Compose complex plan chapters "Attack".
2. How do Captain Grinev, Mironov, Vasilisa Egorovna, Masha, Father Gerasim, Shvabrip behave on the eve of the decisive event and at the moment of storming the fortress?
3. Select epithets that characterize the behavior of the defenders of the fortress and the Pugachevites after the capture of the fortress.
4. At first glance, Pushkin does not comment on Shvabrip’s transition to Pugachev’s side. In what part of the novel do you think the writer’s position is contained, in what words is it expressed? As you think about this, think about the role of the epigraph to a novel.
5. The main elements of the plot in epic work are the beginning, the climax, and the denouement. What is the chapter “Attack”? Justify your answer.

To Chapter VIII

1. Read the fragment: “Left alone, I plunged into thought. What was I supposed to do? It was indecent for an officer to remain in a fortress subject to the villain, or to follow his gang. Duty demanded that I appear where my service could be useful to the fatherland in real, difficult circumstances... But love strongly advised me to stay with Marya Ivanovna and be her protector and patron. Although I foresaw a quick and undoubted change in circumstances, I still could not help but tremble, imagining the danger of her situation.”

   How do you evaluate the hero's decision and his analysis of the situation?

2. What is your attitude to Grinev’s behavior after the capture of the fortress?
3. Retell in detail the episode “Grinev with Pugachev and the Pugachevites.” What produced the most strong impression to Grinev?

To Chapter IX

1. What could Pugachev’s order threaten Grinev with?
2. Why was Grinev frightened by the decision to make Shvabrin commandant of the fortress?
3. Describe the episode “Savelich’s Request.” How did his action make you feel? Write down the key words to answer the question.

To Chapter X

1. Is the Orenburg fortress ready to meet the forces of Pugachev?
2. How did Pushkin present the members of the council: the general, the officials?
3. “All the officials talked about the unreliability of the troops, about the unfaithfulness of luck, about caution and the like. Everyone believed that it would be prudent to remain under the cover of the guns behind a strong stone wall rather than to experience the happiness of a weapon in an open field.” These statements are preceded by Grinev’s judgment: “All opinions turned out to be contrary to mine.” What was Grinev’s opinion? Why?
4. Based on Masha Mironova’s letter to Grinev, characterize internal state girls. In the text of your story, enter words and phrases that convey her feelings and hope.

To Chapter XI

1. How do you evaluate Grinev’s decision to go to the fortress to save his beloved girl?
2. Grinev recalls: “... the society in which I so accidentally found myself greatly entertained my imagination.” Why do you think? Read fragments from the chapter in which portraits of Pugachev’s associates are given.
3. How does Pugachev characterize his attitude to the news of Shvabrin’s act?
4. Re-read the dialogue between Pugachev and Grinev, which took place on the way to the Belogorsk fortress. What details are most important for understanding the character and actions of Pugachev?
5. What's the point Kalmyk fairy tale? What is her role in the novel?

To Chapter XII

1. Describe the state and behavior of Pugachev, Shvabrin and Grinev at the beginning of the chapter.
2. What qualities of Pugachev’s personality are manifested in his decisions in relation to Masha Mironova, Shvabrin and Grinev?
3. Wanting to save Masha, Grinev turned to his superior for help, but was refused. The role of Masha’s savior (like Grinev’s) is the “peasant king” Pugachev. Why do you think this happens and what did Pushkin want to say?

To Chapter XIII

1. Can Grinev’s decision to send Masha to the village, accompanied by Savslich, be considered the only correct one? Justify your opinion.
2. Pushkin’s attitude to events was conveyed through Savelich’s perception. Why is this especially important for this situation?
3. With what feeling does Grinev think about Pugachev after the defeat of the rebel? In your answer, enter words from the text of the chapter.
4. Is Grinev’s arrest legal? Did you expect such a development in the plot? Justify your view of events.

To Chapter XIV

1. Grinev “decided to declare the real truth before the court, believing this method of justification to be the simplest, and at the same time the most reliable.” How do you feel about his decision?
2. Convey the contents of the court scene in detail according to a pre-planned plan.
3. Who was the cause of Grinev’s new trouble? Can this turn of events be called unexpected?
4. Assess Shvabrin's testimony at the trial. What do you see as the reason for his behavior?
5. Is Masha Mironova’s decision to go to St. Petersburg to save her loved one a gesture of despair, a last hope, or something else? Give a detailed answer.
6. During a meeting with the “lady,” Masha Mironova, telling her story, answers the question about the purpose of her enterprise: “I came to ask for mercy, not justice.” Why do you think she phrases her goal this way?
7. Why does the “lady” react so sharply to the mention of Grinev’s name?
8. Why do you think the Empress pardoned Grinev?

The 18th century is usually called the era of a turning point, which is confirmed, first of all, by Peter’s reforms aimed at creating a new system of government, a new army, navy and a new culture. It was Peter’s reforms that contributed to the creation of one of the most vibrant cultures that humanity has ever known. The product of the Petrine era was also Russian nobility, as we see it in the 18th - 19th centuries.

The material from which this class was composed was the pre-Petrine nobility of Moscow Russia. It represented a “service class,” that is, it consisted of professional servants of the state, who were “recruited” into villages and peasants for their service. When ceasing to serve, the nobleman was obliged to return the lands to the treasury or install a new warrior in his place. True, for special merits the land could be granted into hereditary possession, and the “warrior” became a “patrimonial owner.” The patriotism of the “patrimonial” boyar was no longer so brightly colored by personal devotion to the sovereign; it was associated with attachment to the land, with the memory of service , which the family carried, about the honor that it enjoyed. Even in the 17th century, the erasure of the differences between the estate and the estate began, and the decree of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich (1682), which heralded the destruction of localism, showed that the dominant force in the state would be the nobility.

The psychology of the service class was the foundation of the self-awareness of the nobleman of the 18th century. It was through service that he recognized himself as part of the class. Peter I stimulated this feeling in every possible way - both by personal example and by a number of legislative acts. Their pinnacle was the Table of Ranks, which abolished the distribution of places by blood. The main idea of ​​the Table of Ranks was the following consideration; people should occupy positions according to their abilities and real contribution to public affairs. All types of service, according to the Table of Ranks, were divided into military, civil and court. All ranks were divided into 14 classes.

I put up a table of ranks military service in a privileged position. This was expressed, in particular, in the fact that all 14 classes in the military service gave the right of hereditary nobility, while in the civil service such a right was given only starting from VIII class. This meant that the lowest rank of chief officer in the military service already gave hereditary nobility, while in the civil service for this it was necessary to rise to the rank of collegiate assessor or court councilor.

From this provision subsequently resulted the distinction between hereditary ("pillar") nobles and personal nobles. The latter included civil and court officials of the XIV - IX ranks. Subsequently, personal nobility was given orders and academic titles. A personal nobleman enjoyed a number of class rights of the nobility, but could not transfer these rights to his children, did not have the right to own peasants, participate in noble meetings and hold noble elected positions. This formulation of the law, according to Peter I, opened up access to the highest state class for people of different social groups who had distinguished themselves in service, and, on the contrary, closed access to “impudent and parasites.”

Military service was considered primarily a noble service; civil service was not considered “noble.” It was called "subyacheskaya", there were always more commoners in it. Only in Alexander's time and later, in Nikolaev's time, did a civil official begin to claim, to a certain extent, public respect next to the officer. The table of ranks created a military-bureaucratic machine of public administration. The power of the state rested on two figures - the officer and the official. “Official” comes from the word “chin,” which in the ancient Russian language meant “order.” An official is a salary man, his welfare directly depends on the state. The confusion of laws and the general spirit of state arbitrariness led to the fact that Russian culture XVIII century, practically did not create images of an impartial judge or a fair administrator. An official in the public consciousness was associated with chicanery and bribery. The Russian bureaucracy left almost no trace in the spiritual life of Russia: it did not create its own culture, or even its own ideology.

A person in Russia, if he did not belong to the tax-paying class, could not help but serve. Without service it was impossible to obtain a rank, and a person without a rank had to sign: “underage so-and-so.” If the nobleman really never served, then his relatives arranged for him a fictitious service. A noble nobleman could serve fictitiously somewhere in the court service. Such a person was not interested in ranks, but a talented official could become one of the people and receive the nobility. In the circles of the local nobility, often well-born, it was considered good manners to demonstrate contempt for rank.

The development of serfdom changed the very concept of the word “landowner”. This was no longer a conditional holder of the sovereign's land, but an absolute and hereditary owner of both the land and the peasants sitting on it. As the independence of the nobility increased, it began to be burdened by two basic principles of Peter’s concept of service: its obligatory nature and the opportunity for a non-nobleman to become a nobleman by rank and service. Both of these principles were subjected to vigorous attacks already in the second third of the 18th century. The separation of noble privileges from compulsory personal service and the assertion that the very fact of belonging to a class gives the right to soul and land ownership was formalized by two decrees: the decree Peter III dated February 20, 1762 (“Manifesto on the liberties of the nobility”) and Catherine II dated April 21, 1785 (“Certificate on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility”).

According to these documents, the granting of class rights to nobles: exemption from compulsory service, from corporal punishment, the right to “travel freely to foreign lands” and “to join the services of the allied powers” ​​- received a broader interpretation. In the Charter of Catherine II it was written: We confirm for eternity in the hereditary generations of the Russian noble nobility liberty and freedom." At the same time, the nobleman was guaranteed the inviolability of "honor, life and estate."

This created a unique sociocultural situation: the nobility finally established itself as the ruling class. Moreover, it was precisely due to the position of the peasants who, after the decree of December 13, 1760 (which gave landowners the right to exile peasants to Siberia for settlement “with their inclusion as recruits”) and January 17, 1765 (which extended this right to the possibility of landowners at their own discretion send unwanted peasants to hard labor) were practically reduced to the level of slaves (“the peasant is dead in law,” wrote Radishchev), the nobility in Russia received liberty and freedom. The cultural paradox of the situation in Russia was that the rights of the ruling class were formulated precisely in. the terms in which Enlightenment philosophers described the ideal of human rights.

We talked about how the moral character of a person developed and took shape XVIII century, while talking about men. Meanwhile, the woman of this time was not only included in the flow of rapidly changing life, but began to play everything in it. big role. And the woman changed a lot.

The Petrine era involved women in the world of literature: she needed literacy. Already in Fonvizin, an illiterate woman is a satirical image. Fiction, while maintaining and increasing its independence from the direct teachings of the state, wins the place of the spiritual leader of society. By the end of the 18th century, a new concept appeared - a women's library. Remaining still the world of feelings, the world of children's and household, the "women's world" becomes more and more spiritual. The home libraries of women of the late 18th century shaped the appearance of people in 1812 and the Decembrist era.

In the 18th century, the reforms of Peter I revolutionized not only state life, but also the household way of life. The first consequence of the reforms for women is the desire to change their appearance outwardly, to get closer to the type of Western European woman. The family at the beginning of the 18th century underwent superficial Europeanization. A woman began to consider it fashionable to have a lover; without this, she would “lag behind” the times. Coquetry, balls, dancing - these are women's activities. Family, household, children faded into the background; the child grew up almost without a mother.

Then important changes occurred. By the 70s of the 18th century, romanticism was emerging in Europe, and it became fashionable to strive for nature, for naturalness. This had an impact on the family as well. Throughout Europe, breastfeeding has become a sign of morality. From this same period they began to value the child, childhood. Previously, a child was seen as a small adult, which was very noticeable in children's clothing: at the beginning of the 1111th century, children were sewn small, but in an adult style. Gradually, the idea that a child is a normal person enters the culture. Children's clothing appears, a children's room appears, and the idea arises that playing is good. This is how humane relations are introduced into home life, and this is a woman’s merit. It is a woman who creates a child’s world, and for this she needs to experience and feel a lot. And here literature helps - in the 70s - 90s of the 15th century, a woman became a reader. N.I. was the first to prepare a circle of women’s and children’s reading in the Age of Enlightenment. Novikov. Under his leadership, N.M. began his educational activities. Karamzin. Together with his friend A.P. Petrov, he edited the Novikov magazine “Children’s Reading for the Heart and Mind” (1785 - 1789).

The question of a woman’s place in society was invariably linked to the attitude towards her education. In the era of Peter the Great, the problem of female education arose in an extremely unique form; Peter, by a special decree, ordered illiterate noble girls who could not sign at least their last name not to get married. The need for female education and its nature became the subject of controversy and was associated with a general revision of the type of life, the type of way of life.

A real revolution in the pedagogical ideas of Russian society in the 18th century was brought about by the idea of ​​the need for specificity in women's education. The idea of ​​educating all noble women arose, so it was necessary to develop a system of women's education. Immediately a problem arose educational institutions. Educational institutions for girls took on a dual character: private boarding schools appeared, but at the same time a state education system arose. Its formation is associated with the name of the famous cultural figure of the 18th century I.I. Betsky. Betskoy was close to government circles and generally reflected the sentiments of Catherine II. And as a result, an educational institution was created, which then existed for a long time and was called, after the premises where the eye was located, the Smolny Institute, and its students were called Smolyanka. The bulk of the students were girls of noble origin, but at the institute there was a “School for Young Girls” of non-noble origin. The training lasted nine years, during which the girls were practically isolated from home.

The training was superficial, with the exception of languages. In this area of ​​knowledge, the requirements were indeed very serious, and the students achieved great success. Of the other subjects, only dancing and handicrafts were actually given importance. Physics was reduced to funny tricks, mathematics to the most basic knowledge. Only literature was taught a little better, especially in the 19th century, during the Pushkin era, when A.V. became teachers at the Smolny Institute. Nikitenko, a famous writer and censor, and P.A. Pletnev, a friend of Pushkin, to whom the poet dedicated “Eugene Onegin.”

Smolny was not the only educational institution; private boarding schools arose. By the end of the 18th century, after checking there were several dozen of them in St. Petersburg, ten in Moscow and a number in the provinces. The boarding houses were foreign.

The type of Russian educated woman, especially in the capitals, began to take shape already in the 30s of the 18th century. Let us at least recall the contribution to culture of Catherine II and her ally Princess Dashkova. However, in general, female education in Russia XVIII - early XIX century it had neither its own Lyceum, nor its own Moscow or Dorpat University. The type of highly spiritual Russian woman developed under the influence of Russian literature and culture of the era.

This issue is covered in the book by Yu.M. Lotman “conversations about Russian culture: Life and traditions of the Russian nobility (XVIII - early XIX centuries).” – St. Petersburg, 1994. – 399 p.

Work by A. S. Pushkin “ Captain's daughter"can be fully called historical, because it clearly and clearly conveys specific historical facts, the flavor of the era, the morals and way of life of the people who inhabited Russia.

It is interesting that Pushkin shows the events taking place through the eyes of an eyewitness who himself took a direct part in them. Reading the story, we seem to find ourselves in that era with all its realities of life.

The main character of the story, Peter Grinev, does not just state the facts, but has his own personal opinion and assesses what is happening. Through the perception of a fairly typical hero of his time, we can not only see what was happening in Russia in those days, but also learn about the life of various noble families, their moral values, views, get acquainted with everyday details.

With irony, Petrusha Grinev recalls his childhood years as a typical noble child who grew up in the family of a retired prime major. Even before his birth, he “was enlisted in the Semenovsky regiment as a sergeant.” From the age of five, he was looked after by Savelich, who was granted him the title of uncle, then, according to the rules of the nobility, the Frenchman Beaupre was “discharged”, who was subsequently kicked out of the house for drunkenness, dissipation and neglect of his teaching duties.

Reflecting the morals of the nobility of Catherine’s era, Pushkin shows middle-class nobles who read the “annually received” “Court Calendar”, feel reverence for their service and value loyalty to the fatherland. Noble children, as a rule, grow up underage, “playing leapfrog with the yard boys,” as young Grinev did.

Devoted to the Fatherland, the elder Grinev sends his son at the age of 17 to military service in Orenburg, deciding that Peter should “pull the strap” and “smell gunpowder” in the army. Interesting are the father’s instructions to his son to serve faithfully “to whom you swear allegiance” and to preserve honor from a young age.

In the story we see another noble family of the Mironovs, Ivan Kuzmich and Vasilisa Egorovna, living in the Belogorsk fortress. Pyotr Grinev was sent there from Orenburg to serve. Through his eyes we look at a village surrounded by a wooden fence, a “brave garrison” of disabled people and a cannon filled with garbage.

Artless simple life Pyotr Grinev liked the officer who came out of “soldier’s children”, an uneducated man, but honest and kind, and his economic wife. He falls in love with their daughter, a "prudent and sensitive girl."

Another facet of the nobility of that time is reflected in the image of Lieutenant Shvabrin, a typical representative of the “golden” youth of that time. A cynic, an egoist, a skeptic, he treats ordinary people with indifference and a feeling of deep contempt.

The story also includes a duel, a common phenomenon of that time. Grinev, with the help of a sword, defends the honor of Masha Mironova, who was insulted by Shvabrin.

And finally one more historical image the story helps to understand the real connection between the “Kazan landowner” (Tsarina Catherine II) and in wide circles nobility. It is to her that Masha goes to St. Petersburg to save her lover from exile and shame. In Tsarskoe Selo she meets a lady who attracts her heart. The lady who turned out to be the empress helped Masha, who sincerely told her her story. Grinev was pardoned.

Reading “The Captain's Daughter”, we seem to be plunging into the atmosphere that reigned in those distant times. Observing all historical realities, Pushkin showed us the life of nobles and peasants who were tired of enduring injustice. According to Belinsky, this story stands among best works Russian literature.