The climax scene of the work. What is a climax
STORY - an epic genre, mainly pro-zai-che-sky; for-no-ma-et about-the-exact-po-the-same-between-ro-man and narration both in volume and in tip-po-ve-st-vo-va-niya.
You-de-le-nie of the story into a separate genre belongs to the domestic literature and from-sut-st-vu-et in Western European tradition di-tions.
The story, as a rule, gravitates towards the chro-ni-cal-but-mu-s-s-same-that, not-os-false-no-mu par-ral-lel-now- mi li-niya-mi and so-mid-to-chen-no-mu around ch. per-so-na-zha; oh-you-you-have-compared-but-not-a-big-time; not-rare-ko ha-rak-te-ri-zu-et-sya pre-about-la-da-ni-em opi-sa-tel-no-sti (drink-for-life, soulful state and others). In a story, it is usually clearer than in a novel, you-ra-but in the presence of the author - his desire “to- ve-give”, in which some of the is-trace-to-va-te-whether the story is connected with oral tradition of the story, bringing the story closer to the story (in pro-ti-falseness of the ro-ma-nu , ori-en-ti-ro-van-no-mu in writing kul-tu-ru). At the same time, about the non-op-re-de-len-no-sti of the genre-borders of the story, evidence is given, in most cases, by the the fact that the pro-iz-ve-de-tion, initially designated by the author as a “Tale”, in the future may be -they are called “ro-man” (“Ru-din” by I.S. Tur-ge-ne-va). The volume is also not always the same: “story” by F.M. Dos-to-ev-skogo “Eternal husband” is more than his “weight” “Hoss-wife” and “ro-ma-na” “Poor people” ; M. Gorky gave his four-volume chronicle “The Life of Klim Sam-gin” under the title “Tale”.
According to the nature of the co-maintenance of the story, you create stories: bio-graphic, historical, psycho -lo-gi-che-skie, moral-in-description-sa-tel-nie, fan-ta-sti-che-skie, military-en-nie and others; there is also a class-si-fi-ka-tion of Stories according to literary principles: Saint-ti-men-tal-naya, ro-man-ti-che-skaya and others.
The concept “Tale”, which retains some connection with the ancient Russian story, in the modern meaning of the warehouse -is at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries and is connected with the work of N.M. Ka-ram-zi-na (“Poor Liza”, “Island of Bornholm” and others). The use of the word “Tale” in the headlines of the 18th century did not have a ter-mi-logical meaning and used for the production of various volumes and contents. Russian story about a wide-ranging development in the 1820s-1830s (“Roman and Ol-ga”, “Re-vel tour-nir” ", "Fre-gat "Na-de-zh-da"", "Ama-lat-Bek" A.A. Bes-tu-zhe-va; "La-fer-tov-skaya ma-kov-ni- tsa" A. Po-go-rel-skogo; "Evening on-ka-nu-not Iva-na Ku-pa-la", "Night before Ro-zh-de-st-vom" , “Old-world locals”, “Nevsky Prospekt” by N.V. Go-go-lya; “For the most part, Willow -on Pet-ro-vi-cha Bel-ki-na”, “Egyptian nights” by A.S. Push-ki-na, and others) and you moved to the lane the first plan in the literature of the 1840s (“Big Light”, “Ta-ran-tas” by V.A. Sol-lo-gu-ba; “Shinel” by Go-go-lya; “Po-lin” -ka Sax" A.V. Dru-zhi-ni-na; "De-rev-nya", "An-ton Go-re-my-ka" D.V. Gri-go-ro-vi-cha; “Double”, “Weak Heart”, “White Nights” by F.M. Dos-to-ev-skogo; “Doctor Krupov”, “So-ro -ka-vo-drov-ka” A.I. Ger-tsena, and others). Played a prominent role in the 2nd half of the 19th century (“Asya”, “First Love”, “Spring Water” by I.S. Turgeneva; “Children - years Bag-ro-va-grandmother" S. T. Ak-sa-ko-va; "Childhood", "From-ro-che-st-vo", "Youth" , “The Death of Ivan Il-i-cha”, “Krey-tse-ro-va so-na-ta” by L.N. Tol-sto-go; “Se-lo Ste-pan-chi-ko-vo and his obi-ta-te-li", "Za-pi-ki from under-lya" Dos-to-ev-sko-go; "Steppe", "Pa-la-ta No. 6", "Three years", "My Life" by A.P. Che-ho-va, and others), the story continues to remain one of the most -the current genres of domestic prose.
Among the poetic works that received the author’s designation “Tale”: “The Bronze Horseman” (“ne -Ter-Burg message”) A.S. Push-ki-na, “De-mon” and “Iz-ma-il-bey” (“Eastern-by-weight”) and “Tam-bov-skaya ka-zna-chese-sha” (“modern news”) M.Yu. Ler-mon-to-va, “Eda” (“Finnish-Land-news”) E.A. Bo-ra-tyn-sko-go, “Maya-kov-sky na-chi-na-et-sya” (“the story in verse”) N.N. Asee-va.
Additional literature:
Belinsky V.G. About the Russian weight and weight of the city of Go-go-lya // Be-linsky V.G. Full collection Op. M., 1953. T. 1; aka. Division of poetry into genera and species // Ibid. M., 1954. T. 5; Russian message of the 19th century: Is-to-ria and pro-ble-ma-ti-ka genre. L., 1973; Russian Soviet message of the 20-30s. L., 1976; Ute-khin N.P. Genres of epic prose. L., 1982; Chi-che-rin A.V. Essays on the history of Russian literary style: in-ve-st-vo-va-tel-naya pro-se and lyric. M., 1985.
This chapter mainly examines the history of the emergence of the genre of the story, its features, problems, typology. It is divided into two paragraphs: the first paragraph is devoted directly to the history of the genre, the second - to the typology of the story of the first third of the 19th century.
Definition of the genre of a story in modern literary criticism
Prose story - one of the genre varieties of the average epic form (along with the novella, short story and new, non-canonical poem), which is distinguished by the following system of constant structural features: 1) in the area of the “event that is being told” - the dominance of the cyclic plot scheme, the situation of testing the hero and the action as a result of ethical choice, the principle of reverse (“mirror”) symmetry in arrangement major events; 2) in the structure of the “event of the narration itself” - its unreflective character, preference for time distance, evaluative focus of the narration on the ethical position of the hero and the possibility of an authoritative summary position, the tendency to rethink the main event and give it an allegorically generalized meaning (a parallel inserted plot or an additional one). analogue in the final); 3) in the aspect of the “zone of image construction” of the hero - the seriousness, unequal value of the depicted world of reality of the author and the reader and at the same time the potential closeness of the horizons of the character and the narrator (can be realized in the finale); correlation of the hero and his fate with known patterns of behavior in traditional situations and, therefore, interpretation of the central event as an “example” (often a temporary deviation from the norm), as well as drawing life lessons from the story told. Poetics: a dictionary of current terms and concepts / Ch. scientific supervisor N.D. Tamarchenko / M., 2008.
The story in modern Russian literary theory is medium in text volume or plot epic prose genre, intermediate between story And novel. In world literature, it is most often not clearly distinguished. In ancient Russian literature, the story was not a genre; this word denoted the works of the most different types, including chronicles ("The Tale of Bygone Years"). In the 18th century, author's poetic stories appeared: I.F. Bogdanovich's "Darling" (1778) - "an ancient story in free verse", "Dobromysl" (late 1780s) - "an ancient story in verse." The satirical "Kaib" (1792) by I. A. Krylov, reminiscent of Voltaire's "oriental stories", is subtitled "oriental story". A.S. Pushkin used the word “story” to his poems: “The Prisoner of the Caucasus” (1820-21), “The Bronze Horseman” (1833). N.V. Gogol's early stories are shorter than his later ones, and Taras Bulba (1835) is comparable in length to some novels of the 1830s. M. Gorky gave his four-volume chronicle “The Life of Klim Samgin. Forty Years” the subtitle “story,” apparently emphasizing, first of all, that this is not a novel, but a narrative in general. In the last third of the 20th century there were writers who distinguished themselves specifically in the story because the middle genre was criticized less than the large one. This is the mature Yu.V.Trifonov, the early Ch.T.Aitmatov, V.G.Rasputin, V.V.Bykov. Literary encyclopedia of terms and concepts / ed. A. N. Nikolyukina / M, 2001.--1600 stb.
The original meaning of the word “story” in our ancient writing is very close to its etymology: a story is what is narrated, represents a complete narrative, therefore it is used freely and widely. "So, the story was often called hagiographic, short story, hagiographic or chronicle works (for example, "The Tale of the Life and Partly Miracles Confession of Blessed Michael...", "The Tale of wise wives"or the well-known "Behold the Tale of Bygone Years", etc.). And vice versa, in the titles of ancient stories one can find the terms "Legend", "Life", "Acts" according to the Latin "gesta", "Word" widespread in the West. , with moralizing comprehension - often “Parable”, later “Butt” (i.e. example).” Vinogradov V V . , Favorite works: About language literary prose. [T. 5]. M., 1980. Nevertheless, the old story is closely intertwined with most other narrative genres. In insufficiently differentiated, “syncretistic” ancient writing, the story is a general genre form in which almost all narrative genres are intertwined: hagiographic, apocryphal, chronicle, military-epic, etc. The story is characterized by a coherent presentation of not one, but a whole series of facts, united by a single core. The central line of development of narrative genres is given by secular stories, which contained within themselves the tendency of the development of fiction. At the same time, the comparative simplicity of social relations and their everyday manifestations and the primitiveness of the cognitive capabilities of literature determined the plot one-linearity, the “one-dimensionality” of ancient works, characteristic of the story. Only in later period In medieval literature, everyday, adventurous stories appear, talking about “ordinary” people, and secular stories based on artistic fiction. This period is a stage in the development of Russian literature when the total mass of narrative genres begins to differentiate more clearly, highlighting, on the one hand, the short story, on the other, the novel, as already clearly defined genres. Such works as “The Tale of Karp Sutulov”, “About Shemyakin’s Court”, etc., which have not yet been terminologically isolated into a separate genre, are essentially typical short stories. With such differentiation of narrative forms, the concept of “story” acquires a new and narrower content, occupying a middle position between the novel and the short story. This is primarily determined by the scale of the volume and complexity of the reality covered by the work. But the size of the work does not play a decisive role in this case: a small story may be shorter than a long story (for example, L. N. Tolstoy’s story “Notes of a Marker” and the story “Blizzard”), while a large one may be longer than a short novel. However, on average, a story is longer than a short story and shorter than a novel; the size of a work is derived from its internal structure. Compared to a story, a story is a more capacious form, therefore the number of characters in it is usually greater than in a story. In the first third of the 19th century, in the dominant style, that is, in the style of various groups of the nobility, predominantly poetic stories and dramatic genres were put forward. Later, in the 30s, when prose began to grow with extreme intensity, the story came to the fore along with the novel. So, Belinsky in the 30s. asserted: “Now all our literature has turned into a novel and a story” (“On the Russian story and Gogol’s stories”). The development of the story is undoubtedly connected with the appeal of literature to “prosaic”, everyday reality (it is not for nothing that Belinsky contrasts the story and novel with the “heroic poem” and ode of classicism), although this reality itself can be perceived by the authors in a romantic aspect (for example, the St. Petersburg stories of N.V. Gogol, a number of stories by V. Odoevsky, Marlinsky, such works by N. Polevoy as “The Bliss of Madness”, “Emma”, etc.). But among the stories of the 30s. There were quite a few with historical themes (romantic stories by Marlinsky, stories by Veltman, etc.). But truly typical of the era, new compared to the previous stage, are stories with a realistic aspiration, addressed to modern, everyday life ("Belkin's Tales" by A. S. Pushkin, bourgeois and petty-bourgeois everyday stories by M. P. Pogodin, I. N. Pavlov, N. A. Polevoy and others; romanticists - V.F. Odoevsky and A.A. Marlinsky). WITH further development Russian literature, in which everything big role the novel begins to play, the story still retains a fairly prominent place. The story retains approximately the same share in the works of our modern writers. M. Gorky made an exceptional contribution to the development of the story with his autobiographical stories(“Childhood”, “In People”, “My Universities”), the structural feature of which is the great importance of the characters surrounding the main character. The story has taken a strong place in the works of a number of other modern writers. It is enough to name such popular works of Soviet literature as “Chapaev” by D.A. Furmanov, “Tashkent is a city of grain” by S.I. Neverov and many others. etc. At the same time, the “unilinearity” of the story, the well-known simplicity of its structure in the literature of socialist realism, does not come at the expense of the depth of social understanding of the reflected phenomena and the aesthetic value of the work. Vinogradov V.V. Plot and style. Comparative historical research, M.: USSR Academy of Sciences, 1963. - P.102
Tale
Tale
STORY is a broad, vague genre term that does not lend itself to a single definition. In its historical development, both the term “story” itself and the material it embraces have traveled a long historical path; It is absolutely impossible to talk about literature as a single genre in ancient and modern literature. The vagueness of the term "P." is complicated by two more specific circumstances. Firstly, for our term "P." there are no exactly corresponding terms in Western European languages: German “Erzahlung”, French “conte”, partly “nouvelle”, English “tale”, “story”, etc., we have both “P.” and "story", partly "fairy tale". The term "P." in its specific opposition to the terms “story” and “novel” - a specifically Russian term (see Roman, Novella). Secondly, P. is one of the oldest literary terms, which changed its meaning at various historical moments. It is also necessary to distinguish between changes in the meaning of the term “P.” from changes in the corresponding phenomena themselves. The historical development of the term reflects, of course (with some delay) the movement of the genre forms. It is no coincidence that in our country the terms “story” and “novel” appear later than “P.”, nor is it accidental that at a certain stage the latter is applied to works that are essentially stories (see Story). So. arr. reveal specifically and fully the content of the concept “P.” and its boundaries can be determined only on the basis of the characteristics of the relevant literary facts in their historical development.
I. THE STORY IN ANCIENT RUSSIAN LITERATURE.- The original meaning of the word "P." in our ancient writing it is very close to its etymology: P. - what is narrated represents a complete narrative. Therefore, its use is very free and wide. Thus, P. often called works of hagiography, short stories, hagiography or chronicles (for example, “The Tale of the Life and Partly of Miracles, the Confession of Blessed Michael...”, “Tales of Wise Wives” or the famous “Behold the Tale of Bygone Years”, etc. .). And vice versa: in the titles of ancient poems we find the terms “Legend”, “Life”, “Acts”, according to the lat. “gesta”, “Word”, when interpreted morally - often “Parable”, later “Butt” (i.e. example). At the same time, ancient poetry is, in essence, closely intertwined with most other narrative genres. In the still insufficiently differentiated, “syncretic” ancient writing, poetry is the most general genre form in which almost all narrative (narrower) genres intersect: hagiographical, apocryphal, chronicle, military-epic, etc. This, however, does not exclude that that some of the phenomena included here occupy a central place in this genre group, others are on its periphery, while others only nominally belong to it. Thus, the kinship with P. is obvious from the chronicle record, religious legend, etc. in their most detailed examples. The story is characterized by a coherent presentation of not one, but a whole series of facts, united by a single core.
However, this formal feature alone is not enough to determine typical samples of ancient P. So, according to compositional structure Close to the typical forms of P. are those lives that give a detailed biography of a “saint” (for example, “The Life of Juliania Lazarevskaya” of the early 17th century, which also stands on the line between church life and secular P.). However, while coming into close contact with literature, sometimes forming hybrid forms with it (for example, “The Life of Alexander Nevsky,” which combines hagiographic and military-epic features), in general, life as a genre, due to its thematic and ideological content, is sharply different from P. even within the same style, both in its literary role and in development trends (although the hagiography is sometimes called P.). The narrowly ecclesiastical orientation of hagiography and the associated irrealistic aspiration, the pressure of the teaching-rhetorical current, the conservatism of forms, etc., led this genre away from the high road of the literary process, while the story paved this high road in the ancient period , if not quantitatively, then qualitatively.
The central line of development of narrative genres is given by secular stories, which, in the conditions of their time, carried within themselves the tendency for the development of fiction as such. The church (predominant) genres alone could not serve all the needs, all aspects of the social practice of the class: the tasks of organizing secular power, versatile class education, and finally, the demands of curiosity and the desire for entertaining reading required more versatile literature. Responding to all these needs, aimed at real life, at its “secular” sides, this literature itself was generally more realistic and far from the asceticism of church writings, although this realism was often very relative; themes historical, geographical, etc. were so permeated with fabulous legendary elements that the works that developed them were sometimes of a very fantastic nature (“Alexandria”, “Devgenie’s Act”, etc.). Their genre form was determined by this function: responding to the need to expand the socio-historical horizons in the artistic reflection of current events, in the literary embodiment of the “hero” of their time, these works, which still syncretically connected artistic, scientific and journalistic moments, unfolded in the forms of narration in the most simple, reflecting in its sequence the natural order of events and therefore, in its size, freely covering a topic of any scale, that is, in the genre forms of ancient stories. At the same time, the comparative simplicity of social relations and their everyday manifestations and the primitiveness of the cognitive capabilities of literature determined the plot one-linearity, the “one-dimensionality” of ancient works, characteristic of literature. All this determined that secular literature in our ancient writing, if not the dominant type of literature due to the predominance of church genres, it in any case carried within itself the broadest possibilities for the actual artistic and literary development of fiction, especially since the indicated compositional simplicity did not at all make the ancient literature “artless,” extra-artistic: on the contrary, we see in it fairly developed system artistic means- stylistic, plot, compositional, which sometimes reach high degree skill. From what has been said, it is also clear that in the system of genres Old Russian writing P. was the broadest, epic genre form (and not the “average” one that it is now), although in practice the size of the ancient P. is very different: the size should not be identified with the breadth of the genre, which represents, as it were, the scale of its reflection of reality, the breadth of coverage of the object , in relation to which the length of the product is a secondary, derivative (and at the same time relative) moment. However, even with regard to the internal structure, the ancient poems were not completely homogeneous, and if the above structural features should be considered characteristic of them, then nevertheless in other examples the ancient literature approaches the type of rudimentary forms of the novel (especially in translated ones like “Alexandria” etc.), in others - to the type of historical essay or memoir (P. about historical events), etc.
Finally, one more phenomenon should be noted, characteristic of ancient literature, as well as a number of other genres of the early stages of literary development (fables, parables, early short stories, fairy tales, song epics, etc.). This is the international distribution of many P., usually anonymous and subjected to numerous revisions in various national and class environments. The worldwide popularity of this kind of works was determined by the interest in them as historical sources (“Alexandria”, “The Trojan History”, etc.) and the broad typology of the social and everyday situations and relationships reflected in them, embodied in their primitive, but easily amenable to various modifications of images (“Bova the prince,” “Barlaam and Joasaph,” etc.). Many of these “transitional stories” gained wide popularity in our country and, maintaining it for centuries, penetrated all layers of literate people, were subjected to new adaptations, democratized, and sometimes even passed into oral tradition, in particular peasant folklore (we note by the way , that the original source of the “transitional P.” sometimes goes back to folklore). The geographical sources of such P. are extremely diverse. They came to us both from Byzantium and later (from the 16th century) - in connection with a new stage in the historical development of Russia - from the West and from the East (rarely directly, usually through Byzantium or the West).
In accordance with the nature of the plot of these poems, which are very diverse, but can still be divided into a number of types, certain compositional schemes have also been developed various types P. The most typical types here are historical (more precisely, pseudo-historical - due to the distortion of facts and the presence of fantasy), adventurous-heroic with love and fantastic motives (directly bordering on an adventurous love story, especially a knightly one) and moralizing (sometimes in contact with church genres - hagiography, etc., sometimes with an everyday novel). The first two (not sharply differentiated at all) are characterized by a composition in the form of a sequential presentation of a series of events and adventures, united by a single core (usually the biography of the hero), while the third is a string of a number of parables introduced into the framing, independently developed plot and motivated by various moments of the latter. Within each of these compositional and thematic types, we find, of course, works that are far from homogeneous in their origin and stylistic nature (and the specific artistic implementation of these schemes is modified in accordance with the style). In connection with the direction and class character of the Russian literary process as a whole, we were translated into early period something that suited the interests of the boyars (squad, clergy), and later (in the 16th-17th centuries) - the nobility, merchants, and partly - the petty bourgeoisie; the composition of the translations changed mainly in the direction of replacing ecclesiastical Byzantine influences with Western secular influences. But this is the basic scheme, which should not be exaggerated: secularism penetrated to us during the period of Byzantine influence, only slightly tinted with religious motives. These are eg. historical and adventure-heroic works like “Alexandria”, “Deeds of Devgenia” and a number of other translated works of the 12th-13th centuries. P. with a military-heroic theme had a significant influence on our original military P. both in terms of genre forms in general, and especially in stylistic terms (metaphors, comparisons, formulas, etc.). Closer to religious literature (biblical, hagiographic) are such moralizing poems as “The Tale of Akira the Wise,” “About Stephanite and Ionilat,” “About Barlaam and Joasaph.” All three of these P. are of eastern origin. The History of the Seven Wise Men, which came to us much later - in the 17th century, is of the same origin and genre character. - already in Western feudal processing. In the XVI-XVII centuries. A new stream of translated literature appeared - Western European, in particular secular literature, of a knightly character. These are P. “About Bova the Prince”, “About Vasily the Golden-Haired”, “The Story of Peter the Golden Keys”, etc., in which love themes, secular motives, etc., and works that stand on the brink of between P. and the novel. Thematically related to these works is “The Tale of Eruslan Lazarevich,” although it differs from them in its eastern, perhaps oral-poetic origin and the more democratic nature of the general style.
Compared to the described types of translated poems, our original poem, despite the literary connection with them, presents significant features of originality in terms of genre and style. This is understandable, because in terms of its artistic and practical orientation and specific function, it occupied a completely different place. While the object of translated literature lay far beyond the surrounding reality, the original secular literature had as its subject precisely this latter. Representing a syncretic unity of fiction and journalism, it responded to current issues of the moment, reflected current or recent events that had not yet lost their urgency. If the translated stories were of a “historical,” fantastic, or tributary character, the original secular stories were distinguished by their political topicality, usually telling about facts of historical significance—wars, struggles of political centers, “turmoil,” etc. Since the main creator of secular literature There was a military-feudal class (boyars, squad), it is clear that at the center of the original secular literature there was a specific medieval narrative genre - military literature. The most remarkable monument of our ancient writing of the end of the 12th century, included in the treasury of world literature, belongs to this genre. - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (see), to a certain extent also a poem. In his genre structure It should be noted a strong lyrical flow. The lyrical element, however, is generally quite characteristic of military poems, which consistently reflected the military events of the 13th-17th centuries. (“P.”, “legends”, “words” “About the Kalik pasture”, “About the arrival of Batu’s army in Ryazan”, “About the life and courage of Alexander Nevsky”, cycle about Mamaev's massacre, in particular “Zadonshchina”, which reveals significant imitation of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “Tale” and “The Tale of the Massacre of Dmitry Donskoy”, later “The History of the Kazan Kingdom”, “The Tale of the Seat of Azov”, etc.). Possessing a certain genre similarity, manifested in the similarity of compositional and stylistic techniques, all these works of such different centuries cannot be considered identical in style, formalizing the ideology of historically different groups of the ruling class, revealing new literary trends.
Along with military narratives, a significant place in our medieval literature was occupied by political and religious-political narratives, which usually used pseudo-historical or legendary plots, sometimes borrowed from translated literature, and sometimes from oral poetry, to promote one or another political idea. These are the stories about Babylonian kingdom and the White Klobuk, reflecting the struggle for the dominance of Moscow and Novgorod, the works of Ivan Peresvetov of the 16th century, embodying the anti-boyar political program service nobility, P. about Peter and Fevronia, etc.
II. A STORY IN THE LITERATURE OF THE TRANSITIONAL AND NEW PERIOD.- Only in the later period of our medieval literature did everyday, adventurous, generally speaking about “ordinary” people and secular poems based on artistic fiction appear in it. Here already is the birth of the genre of poetry in modern meaning this term. This happens only in the 17th century, during a period when, as a result of the aggravation of feudal contradictions, the advancement of the nobility and merchants, the weakening of the role of the church, and the associated everyday restructuring, Russian fiction began to grow, separating itself from church, historical, journalistic literature and freeing itself from the overwhelming authority religious dogma. Based on examples of Western European bourgeois literature, the rising nobility, the progressive part of the merchant class, advanced groups of the petty bourgeoisie create their own, generally realistically oriented works, reflecting new social and everyday relations, develop methods of artistic everyday life (“The Tale of Frol Skobeev”, “ The Tale of Karp Sutulov”, “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”, etc.). Conservative groups, in particular the conservative part of the merchant class, did not escape the influence of new literary trends, producing works that curiously combined elements of everyday realism with conservative religious and legendary motifs and ideas. These are “The Tale of Savva Grudtsin” and P.-poem “On the Mountain of Misfortune.”
This period is that stage in the development of Russian literature when the general, previously insufficiently differentiated mass of narrative genres begins to differentiate more clearly, highlighting, on the one hand, the short story, on the other, the novel, as already clearly defined genres. Such works as “The Tale of Karp Sutulov”, “About Shemyakin’s Court”, etc., which have not yet been terminologically isolated into a separate genre, are essentially typical short stories. "History" of the early 17th century. “About Alexander the Russian nobleman”, “About the sailor Vasily Koriotsky”, etc. with the same reason can be attributed to the embryonic forms of the novel, as well as to P.
Complication social life as bourgeois relations grow, the expansion and deepening of the artistic and cognitive possibilities of literature - all this determines the coming to the fore in the field of artistic prose of the short story (short story) as a form testifying to the artist’s ability to distinguish from the general flow everyday life a separate moment, and the novel as a form that presupposes the ability to reflect a complex of various aspects of reality in their multifaceted connections. In the presence of such differentiation of narrative forms, the concept of “story” acquires a new and narrower content, occupying that position midway between the novel and the short story, which is usually indicated by literary theorists. At the same time, of course, the very nature of P. in new literature changes and is revealed in different relationships. P.'s middle place between a story and a novel is primarily determined by the scale of the volume and complexity of the reality covered by the work: a story speaks about a single life event, a novel provides a whole complex of intertwining plot lines. P. singles out any one line of reality, but, unlike a story, traces it throughout its natural course in a number of moments that determine it. The size of this work does not play a decisive role in this: a small P. may be shorter than a long story (for example, L. Tolstoy’s P. “Notes of a Marker” and the story “Blizzard”), a large P. may be longer than a short novel. However, on average, in the general mass, P. is longer than a story and shorter than a novel; the size of a work is derived from its internal structure. In connection with the basic forms of attitude to reality in poetry, the story and the novel, corresponding ones are developed and, of course, modified in each this style reception systems. In general, compared to short stories and novels, P. is characterized by a relatively slow development of action, an even pace of narration, a more or less even distribution of plot tension over a number of moments, relative simplicity of composition, etc. Compared to a story, P. is a more capacious form, hence the number of characters in it is usually greater than in the story. In accordance with this, the very outline of the images in P. is more or less different from what we see in the story and in the novel. The revelation of a character over a long period of time with a one-line plot determines the greater versatility of the depiction of his character compared to the story. Each of the traits just listed is not immutable and absolutely obligatory for P.; When comparing poetry with a story and a novel based on the material of individual samples, it is necessary to take into account the stylistic relationship of the latter. The entire complex of these characteristics characterizes the central phenomena of this genre group, while on its periphery we find various kinds of transitional and combined forms that do not allow the establishment of impenetrable partitions between adjacent genres. At the same time, within the narrative genre group we find many varieties of the new P., to which the Crimea gravitates to varying degrees various styles and in which it is designed more or less differently artistic image(P. everyday, psychological, historical, etc.).
The place occupied by P. in new Russian literature is different. In the 2nd half of the 18th century. And the first third of the 19th century. in the dominant style, that is, in the style of various groups of the nobility, predominantly poetic and dramatic genres are put forward. Only for conservative noble sentimentalism, with its call for simplicity and naturalness, is poetry a characteristic genre (Karamzin). Later, in the 30s, when prose began to grow with extreme intensity, P. So, Belinsky in the 30s came to the fore along with the novel. asserted: “Now all our literature has turned into a novel and a story” (“On the Russian Story and Gogol’s Stories”). The development of the story is undoubtedly connected with the appeal of literature to “prosaic”, everyday reality (it is not for nothing that Belinsky contrasts P. and the novel with the “heroic poem” and ode to classicism), although this reality itself can be perceived by the authors in a romantic aspect (for example, Gogol’s St. Petersburg stories, a number stories by V. Odoevsky, Marlinsky, such works by N. Polevoy as “The Bliss of Madness”, “Emma”, etc.). Among the stories of the 30s. there were many with historical themes (romantic stories by Marlinsky, stories by Veltman, etc.). However, truly typical of the era, new in comparison with the previous stage, are stories with a realistic aspiration, addressed to modern, often everyday life (“Belkin’s Tales” by Pushkin, bourgeois and petty-bourgeois everyday stories by Pogodin, N. Pavlov, N. Polevoy, Stepanov and others ; among the romantics - V. Odoevsky and Marlinsky - they have a similar “secular story” dedicated to the psychology and everyday life of the “salon”).
With the further development of Russian literature, in which the novel begins to play an increasingly important role, P. still retains a fairly prominent place. P. is intensively used as the most “artless”, simple and at the same time broad form by writers of everyday life. Typical examples of such household P. were given, for example. Grigorovich (“Anton Goremyka” and others); classic realists (Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, Chekhov, etc.) give predominantly psychological depictions, with greater or lesser disclosure of the social conditioning and typicality of the phenomena depicted. So. arr. throughout the 19th century. P. is represented by almost all the major prose writers (Pushkin, Gogol, Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Chekhov, Korolenko, etc.), as well as a number of minor ones. The story retains approximately the same share in the works of our modern writers. An exceptional contribution to P. literature was made by M. Gorky with his autobiographical stories (“Childhood”, “In People”, “My Universities”), the structural feature of which is the great significance of the characters surrounding the main character. P. has taken a strong place in the works of a number of other modern writers, serving to design a wide variety of thematic complexes. It is enough to name such popular works of Soviet literature as “Chapaev” by Furmanov, “Tashkent is a city of grain” by Neverov, “Blast Furnace” by Lyashko and many others. etc. That special section in which real life is reflected by P. due to its structural features, saves space in Soviet literature. At the same time, the “unilinearity” of P., the well-known simplicity of its structure in the literature of socialist realism, does not at all come at the expense of the depth of social understanding of the reflected phenomena and the aesthetic value of the work. Such examples of proletarian literature, such as the above-mentioned works of M. Gorky, provide clear confirmation of this position.
In Western European literature, which has long been highly developed and diverse in genre, we find an even greater predominance of short stories and novels, but there a number of major authors (Mérimée, Flaubert, Maupassant, Dickens, Hoffmann, etc.) gave works that differ characteristic features P. Bibliography:
Piksanov N.K., Starorusskaya povest', M., 1923; Orlov A.S., On the peculiarities of the form of Russian military stories, M., 1902; Sipovsky V., Essays on the history of the Russian novel, vol. I, no. I-II, St. Petersburg, 1909-1910; Stepanov N., Tale of the 30s, in collection. “An Old Story”, Leningrad, 1929; Orlov A.S., Translated stories of feudal Rus' and the Moscow state of the XIII-XVII centuries, ed. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Leningrad, 1934; see also in general courses on the history of ancient literature. Special detailed works about P. as a genre based on the material new literature not available.
Literary encyclopedia. - At 11 t.; M.: Publishing House of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Fritsche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .
Tale
genre epic kind of literature. From a formal point of view, it is between novel(large form) and story (small form). These forms differ from each other in the volume of text, the number of characters and problems raised, the complexity of the conflict, etc. In the story, the main load falls not on dynamic, but on static components: it is not so much the movement that is important plot(which is typical, for example, for a novel), how many different kinds of descriptions there are: characters, places of action, the psychological state of a person. In the story, episodes often follow one after another according to the principle of a chronicle; there is no internal connection between them or it is weakened. This is how many Russian buildings are built. story - “Notes from the Dead House” by F. M. Dostoevsky, “The Enchanted Wanderer” N.S. Leskova, “Steppe” A.P. Chekhov, “Village” by I. A. Bunina.
Also, the story is one of the genres of ancient Russian literature. It should be distinguished modern story, which emerged as a genre in the 19th century, and ancient Russian story, the name of which indicated primarily its epic nature. The story had to tell about something (“The Tale of Bygone Years”, “The Tale of Akira the Wise”), in contrast to the more lyrical words.
In the literature of the 19th–20th centuries. The story gravitates towards the novel form, but retains some genre and thematic features. So, for example, the free connection between episodes leads to the fact that the story is often structured as a biography or autobiography: “Childhood”, “Adolescence”, “Youth” by L.N. Tolstoy, “The Life of Arsenyev” by I. A. Bunin, etc.
Center art world a story is not a plot, but an unfolding of the diversity of the world, an expansion of the picture in time and space. So, for example, in the story “Old World Landowners” by N.V. Gogol given detailed description all the details of an elderly person's life married couple– Afanasy Ivanovich and Pulcheria Ivanovna: “But the most remarkable thing in the house was the singing doors. As soon as morning came, the singing of doors could be heard throughout the house. I can’t say why they sang: whether the rusty hinges were to blame or the mechanic who made them hid some secret in them, but the remarkable thing is that each door had its own special voice: the door leading to the bedroom sang in the thinnest treble; the door to the dining room wheezed with a bass voice; but the one that was in the hallway made some strange rattling and at the same time moaning sound, so that, listening to it, one could finally hear very clearly: “Fathers, I’m chilling!” For this, a narrator is introduced into the story, whose change of impressions creates opportunity to show different aspects of life. The voice of the author or narrator can play a role in a story regardless of how realistically it is expressed. Thus, literary scholars believe that the author’s voice plays a very important role in the story “The Life of Klim Samgin” by M. Gorky(despite its size, the author himself defines it as a story), although formally it is poorly expressed.
In Russian In literature, the term “story” is often used to designate a cycle of works united by a common theme: for example, “Belkin’s Tale” by A.S. Pushkin, “Petersburg Tales” by N.V. Gogol. In this case, the meaning of the word “story” actualizes its ancient Russian connotations: a story as something told by someone, one of the oldest oral genres.
In modern literature, the story is a common genre, but the boundaries between the story and the novel are increasingly blurred, reduced to a difference only in volume.
Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .
Tale
STORY- genus epic poetry, in Russian literary usage usually contrasted with the novel, as more major genre, and the story, as a smaller genre. However, the use of these three names by individual writers is so varied and even random that it is extremely difficult to assign each of them, as precise terminological designations, to specific epic genres. Pushkin calls the stories both “Dubrovsky” and “ Captain's Daughter", which can easily be classified as novels, as well as the short "Undertaker", part of the cycle of "Belkin's Tales". We are accustomed to considering “Rudina” as a novel, and it appears among six novels in Turgenev’s collected works, but in the 1856 edition it was included by the author himself in the composition of “Tales and Stories.” Dostoevsky gives his “Eternal Husband” the subtitle “story,” while more short works he calls “stories” (“The Mistress”, “Weak Heart”, “Crocodile”) and even novels (“Poor People”, “White Nights”). Thus, it is not possible to differentiate the terms, as well as the genres they denote, only according to the literary tradition associated with them. And yet there is every reason for establishing internal boundaries within the generic concept implied behind all these names. Easier to separate from the concept of a story novel(because this is an international term), and about it, see a special article. As for other epic genres, to which the concept of a story can at least be broadly associated, it is more convenient to talk about them together in this article.
Our word "story" does not have an exact equivalent in other languages. The closest thing to it is the German “Geschichte”, which is also used very widely. Modern French “conte” (besides its correspondence in certain cases to our “fairy tale”), more closely conveys our word story, because by “conte” a modern Frenchman never means, for example, a novel. On the contrary, in the Middle Ages “conte” was used to designate large epic works(for example, “The Tale of the Graal” - “Conte del Graal”). No less confusion of word usage is associated with the term “ short story" In Italian, French, German languages By the words “novella”, “nouvelle”, “Novelle”, as in our country by “novella”, they mean a kind of short story. On the contrary, the corresponding word in English"novel" usually means novel, and the British call a story or short story “tale” or simply “short story”, i.e. short story. In view of the vagueness of our term “story”, and the fact that in one of its facets the concept of “story” almost merges with the concept of “novel”, with which more or less definite content is still associated in poetics, it seems convenient to outline, first of all, genre characteristics for the concept opposite, so to speak, polar to the novel, designating it as a “story” or “short story”. By story we can understand those intermediate genres that do not exactly fit either a novel or a short story. There are fundamental reasons for this. The fact is that the internal boundaries in this area can never be established with complete clarity: one genre is too related to another and too easily passes into another. And in this case, it is advisable to start from the extreme points, heading towards the middle, and not vice versa, because only in this way will we achieve the greatest clarity. Of the two words “story” and “short story”, as a term, it is preferable to use the second one, already due to the fact that in our language a smaller variety of meanings is associated with it, but for last years This word entered the scientific use of theoretical poetics as a technical term. And in the West, the theory of the story is directed along two main channels: the theory of the novel and the theory of the short story.
An attempt to define a novel only by external dimensions does not achieve the goal. Such an external quantitative definition was given by Edgar Poe, limiting the reading time of the novella to “from half an hour to one or two hours.” A more acceptable transformation of this formula is from W. H. Hudson (An Introduction to the study of Literature. London 1915), namely, that a short story should be easily read “in one sitting” (at a single sitting). But Hudson believes that this feature is not enough. As much as a short story differs from a novel in length, it must be distinguished from it in its theme, plan, structure, in a word, in content and composition. The definition of a short story from the point of view of content, which has become a classic, was written down by Eckerman the words Goethe: a short story is a story about one extraordinary incident (“Was ist eine Novelle anders als eine sich ereignete unerhörte Begebenheit?”) Developing this definition of a short story as a narrative about an isolated and complete event, Spielhagen It also puts forward the sign that the short story deals with already established, ready-made characters; by a combination of circumstances they are led to a conflict in which they are forced to reveal their essence. It is easy to see that such characteristics do not exhaust the essence of the object. Not only an extraordinary, but also an ordinary incident can be successfully used as the basis of a short story, as we see, for example, in Chekhov, and sometimes in Maupassant, these masters of the modern short story; on the other hand, it is obvious that the short story also allows for the well-known development characters, i.e. the conflict that Spielhagen speaks of can not only be caused by already defined characters, but also, in turn, affect their transformation, their development. (Compare at least such an undoubted short story as Pushkin’s “The Station Agent”). In connection with this kind of considerations, the definition of a short story was transferred to another plane. So, Müller-Freienfels(“Poetics”, Russian translation published in Kharkov in 1923) seeks the essence of the stylistic difference between the novel and the short story in the method of presentation and transmission (Art des Vortrags). A novella has a completely different pace, a different rhythm, a different meter than a novel. The novel is designed for book reading, the novella is much more suitable for oral storytelling, or at least for reading aloud. The very fact that short story writers often introduce a narrator into the narrative, into whose mouth the main story is put, shows that the short story has not lost touch with the oral narrative to this day. On the contrary, novels are often presented in the form of diaries, letters, chronicles, in words in the form written, but not spoken. From here the norms of the novella are derived, as the requirements of its imaginary listeners: compositional conciseness, fast pace, tension of action. All this brings the short story, much more than a novel, closer to drama. And, indeed, short stories lend themselves much more easily to dramatic treatment than novels. (Cf., for example, Shakespearean dramas, the plots of which are borrowed from short stories). The theorist of modern German neoclassicism establishes a similar closeness of the short story to drama Paul Ernst in his article on the technique of the short story. The most essential element in a short story, as in a drama, is its structure, composition (Aufbau). The novel is half-art (Halbkunst), drama is complete art(Vollkunst), the same goes for the short story. A novel allows for various kinds of digressions; a short story must be concise, tense, and concentrated.
All these definitions, which could be multiplied by a number of others, oscillate between considering the short story as an artistic norm from two main points of view. Some start from limiting the concept of a short story according to material characteristics, according to the characteristics of its content, theme, plot, others - from limiting it according to formal, stylistic characteristics. But if stylistic features provide more solid ground for genre definition, this does not mean that the question of the specificity of the novel’s content should be ignored altogether. In fact, the plot, which is the basis of the short story, like any poetic material, already contains some formal features that can influence the novelistic transformation of this material and even determine the stylistic structure of this or that type of short story. A complete description and definition of the short story should speak of the material and formal unity in it. A perhaps too general definition of a novella, but one that is widely applicable, would be: short organic story. Brevity also indicates external dimensions, which still do not have to be eliminated altogether, but in combination with the requirement organic the concept of brevity leads to the requirement internal savings in attracting and processing narrative material. In other words: components (i.e. constituent elements compositions) short stories must be All functionally related to her single organic core. The content of a short story can be grouped primarily around a single event, incident, adventure, regardless of the degree of its “extraordinaryness”; but also the unity of psychological order, character, or characters, regardless of the fact that these characters, whether ready-made, unchanged, or developing throughout the short story, can underlie its composition.
The first type of short story can be generally described as an adventure short story, adventure story. This is the original, “classical” type, from which Goethe proceeded in his definition. We see it mainly in the Middle Ages and in the novella of the Renaissance. These are, for the most part, the short stories of the Decameron. An example of such a novella in its pure form in our country can be at least Pushkin’s “Blizzard”. The second type of short story can also be very generally characterized as psychological novella. Boccaccio's Griselda already fits this definition. The adventurous element here is subordinated to the psychological. If the “adventure” plays a big role here, then it still serves a different principle, which organizes the short story: in the “adventure” the personality, character of the hero or heroine is revealed, which is the main interest of the story. These are the already mentioned “Station Warden” and “Undertaker” in “Belkin’s Tales”. In a modern short story it is rarely possible to strictly differentiate both genres. Entertaining story rarely does without a psychological characteristic, and conversely, one characteristic without detecting it in action, in an act, in an event does not yet create a short story (like, for example, most of the stories in “Notes of a Hunter”). When examining a short story, we first of all have to consider in it the relationship between one and the other beginning. So, if in Maupassant we very often observe adventurism in the composition of his short stories, then in our Chekhov the psychological components usually outweigh. In Pushkin’s “The Shot” and “The Queen of Spades” both principles are in organic balance.
Turning now to the genre of “story”, as intermediate between the short story and the novel, we can say that this group should include those narrative works in which, on the one hand, there is no complete unification of all components around a single organic center, and on the other hand , there is also no broad development of the plot, in which the narrative focuses not on one central event, but on a whole series of events experienced by one or several characters and covering, if not the entire, then a significant part of the life of the hero, and often several heroes (as in “ War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Demons”, “The Brothers Karamazov”, etc.). Establishing standards for composition for a story is therefore much more difficult, and in principle makes no sense. The story is the most free and least responsible epic genre, and that is why it has become so widespread in modern times. The novel requires a deep knowledge of life, life experience and broad creative intuition, the short story requires special technical mastery, this is artistic the form of creativity par excellence. But this does not mean that the story is not subject to aesthetic examination. Its composition and style can represent quite a few characteristic, individual and typical features. It is also the subject of poetics. But just study the story, how artistic genre, we always have to, based on the standards that can be established for a novel and for a short story. The combination and transformation of these opposite (polar) norms is the specificity of the story as a special genre. Turgenev with his masterpieces: “Faust”, “First Love”, “Spring Waters” should be considered the master of the story in Russian literature.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
For definitions and characteristics of narrative genres, see general textbooks on poetics, especially: R. Lehman. Poetik. 2. Aufl. München 1919; Rich. M. Meyer, Deutsche Stilislik. 2. Aufl. München 1913; Müller-Freienfels, Poelik 2. Aufl: Leipzig, 1921. (there is a Russian translation, see above); W. H. Hudson, An Introduction to the study of Literature. 2 ed. London 1915. Also: H. Keiter und T. Kellen, Der Roman. Theorie und Technik des Romans und der erzählenden Dichtung, nebst einer, geschichtlichen Einleitung. 4 Aufl. Es en 1921, Especially on the theory of the novella, see the article by Paul Ernst, Zur Technik der Novelle in his book Der Weg zur Form. 2 Aufl. Berlin 1915. In Russian. language: M. Petrovsky, Composition of a short story by Maupasant. Magazine “Nachalo”, No. 1, P. 1921; A. Reformatsky, Experience in the analysis of novelistic composition. M. 1922. Wed. also: V. Fischer. A story and a novel by Turgenev, in the collection “Turgenev’s Work”. M. 1920. For guidance on the history of narrative genres and plots, you can point out J. C. Dunlop, History of prose fiction. A new edition by H. Wilson. V. 1-2. London 1896.
Dictionary of literary terms - STORY, a prose genre of unstable volume (mostly average between a novel and a short story), gravitating towards newsreel story, reproducing the natural course of life. The plot, devoid of intrigue, is centered around the main character... ... Modern encyclopedia
A prose genre of unstable volume (mostly intermediate between a novel and a short story), gravitating toward a chronicle plot that reproduces the natural course of life. The plot, devoid of intrigue, is centered around the main character, personality and... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
TALE, and, many. and, to her, wives. 1. Literary narrative work with a plot less complex than in the novel by 1. P. Pushkin “Blizzard”. 2. Same as narration (obsolete). | decrease story, and, wives (to 1 value; simple). Dictionary… … Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary
story- story, plural stories, gen. stories and stories... Dictionary of difficulties of pronunciation and stress in modern Russian language
Cover of one of Leo Tolstoy's stories. The story is a prose genre that does not have a stable volume and occupies an intermediate place between the novel, on the one hand ... Wikipedia
- (English tale, French nouvelle, histoire, German Geschichte, Erzähiung) one of the epic genre forms fiction; its understanding has changed historically. Initially, in the history of ancient Russian. literature, the term "P." used... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
One of the most common, ancient and beloved literary genres was and remains a story. The story belongs to the general prose genre, which does not have a stable and clearly defined boundary of volume, and therefore occupies an intermediate position between the story and short story on the one hand and the novel on the other. The story gravitates toward a plot described in chronological order, a plot that reproduces the natural course of events. This definition of a story as a literary genre is most characteristic of traditions Russian literary studies. In Western literary criticism, the genres that define the story are the novel and the short novel.
The origins of the literary story.
In the domestic literary tradition genre definition The story originates from the ancient Russian attitude of the narrator himself - the author - to the events taking place around him. The term “story” originates from the Old Russian verb “to know” or “to tell.” The Old Russian meaning of the phrase - “news about an event” - directly points to the fact that the genre of the story has absorbed legends, epics, information about events that once happened, which the narrator himself heard about or saw with his own eyes.
When writing the first, ancient Russian stories, storytellers primarily relied on the most important sources for them - ancient church chronicles. The most important such source was the Tale of Bygone Years, created by the chronicler and monk Nestor. Studying it, many authors subsequently wrote such works as: “The Tale of Batu’s Invasion of Ryazan”, “The Tale of Saints Peter and Fevronia”, “The Tale of the Battle of Kalka”, whose irrefutable authenticity and value-cultural dominant could not raise doubts among contemporaries.
Storyline of the story
The storyline in almost any story is centered around the main characters, the personality and fate of each of them, which are revealed in a series of numerous events described. In the story, side plot lines are usually absent, which is a distinguishing feature of the story from the novel. The narrative, conducted in accordance with a clearly defined chronological period, is concentrated on a narrow period of space and time. The story can describe colocation, the lives of different people, various historical events, etc.
Very often, the story is built around the “topic of the day.” The author himself, who is a contemporary and witness to this “malice,” can fully reveal its essence and partially express his attitude towards it through the lips and actions of his literary heroes. The title of the story is very often associated with the name and image of the character in it: “Station Warden” A.S. Pushkin, “Man in a Case” by A.P. Chekhov, “ Poor Lisa» N.M. Karamzin, etc.
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