Contents of works of epic poetry and drama. Literary genres: epic, lyric poetry, lyric epic, drama

One of the founders of Russian literary criticism was V.G. Belinsky. And although serious steps were taken in developing the concept back in antiquity literary kind(Aristotle), it was Belinsky who owned the scientifically based theory of three literary genera, which you can get acquainted with in detail by reading Belinsky’s article “The Division of Poetry into Genera and Types.”

There are three types of fiction: epic(from Greek Epos, narrative), lyrical(a lyre was a musical instrument, accompanied by chanting poems) and dramatic(from Greek Drama, action).

When presenting this or that subject to the reader (meaning the subject of conversation), the author chooses different approaches to it:

First approach: in detail tell about the object, about the events associated with it, about the circumstances of the existence of this object, etc.; in this case, the author’s position will be more or less detached, the author will act as a kind of chronicler, narrator, or choose one of the characters as the narrator; the main thing in such a work will be the story, the narration about the subject, the leading type of speech will be precisely narration; this kind of literature is called epic;

The second approach: you can tell not so much about the events, but about the impressed, which they produced on the author, about those feelings which they called; image inner world, experiences, impressions and will relate to the lyrical genre of literature; exactly experience becomes the main event of the lyrics;

Third approach: you can portray item in action, show him on stage; introduce to the reader and viewer of it surrounded by other phenomena; this kind of literature is dramatic; In a drama, the author's voice will be heard least often - in stage directions, that is, the author's explanations of the actions and remarks of the characters.

Look at the table and try to remember its contents:

Types of fiction

EPOS	DRAMA	LYRICS
(Greek - narrative) story about events, the fate of the heroes, their actions and adventures, a depiction of the external side of what is happening (even feelings are shown from their external manifestation). The author can directly express his attitude to what is happening.	(Greek - action) image events and relationships between characters on the stage(a special way of writing text). The direct expression of the author's point of view in the text is contained in the stage directions.	(from the name of the musical instrument) experience events; depiction of feelings, inner world, emotional state; the feeling becomes the main event.

Each type of literature in turn includes a number of genres.

GENRE is a historically established group of works united common features content and form. Such groups include novels, stories, poems, elegies, short stories, feuilletons, comedies, etc. In literary criticism the concept is often introduced literary type, this is a broader concept than genre. In this case, the novel will be considered a type of fiction, and genres will be various types of novels, for example, adventure, detective, psychological, parable novel, dystopian novel, etc.

Examples of genus-species relationships in the literature:

• Genus: dramatic; view: comedy; genre: sitcom.
• Genus: epic; view: story; genre: fantastic story etc.

Genres being categories historical, appear, develop and over time “leave” from the “active stock” of artists depending on the historical era: ancient lyricists did not know the sonnet; in our time, the ode, born in antiquity and popular in the 17th-18th centuries, has become an archaic genre; 19th century romanticism brought to life detective literature etc.

Consider the following table, which presents the types and genres related to the various types of word art:

Genera, types and genres of artistic literature

EPOS		DRAMA		LYRICS
People's	Author's	Folk	Author's	Folk	Author's
Myth Poem (epic): Heroic Strogovoinskaya Fabulous- legendary Historical... Fairy tale Bylina Thought Legend Tradition Ballad Parable Small genres: proverbs sayings puzzles nursery rhymes...	EpicNovel: Historical Fantastic. Adventurous Psychological R.-parable Utopian Social... Small genres: Tale Story Novella Fable Parable Ballad Lit. fairy tale...	A game Ritual Folk drama Raek Nativity scene...	Tragedy Comedy: provisions, characters, masks... Drama: philosophical social historical social-philosophical Vaudeville Farce Tragifarce...	Song	Oh yeah Hymn Elegy Sonnet Message Madrigal Romance Rondo Epigram...

Modern literary criticism also highlights fourth, a related type of literature that combines the features of epic and lyrical birth: lyric-epic, which refers to poem. And indeed, by telling the reader a story, the poem manifests itself as an epic; Revealing to the reader the depth of feelings, the inner world of the person telling this story, the poem manifests itself as lyricism.

In the table you came across the expression “small genres”. Epic and lyrical works are divided into large and small genres in to a greater extent by volume. Large ones include an epic, a novel, a poem, and small ones include a story, story, fable, song, sonnet, etc.

Read V. Belinsky’s statement about the genre of the story:

If a story, according to Belinsky, is “a leaf from the book of life,” then, using his metaphor, one can figuratively define a novel from a genre point of view as “a chapter from the book of life,” and a story as “a line from the book of life.”

Small epic genres to which the story relates is "intense" in terms of content prose: the writer, due to the small volume, does not have the opportunity to “spread his thoughts along the tree”, to get carried away detailed descriptions, transfers, reproduce a large number of events in detail, but the reader often needs to tell a lot.

The story is characterized by the following features:

• small volume;
• The plot is most often based on one event, the rest are only plotted by the author;
• a small number of characters: usually one or two central characters;
• the author is interested in a specific topic;
• one main issue is being resolved, the remaining issues are “derived” from the main one.

So,
STORY- it's small prose work with one or two main characters, dedicated to depicting a single event. Somewhat more voluminous story, but the difference between a story and a story is not always clear: some people call A. Chekhov’s work “The Duel” a short story, and some call it a big story. The following is important: as the critic E. Anichkov wrote at the beginning of the twentieth century, " it is the person’s personality that is at the center of the stories, not a whole group of people."

The rise of Russian short prose begins in the 20s of the 19th century, which gave excellent examples of short epic prose, including the undisputed masterpieces of Pushkin (“Belkin’s Tales”, “ Queen of Spades") and Gogol ("Evenings on a farm near Dikanka", St. Petersburg stories), romantic short stories by A. Pogorelsky, A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, V. Odoevsky and others. In the second half of the 19th century, short epic works by F. Dostoevsky were created ("Dream funny man", "Notes from the Underground", N. Leskova ("Lefty", "The Stupid Artist", "Lady Macbeth Mtsensk district"), I. Turgenev ("Hamlet of the Shchigrovsky District", "King Lear of the Steppes", "Ghosts", "Notes of a Hunter"), L. Tolstoy ("Prisoner of the Caucasus", "Hadji Murat", "Cossacks", Sevastopol stories) , A. Chekhov as the greatest master short story, works by V. Garshin, D. Grigorovich, G. Uspensky and many others.

The twentieth century also did not remain in debt - and stories by I. Bunin, A. Kuprin, M. Zoshchenko, Teffi, A. Averchenko, M. Bulgakov appear... Even such recognized lyricists as A. Blok, N. Gumilyov, M. Tsvetaeva “they stooped to despicable prose,” in the words of Pushkin. It can be argued that at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries the small epic genre took over leading position in Russian literature.

And for this reason alone, one should not think that the story raises some minor problems and touches on shallow topics. Form story concise, and the plot is sometimes uncomplicated and concerns, at first glance, simple, as L. Tolstoy said, “natural” relationships: there is simply nowhere for the complex chain of events in the story to unfold. But this is precisely the task of the writer, to enclose a serious and often inexhaustible subject of conversation in a small space of text.

If the plot of the miniature I. Bunin "Muravsky Way", consisting of only 64 words, captures only a few moments of the conversation between the traveler and the coachman in the middle of the endless steppe, then the plot of the story A. Chekhov "Ionych" would be enough for a whole novel: the artistic time of the story covers almost a decade and a half. But it doesn’t matter to the author what happened to the hero at each stage of this time: it is enough for him to “snatch” several “links”-episodes from the hero’s life chain, similar friends on each other like drops of water, and the whole life of Doctor Startsev becomes extremely clear to both the author and the reader. “As you live one day of your life, you will live your whole life,” Chekhov seems to be saying. At the same time, the writer, reproducing the situation in the house of the most “cultured” family in the provincial town of S., can focus all his attention on the knocking of knives from the kitchen and the smell of fried onions ( artistic details! ), but to talk about several years of a person’s life as if they never happened at all, or as if it was a “passing”, uninteresting time: “Four years have passed”, “Several more years have passed”, as if it is not worth wasting time and paper for the image of such a trifle...

The depiction of a person’s daily life, devoid of external storms and shocks, but in a routine that forces a person to forever wait for happiness that never comes, became the cross-cutting theme of A. Chekhov’s stories, which determined the further development of Russian short prose.

Historical upheavals, of course, dictate other themes and subjects to the artist. M. Sholokhov in the cycle of Don stories he talks about terrible and wonderful human destinies during the time of revolutionary upheaval. But the point here is not so much in the revolution itself, but in eternal problem the struggle of a person with himself, in the eternal tragedy of the collapse of the old familiar world, which humanity has experienced many times. And therefore Sholokhov turns to plots that have long been rooted in world literature, depicting private human life as if in the context of the world legendary history. Yes, in the story "Mole" Sholokhov uses a plot as ancient as the world about a duel between father and son, not recognized by each other, which we meet in Russian epics and epics. ancient Persia and medieval Germany... But if ancient epic explains the tragedy of a father who killed his son in battle by the laws of fate, which is not subject to man’s control, then Sholokhov talks about the problem of a person’s choice of his life path, a choice that determines all subsequent events and ultimately makes one a beast in human form and the other an equal greatest heroes of the past.

When studying topic 5, you should read those works of fiction that can be considered within the framework of this topic, namely:

• A. Pushkin. The stories "Dubrovsky", "Blizzard"
• N. Gogol. The stories "The Night Before Christmas", "Taras Bulba", "The Overcoat", "Nevsky Prospekt".
• I.S. Turgenev. Tale " Noble Nest"; "Notes of a Hunter" (2-3 stories of your choice); story "Asya"
• N.S. Leskov. Stories "Lefty", "Stupid Artist"
• L.N. Tolstoy. Stories "After the Ball", "The Death of Ivan Ilyich"
• M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Fairy tales " The wise minnow", "Bogatyr", "Bear in the Voivodeship"
• A.P. Chekhov. Stories “Jumping”, “Ionych”, “Gooseberry”, “About Love”, “Lady with a Dog”, “Ward Number Six”, “In the Ravine”; other stories of your choice
• I.A.Bunin. Stories and stories “Mr. from San Francisco”, “Sukhodol”, “Easy Breath”, “Antonov Apples”, “Dark Alleys” by A.I. Kuprin. The story "Olesya", the story "Garnet Bracelet"
• M. Gorky. Stories “Old Woman Izergil”, “Makar Chudra”, “Chelkash”; collection "Untimely Thoughts"
• A.N. Tolstoy. The story "Viper"
• M. Sholokhov. Stories "Mole", "Alien Blood", "The Fate of Man";
• M. Zoshchenko. Stories "Aristocrat", "Monkey Language", "Love" and others of your choice
• A.I. Solzhenitsyn. The story "Matrenin's yard"
• V. Shukshin. Stories “I Believe!”, “Boots”, “Space” nervous system and a lot of fat", "Pardon me, madam!", "Stalled"

Before completing task 6, refer to the dictionary and establish exact value concept with which you have to work.

Recommended literature for work 4:

• Grechnev V.Ya. Russian story of the end XIX - early XX century. - L., 1979.
• Zhuk A.A. Russian prose second half of the 19th century century. - M.: Education, 1981.
• Literary encyclopedic dictionary. - M., 1987.
• Literary studies: Reference materials. - M., 1988.
• Russian story XIX century: History and problems of the genre. - L., 1973.

Lesson 1

Main types of literature: Epic, lyric, drama. The richness and diversity of their genres.

The purpose of the lesson:

repeat literary terms with students;

formation of the concept of three types of literature.

updating knowledge of literature acquired in grades 5-6.

Equipment:

closed recording of the lesson topic on the board;

table on the board;

epigraph: “Literature is the art of words”

DURING THE CLASSES

1.Organizational moment

2. Determining the topic of the lesson

Survey “Name literary term according to the description."

The most general, historically stable division of literary works in accordance with three forms of depiction of the human personality (genus).

Historical appearance literary work(genre).

A type of literature that reflects the experiences, feelings, thoughts of the author of a literary work (lyrics).

A type of literature that tells about events and characters (epic).

One of the types of fiction in which the events that happen to the characters, their feelings and experiences are reflected in actions and deeds and embodied on stage (drama).

What do you think the lesson will be about? (Students open their notebooks and write down the topic of the lesson)

3. Studying new material.

Teacher's word

All fiction is a huge country. Her life is a reflection of human life.

Literary works are usually divided into three main types (or, in other words, types): epic, lyric and drama. This division goes back to the times Ancient Greece and was first outlined by the philosopher Aristotle in his treatise “On the Art of Poetry” (IV century BC).

M/u.: table on the board

Types of literature

Epic Lyrics Drama

Each of you has some idea of ​​the three main types of literature, but those who have never thought about the meaning of this division often have a simplified, not entirely correct concept of it. It seems to many that lyrics are necessarily poetry, with rhythm and rhyme, drama is what is played on stage, and epic is any artistic prose text. However, a slightly more sophisticated reader knows that dramas are also in verse, and ancient poems - for example, the Iliad and the Odyssey, are called “epic”. But sometimes in prose there are short stories in which there are almost no events, and main role plays the mood. The Russian writer I. S. Turgenev called his cycle of stories written in this way “Poems in Prose.”

TaskEpic (in Greek “epic” means narrative) - to describe events. In an epic work, the author's view is an outside view. For a very long time the epic did not know how and did not undertake to describe events inner life a person, but even when such descriptions appear, the author, in order to talk about his experiences, must take a step to the side and look at his inner state through someone else’s, detached eyes.

An epic is a co-reflection between the narrator and his listeners (and later readers) about the meaning of the events that took place. Reflection requires a calm, sober view of things. It is often said: “Told with epic calm.” In fact, Homer, for example, with equal thoroughness, “without lowering his eyes,” talks about how the Cyclops milks his herd and how he kills and eats Odysseus’s companions. Or rather, Odysseus himself talks about this in the poem, but he does not bring his feelings into the story: fear, pity, despair. He is separated from these events by the path traveled and the years lived - an epic distance that gives his gaze a detachment.

Lyrics , on the contrary, is most occupied with depicting a person’s feelings, his internal state. Even if a lyrical work describes some objects and events, the description is always colored by a personal, subjective attitude. This attitude is the main subject of the image. When we read in Pushkin's poems:

The whole room has an amber shine
Illuminated. Cheerful crackling
The flooded stove crackles, -

We are interested not so much in the description of the room and the stove (which, generally speaking, is not here), but in the impression of comfort, joy, warmth and light that emerges from these lines.

Lyrics are the reader's empathy for the author of the poem. Lyrics do not require detachment, but, on the contrary, immersion of the reader (listener) in feelings and moods - both the author’s and our own, because if we do not guess behind the author’s words something already familiar to us from inner experience, the poems will remain for us as if writing in an unknown language. When we do not understand poetry, we simply do not notice, we do not hear in them the main thing that is being discussed.

Lyrics require the reader to be able to enter into the emotional world of another person. It turns out that it is much easier for us to do this if the lyrical text is combined with music. The word “lyric” in Greek means “pronounced to the sounds of the lyre,” a stringed musical instrument that the ancient Greeks believed was once invented by the god Hermes and given to Apollo, the patron of the arts. The very name of the lyrics shows that in its deepest essence it is akin to music - an art that knows how to express human feelings without naming them.

This relationship explains to us why lyrics are characterized by rhythm and measure. Rhythm, melodiousness, and musicality help lyrical works express what words cannot always contain. Or we can say it another way: the music of a verse makes words express more than they can express in ordinary speech. The rhythm of the verse itself puts us in the right mood. Compare, for example, two descriptions of a moonlit winter night in Pushkin’s poems:

Through the wavy mists
The moon is creeping...
(“Winter Road”) - calm, bright, sad;

The clouds are rushing, the clouds are swirling,
Invisible moon
The flying snow illuminates...

(“Demons”) - tense, anxious, like strong heartbeats

Reading poetry, like singing songs - if we are not talking about fakes, but about real art - is both pleasure and labor of the soul.

Due to the fact that the form of poetry is quite complex, and their perception requires a certain culture, one may get the impression that poetry is some kind of late and artificial invention in literature. This is wrong. Poems are older and in some ways more natural than prose. Rhythm amazingly inherent in human speech. The Russian poet N.S. Gumilyov once said that this “is known to anyone who, carefully honing a piece of prose, made efforts to restrain the emerging rhythm.” That is why ancient epic tales are composed in verse, like lyrical songs. Both of them, according to scientists, arose from ancient choral poetry.

Drama in Greek it means “action.” It does not tell about past events, but shows events as if they were happening before our eyes. The famous definition that Aristotle gave to drama begins with the words: “Drama is the imitation of action...”

The author of the drama does not have the opportunity to speak “on his own”: everything he wants to say must be clear to the viewer from the events taking place on stage and conversations characters. At the same time, the viewer delves into the events of someone else's life and begins to experience them as if they closely concern him. In the theater (especially in children's theater) it often happens that the audience forgets that this is a play written by a playwright. It happens that they get worried, scream, try to change the course of action: to warn someone, to interfere with someone...

If epic is co-reflection, and lyricism is empathy, then drama makes the viewer literally an “accomplice” of events.

For a long time drama was not conceived and did not exist outside the theater, and this explains many of its features. The action in the drama is limited to strict limits. It must have a logical beginning (the beginning ), development of action and end (denouement ). The anticipation of the denouement keeps the viewer in tension, which at some moments of the action increases and becomes breathtakingly acute. Such moments are calledclimaxes - points of highest tension of action.

The viewer's interest in the action does not necessarily rest on the desire to find out “how it ended.” Moreover, in Ancient Greece, where European drama was born, it was based dramatic stories Usually they included myths that were well known to everyone. Intense attention was focused on something else. Dramatic action is based onconflict - clash of life positions of the heroes. Drama is always a dialogue, a dispute between two sides, two “truths”, and the audience waits for a decision (or, rather, makes a decision): what really is the “truth” in a given situation, who is right, who will win the argument . Ancient plots were interpreted anew, they highlighted acute conflicts that in one way or another affected every viewer, and the main thing was to find correct solution, and not to find out the end of some long-standing story.

For example, in the tragedy of Aeschylus, the first of the great tragic poets of Ancient Greece (c. 525–456 BC), which is called “The Pleaders,” two parties argue: the Danaid maidens, daughters of King Danaus, fleeing from a huge the pursuing army, and the small Greek city of Argos, from which the Danaids ask for protection.

The city faced difficult choice: on the one hand, he is not at all obliged to defend Danaids, especially since the army of the pursuers is large and powerful and the city is unlikely to be able to repel him. On the other hand, by handing over Danaid to the persecutors, the city will renounce its principles: law, justice, respect for freedom - and silently agree that brute force can create any arbitrariness in the world.

Almost no events take place on the stage, only conversations: the Danaids beg, the messenger of the enemy army threatens, representatives of the city decide what to do. And gradually it becomes clear to everyone that a free person, having submitted to brute force, will cease to be free. Defending Danaids, Argos will not defend walls, not wealth, but the essence of its city - its freedom and independence. And the gates open before the Danaids. The tragedy ends with the words of the messenger that the enemy army has approached the walls of the city.

Spectators will not see how the battle ends. For the drama itself, this is not important: a solution has been found, the conflict has been resolved, the denouement has been accomplished. Although, however, everyone for whom Aeschylus wrote and staged his tragedy knew perfectly well that the city would perish in battle. This choice of truth at the cost of life is the basis for the amazing effect of any tragedy, which Aristotle called “catharsis ” - purification through suffering, or purification of suffering itself; a bright uplift of spirit that is felt by all participants and witnesses of the tragic but righteous denouement. There is a story about how, in an hour of danger, the Athenians staged a tragedy to raise their spirit, after which they went into battle and won.

In past centuries, drama was considered the highest of the types of literature, combining the merits of epic and lyric poetry. What the drama has in common with the epic is interest in the event, the plot, and with the lyrics - emotional intensity, the complete immersion of the viewer into the world of the work of art. But in its origin, drama differs significantly from epic and lyric poetry. It goes back to ancient ritual actions, which actually affected all members of the clan, both spectators and participants.

The following genres belong to the epic: fairy tale, fable, epic, ancient epic poems, novel, story and story .

In antiquity and the Middle Ages, many lyrical genres were distinguished: hymn, epistle, ode, elegy, sonnet, rondo, song, romance, etc. But in the 19th–20th centuries, lyrical works were most often called simply “poems,” without dividing them into genres.

Drama includes tragedy, comedy and the middle genre - just a serious play, not as deep and sublime as tragedy; such “average” plays, like the whole genus, are called dramas.

There are works that combine features of two types at once. In particular, there are quite a few big circle lyric-epic works in which lyrics (transmission of feelings) are combined with epic (description of events). For example, “Borodino” by M.Yu. Lermontov is a lyric-epic work.

4. Reading the textbook article on p. 3-4

5. Fastening

How do you see the differences between works of epic, lyrical and dramatic genres?

6. Lesson summary

What new did you learn? What did you meet?

7.Homework

Compose a crossword puzzle “Genres of Literature”

Types and genres of literature

Epic	Lyrics	Drama
Fable	Hymn	Vaudeville
Bylina	Invective	Drama
Legend	Madrigal	Comedy
Novella	Oh yeah	Melodrama
Feature article	Song (song)	Sketch
Tale	Message	Tragedy
Story	Romance
Novel	Sonnet
Fairy tale	Stanzas
Epic	Poem
	Prose poem
	Elegy
	Epigram
	Epitaph
Lyric-epic genres: ballad, poem, novel in verse

Genus- the most generalizing, historically stable division of literary works in accordance with three forms of depicting the human personality.

Genre(from the French genre - genus, type) - the form in which the main types of literature appear, i.e. epic, lyricism, drama, in their varieties. For example, in an epic - an epic, a fairy tale, a novel, a story, etc., in a drama - a comedy, drama, tragedy, etc., in a lyric - a message, an elegy, an epigram, a song.

Laughter, comic, irony.

The importance of laughter and everything connected with it for art and literature cannot be overestimated. Laughter as a facet of human consciousness and behavior, firstly, is an expression of cheerfulness, spiritual cheerfulness, vitality and energy, and at the same time – an integral part of friendly communication (remember Tolstoy’s Nikolai and Natasha Rostov in their uncle’s house after the hunt). And secondly, laughter is a form of people’s rejection and condemnation of what surrounds them, ridicule of something, a direct emotional comprehension of certain contradictions, often associated with a person’s alienation from what he perceives. This side of laughter is associated with comic ( from other-gr."komos" - village holiday). Much has been written about the comic as a source of laughter (primarily mocking) (Aristotle, Kant, Chernyshevsky, and Bergson), meaning by it a certain deviation from the norm, absurdity, incongruity; a mistake and deformity that does not cause suffering; internal emptiness and insignificance, which are covered by claims to content and significance; inertia and automatism where agility and flexibility are needed.

In the early stages of human history, laughter most clearly revealed itself as a mass phenomenon and existed mainly as part of holiday rituals. In the well-known book by M.M. Bakhtin about F. Rabelais carnival laughter described as a very significant facet of culture (primarily folk) of different countries and eras. The scientist described this laughter as national(creating an atmosphere of universal unity based on a cheerful feeling), universal(aimed at the world as a whole, in its eternal dying and rebirth, and above all - at its material-corporeal and at the same time festive side) and ambivalent(constituting the unity of the affirmation of the inexhaustible forces of the people and the denial of everything official, both state and church: all kinds of prohibitions and hierarchical establishments), most importantly, as expressing and realizing freedom and signifying fearlessness 1. The carnival worldview, according to Bakhtin, is characterized by cheerful relativity, pathos of change and renewal, and relativization of the world 2 . And in this we can see similarities between Bakhtin’s carnivalism and Nietzsche’s Dionysianism.

The concept of carnival laughter (the book about Rabelais was published in 1965) has had a great and undoubtedly beneficial impact on cultural studies, art history and literary criticism of the last three decades, sometimes causing criticism. Thus, attention was drawn to the connection between carnival “uninhibitedness” and cruelty, and mass laughter with violence, which Bakhtin did not take into account. In contrast to Bakhtin’s book, it was said that the laughter of the carnival and Rabelais’ stories is satanic 4 . The sad, tragic subtext of Bakhtin’s book about Rabelais, written in the 1930s and 1940s, is clearly revealed in the scientist’s recently published manuscript, which states that life at its core (at all times) is permeated with crime, that the “tones of love” are drowned out in it and only “from time to time the liberating tones of Saturnalia and carnival sound” 5 . (76)

Over the course of historical time, the cultural and artistic significance of laughter increases, going beyond the framework of mass and ritualized festivity, laughter as an integral part of everyday life - private life and individual communication of people.

It has been established that already primitive peoples laughter, “welcoming everyone,” symbolized “friendly and kind company” 6. Such laughter (it is right to call it individual initiative) is closely connected with relaxed, trusting communication, with lively conversation, primarily with the fact that Pushkin’s friend P.A. Vyazemsky called it “communicative gaiety.” It is present in the literature of different countries and peoples. In this regard, Plato’s dialogues are significant (especially the Phaedo, where Socrates, on the eve of his execution, “smilingly” talks and jokes with his students), and the narrative fabric of such works of modern times (very different) as “The Life and Opinions of Tristam Shandy, gentleman" by L. Stern, "Eugene Onegin" by Pushkin, "Vasily Terkin" by Tvardovsky, and the behavior of a number of heroes of Russian classics (remember, for example, Mozart's penchant for light jokes, poeticized by Pushkin, or the constant smiling of Dostoevsky's Prince Myshkin) 7 .

Individual initiative laughter can also have an alienating and mocking character. The term traditionally used to characterize it irony. Ironic attitude towards everything environment, the way of life of people and their habits was inherent in the ancient Greek Cynics (V-IV centuries BC) with their penchant for shocking, malicious cynicism, and street scandals 8 . The militantly nihilistic laughter of the Cynics distantly, but quite clearly, preceded the ironic mood of the works of F. Nietzsche. In the poem “Thus Spoke Zarathustra” we read: “I commanded men to laugh at their great teachers of virtue, at their saints and poets, at their saviors of the world.” The philosopher wrote about himself: “I don’t want to be a saint, rather a jester.”<...>Maybe I am the jester" 9. From the laughter of the cynics, threads stretch to the forms of behavior of the futurists of the beginning of our century, and even more to the now widespread “black humor” 10 .

A significant phenomenon of culture and art of modern times - romantic irony. According to F. Schlegel, the ability to irony elevates a person above the contradictions of existence and, in particular, above (77) the “base prose” of everyday life. Attributing his own view of the world to Socrates, Schlegel noted that “irony makes fun of the whole world.” Speaking about irony, he also argued that “everything in it should be a joke and everything should be serious, everything should be sincerely frank and everything deeply hidden”, that “irony is a clear consciousness of eternal mobility, infinitely complete chaos” 1. K.-V.-F wrote a little later about the duality of irony, which helps a person discover the “divine idea” for himself, and at the same time is capable of destroying that “to which it itself gave the appearance of life.” Zolger 2.

This kind of universal irony, painted in tragic tones, is present in the works of writers of the symbolist circle (A. Blok, A. Bely). The apology for total philosophical laughter is inherent in modern humanities of structuralist and poststructuralist orientation. Thus, M. Foucault (France) in a book in 1966 argued that now “one can think only in an empty space where there is no longer a person”, that the desire to think and talk about a person is an “absurd and absurd” reflection, which “can be opposed just philosophical laughter" 3.

An ironic view of the world can free a person from dogmatic narrowness of thinking, from one-sidedness, intolerance, fanaticism, from trampling living life in the name of an abstract principle. T. Mann spoke insistently about this 4 . At the same time, “irony without shores” can lead to a dead end of nihilism, inhumanity, and impersonality. F. Nietzsche felt this painfully: “The habit of irony<...>spoils the character, it gradually gives him a trait of malicious superiority<...>you're starting to look like angry dog, which, while biting, also learned to laugh” 5. A Blok wrote about the negative potential of total irony in his article “Irony” (1908), characterizing it as a disease, violence, blasphemy, the result of intoxication, as a symptom of the loss of humanity in a person; in 1918 – S.N. Bulgakov (“Now is the winning time for irony and gloating”) 6. (78)

Irony, which knows no boundaries, can “turn around” total denial human in man. According to I.P. Smirnov, valuable literature in its postmodernist branch tends to reproduce human reality as monstrous. Here the authors “conceptualize the subject as an uncontrolled “machine of desires”<...>as a mechanical-organic monster" 7 .

Along with universal irony aimed at the world and human life in general, there is (and is very productive for art and literature) irony generated by the perception and understanding of specific, local and at the same time deeply significant contradictions in people’s lives and their historical existence. It is this kind of ironic mood that is present in the works humorous And satirical 8.

Epic. Drama. Lyrics.

Epic (from the Greek epos - word, narrative, story) is a type of literature that is characterized by the depiction of reality in an objective narrative form. As a rule, the time of the depicted action and the time of the narration about it do not coincide - this is one of the most important differences from other types of literature. Methods of presentation - narration, description, dialogue, monologue, author's digressions. The author's description of events unfolding in space and time, the narration of various life phenomena, people, their destinies, characters, actions, etc., is distinguished by a calm, contemplative, detached attitude towards what is depicted. Epic text looks like some kind of alloy narrative speech and characters' statements. It has an unlimited volume (from short stories to multi-volume cycles (for example, “The Human Comedy” by Honoré de Balzac unites 98 novels and short stories) - this allows you to “absorb” such a number of characters, circumstances, events, destinies, details that are not available to anyone else. other types of literature, nor any other type of art. The epic, in comparison with other types of literature, has the richest arsenal of artistic means, which makes it possible to reveal the inner world of a person with the greatest depth and show it in development. The author plays a special role in epic works -narrator or narrator. His speech (content and style) is the only, but very effective means of creating the image of this character. Despite the fact that sometimes the narrator is ideologically close to the writer, they cannot be identified (for example, the narrator in the work of I.S. Shmelev " Summer of the Lord" and the author himself are not the same person). Drama (Old Greek drama - action) is a type of literature that reflects life in actions taking place in the present. Dramatic works are intended for performance on stage, this is determined by specific features dramas:

1) lack of narrative-descriptive image; 2) “auxiliary” author’s speech (remarks); 3) main text dramatic work presented in the form of replicas of the characters (monologue and dialogue); 4) drama as a type of literature does not have such a variety of artistic and visual means as epic: speech and action are the main means of creating the image of a hero; 5) the volume of text and time of action is limited to the stage; 6) the requirements of stage art dictate such a feature of drama as a certain exaggeration (hyperbolization): “exaggeration of events, exaggeration of feelings and exaggeration of expressions” (L.N. Tolstoy) - in other words, theatrical showiness, increased expressiveness; the viewer of the play feels the conventionality of what is happening, which A.S. said very well. Pushkin: “the very essence of dramatic art excludes verisimilitude... when reading a poem, a novel, we can often forget ourselves and believe that the incident described is not fiction, but the truth. In an ode, in an elegy, we can think that the poet depicted his real feelings, in real circumstances. But where is the credibility in a building divided into two parts, one of which is filled with spectators who agreed etc.

Lyrics (Old Greek lyra - a musical instrument to the sound of which poetry was performed) is a type of literature that highlights the subjective image of reality: individual states of human consciousness, thoughts, feelings, impressions of the author. In the lyrics, an image-experience is created; if there is sometimes a series of events in it, then it is outlined very sparingly. The most important property lyricism is the ability to convey the individual (feeling, state) as universal: “The most subjective kind of literature, it, like no other, is directed towards the general, towards the image mental life as universal” (L.Ya. Ginzburg). Lyrics are the way artistic comprehension events not only of the inner world of man, but also of the external world: everyday life and nature, history and modernity, planetary life, the universe, the universe. Characteristics lyrical works: poetic form, rhythm, lack of plot, small size (“as short and as complete as possible”), increased expressiveness, the presence of a lyrical character on whose behalf the experience is expressed (it should be borne in mind that the author cannot be identified with lyrical hero).

The division of literature into genera does not coincide with its division into poetry and prose. Each of the literary genres can include both poetic (poetic) and prosaic (non-poetic) works. In addition, it should be taken into account that the words “epic” (“epicity”), “dramatic” (“dramaticism”), “lyrical” (“lyricism”) are polysemantic and serve not only to indicate the generic affiliation of a particular work, but also to characterize any objects, events, states. “Epicism is a majestic, calm, unhurried contemplation of life in its complexity and diversity, a broad view of the world and its acceptance as a kind of integrity. In this regard, they often talk about the “epic worldview”, artistically embodied in Homer’s poems and a number of later works(“War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy). Epicness as an ideological and emotional mood can take place in all literary genres - not only in epic (narrative) works, but also in drama (“Boris Godunov” by A.S. Pushkin) and lyrics (the cycle “On the Kulikovo Field” by A.A. .Blok). Drama is usually called a state of mind associated with the tense experience of some contradictions, with excitement and anxiety. And finally, lyricism is sublime emotionality expressed in the speech of the author, narrator, and characters. Drama and lyricism can also be present in all literary genres” (V.E. Khalizev).

43. The ideological content of a literary work.

The fundamental rejection of an isolated consideration of the content and form of a work of art does not negate the consideration of such categories as theme, problem, idea of ​​a work of art. Theme (from the Greek Sheta, lit. - that which is the basis) is a circle of events that form the vital basis of epic and dramatic works and at the same time serve to pose philosophical, social, ethical and other ideological problems. For example, the theme of Pushkin’s “The Captain’s Daughter” is a fictional story about a peasant uprising led by Pugachev. The theme should not be confused with the content of the work, since the theme is not life itself, but a reflection of life phenomena in the mind of the writer. The specific, immediate content of Pushkin’s story “ Captain's daughter"is the history of Grinev's relationships with Pugachev, Masha Mironova, Shvabrin. In Ancient Greece, it was believed that the integrity of a literary work is determined by the unity of the main character, but Aristotle pointed out the fallacy of this view, showing, using the example of Homer’s Iliad, that it is a complete work, although there are many heroes in it. The term "theme" in literary criticism is used in different meanings. Some understand the topic as vital material, others - the main social problem posed in the work. The most convincing is the concept of theme as the foundation of a work of art - something that has become the subject of the author's interest, comprehension and evaluation. B.V. Tomashevsky called this the main theme of the work. Discussing the theme, he named the themes of love, death, revolution and argued that the theme is “the unity of meaning of the individual elements of the work. It combines the components of artistic construction, has relevance and arouses the interest of readers.” Fiction shows general, characteristic, typical features of life through the depiction of individuals and events. The content of a work of art is, first of all, those typical facts, phenomena, events that it contains. The content of the work of a particular writer is everything that he is interested in in life, which he generalizes in his works. The writer is interested in a certain range of life phenomena, comprehends them, determines his attitude towards them and, finally, embodies all this in artistic images. This is exactly how M. Gorky understood the theme: “A theme is an idea that originated in the author’s experience, is suggested to him by life, but nests in the receptacle of his impressions still unformed and, demanding embodiment in images, arouses in him the urge to work, its design”80 . The theme and idea of ​​E. Zamyatin’s novel “We” was suggested to the author by life itself. The main theme of the novel is the tragedy of the individual in a totalitarian state. The writer shows the “ideal lack of freedom” of the citizens of the United State, in which people were deprived of their names and surnames (instead - “numbers”). The life of each of them takes place in full view of everyone in houses with glass walls. There is not an ounce of “wrongness” in this society, everything is pre-programmed, but there is “no disorder.” The benefactor at the head of the state inspires people: “You are happy. You are machine-like." And “balloon heads” walk around the city. And everyone is led to happiness along the path of universal unanimity. An artificial “formula of happiness” is introduced into the consciousness of “numbers”. The green wall fenced them off from living nature, the real diversity of life. The ideological content of the novel “We” consists in exposing the extreme rationalization of life, which turns a person into a thoughtless mechanism, exposing the idea of ​​the “chosen”, “worthy”, the idea of ​​“re-education” of organic nature. The theme of a literary work can be comprehended with the necessary completeness only on the basis of penetration into all the ideological and artistic richness of this work. So, in order to understand the cosmos of Nabokov’s works, one must plunge into the complex world of the characters who live in it. The theme of Nabokov's novel “The Defense of Luzhin” is not the fate of the chess player, but the fate of the “creator.” It shows the tragedy of creative consciousness. Game as the most important component of creativity is taken in its most obvious form - playing chess. And the hero is a child who is always playing. Luzhin, with his powerful intellect, is defenseless as a person who is looked after by everyone (parents, Valentinov, wife). Life in the “second reality”, which the hero of the novel chooses, is, on the one hand, salutary, and on the other hand, destructive: the “chess abysses” swallowed up Luzhin. V. Maslovsky notes: “From the point of view of aesthetic reality, we can talk about internal topic works about the personal theme of the writer’s work. In this case, the theme is what is expressed, and then it is essentially identified with the concept of “problem.” In a thematically complex work, it is usually possible to identify a main theme that determines the unity of the entire work, and private themes that make up individual parties this main topic. If the main theme of L. Tolstoy’s novel “Anna Karenina” the writer himself considered “family thought,” i.e. show family relations against the broad social, historical background of the 60s. XIX century, then the depiction of these relations in the noble, peasant, and bureaucratic environment can be considered private themes. Individual moments, episodes that make up both the main and private themes are called thematic motifs. They can be expressed more or less clearly. main topic M. Gorky's story “Mother” is a depiction of the labor movement in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. It is resolved in particular themes related to the understanding of the birth and place of the proletariat, the relationship between the revolutionary intelligentsia, workers and peasants, the position of women in pre-revolutionary Russia, etc. The combination of the main and particular themes constitutes the theme of the work. For example, the theme of “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy is formed by three circles of issues: problems of the people, the noble community and the personal life of a person, determined by ethical standards.

EPIC, LYRIC, DRAMA

Literary gender- a group of genres that have similar structural features.

Works of art differ greatly in the choice of depicted phenomena of reality, in the methods of its depiction, in the predominance of objective or subjective principles, in composition, in forms of verbal expression, in figurative and expressive means. But at the same time, all these various literary works can be divided into three types - epic, lyricism and drama. The division into genders is due to different approaches to depicting the world and man: epic objectively depicts man, lyricism is characterized by subjectivity, and drama depicts man in action, with the author’s speech having an auxiliary role.

Epic(in Greek means narrative, story) - a narration about events in the past, focused on an object, on an image of the external world. The main features of the epic as a literary genre are events, actions as the subject of the image (eventfulness) and narration as a typical, but not the only form of verbal expression in the epic, because in large epic works there are descriptions, reasoning, and lyrical digressions(which connects epic with lyrics), and dialogues (which connects epic with drama). An epic work is not limited by any spatial or temporal boundaries. It can cover many events and a large number of characters. In the epic, an impartial, objective narrator (works of Goncharov, Chekhov) or storyteller (Pushkin's Tales of Belkin) plays an important role. Sometimes the narrator tells the story from the words of the narrator (“The Man in a Case” by Chekhov, “The Old Woman Izergil” by Gorky).

Lyrics(from Greek lyra- a musical instrument, to the sound of which poems and songs were performed), in contrast to epic and drama, which depict complete characters acting in various circumstances, depicts the individual states of the hero at individual moments in his life. The lyrics depict the inner world of the individual in its formation and change of impressions, moods, and associations. Lyrics, unlike epic, are subjective; the feelings and experiences of the lyrical hero occupy the main place in it, relegating life situations, actions, and actions to the background. As a rule, there is no event plot in the lyrics. A lyrical work may contain a description of an event, an object, pictures of nature, but it is not valuable in itself, but serves the purpose of self-expression.

Drama depicts a person in action, in a conflict situation, but there is no detailed narrative-descriptive image in the drama. Its main text is a chain of statements by characters, their remarks and monologues. Most dramas are built on external action, which is associated with confrontation, the confrontation of heroes. But internal action can also predominate (the characters do not so much act as they experience and reflect, as in the plays of Chekhov, Gorky, Maeterlinck, Shaw). Dramatic works, like epic works, depict events, the actions of people and their relationships, but drama lacks a narrator and descriptive depiction. The author's speech is auxiliary and forms a side text of the work, which includes a list of characters, sometimes their brief characteristics; designation of the time and place of action, description of the stage setting at the beginning of pictures, phenomena, acts, actions; stage directions that indicate the intonation, movements, and facial expressions of the characters. The main text of a dramatic work consists of monologues and dialogues of characters that create the illusion of the present time.

Thus, the epic tells, consolidates external reality, events and facts in words, drama does the same, but not on behalf of the author, but in direct conversation, dialogue between the characters themselves, while lyricism focuses its attention not on the external, but on the internal world.

However, it must be borne in mind that the division of literature into genera is to some extent artificial, because in fact, often there is a connection, a combination of all these three types, their merging into one artistic whole, or a combination of lyrics and epic (prose poems), epic and drama (epic drama), drama and lyric (lyrical drama). In addition, the division of literature into genera does not coincide with its division into poetry and prose. Each of the literary genres includes both poetic (poetic) and prosaic (non-poetic) works. For example, in their generic basis, the novel in verse by Pushkin “Eugene Onegin” and Nekrasov’s poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'” are epic. Many dramatic works are written in verse: Griboyedov's comedy "Woe from Wit", Pushkin's tragedy "Boris Godunov" and others.

The division into genera is the first division in the classification of literary works. The next step is to divide each type into genres. Genre- a historically established type of literary work. There are genres:

• epic(novel, story, story, essay, parable),
• lyrical(lyric poem, elegy, message, epigram, ode, sonnet) and
• dramatic(comedy, tragedy, drama).

Finally, genres usually get further divisions(for example, a domestic novel, an adventure novel, a psychological novel, etc.). In addition, all genres are usually divided into

• large(novel, epic novel),
• average(story, poem) and
• small(story, novella, essay).

EPIC GENRES

Novel(from French roman or conte roman- a story in the Romance language) is a large form of the epic genre, a multi-issue work depicting a person in the process of his formation and development. The action in a novel is always full of external or internal conflicts, or both. Events in the novel are not always described sequentially; sometimes the author breaks the chronological sequence (“Hero of Our Time” by Lermontov).

Novels can be divided

• by thematic basis(historical, autobiographical, adventure, satirical, fantastic, philosophical, etc.);
• by structure(novel in verse, novel-pamphlet, novel-parable, novel-feuilleton, epistolary novel and others).

Epic novel(from Greek epopia- a collection of tales) a novel with a broad depiction of folk life at turning points historical eras. For example, “War and Peace” by Tolstoy, “Quiet Don” by Sholokhov.

Tale- an epic work of medium or large form, constructed in the form of a narrative about events in their natural sequence. Sometimes a story is defined as an epic work, a cross between a novel and a short story - it is more than a story, but less romance in terms of volume and number of actors. But the boundary between a story and a novel should be sought not in their volume, but in the features of composition. Unlike a novel, which tends toward an action-packed composition, the story presents the material chronically. In it, the artist does not get carried away with reflections, memories, details of the analysis of the feelings of the characters, unless they are strictly subordinated to the main action of the work. The story does not pose problems of a global historical nature.

Story- small epic prose form, small piece with a limited number of characters (most often the story is about one or two heroes). A story usually poses one problem and describes one event. For example, in Turgenev’s story “Mumu” ​​the main event is the story of Gerasim’s acquisition and loss of a dog. Novella differs from a short story only in that it always has an unexpected ending (O'Henry's "The Gift of the Magi"), although in general the boundaries between these two genres are very arbitrary.

Feature article- small epic prose form, one of the types of short stories. The essay is more descriptive and touches mainly on social problems.

Parable- small epic prose form, moral teaching in allegorical form. A parable differs from a fable in that its art material draws from human life (gospel parables, Solomon's parables).

LYRIC GENRES

Lyric poem- small genre form lyrics written either on behalf of the author (“I loved you” by Pushkin) or on behalf of a fictional lyrical hero (“I was killed near Rzhev...” by Tvardovsky).

Elegy(from Greek eleos- plaintive song) - a small lyrical form, a poem imbued with a mood of sadness and sadness. As a rule, the content of elegies consists of philosophical reflections, sad thoughts, and grief.

Message(from Greek epistole- letter) - a small lyrical form, a poetic letter addressed to a person. According to the content of the message, there are friendly, lyrical, satirical, etc. The message can be addressed to one specific person or group of people.

Epigram(from Greek epigramma- inscription) - a small lyrical form, a poem ridiculing specific person. The emotional range of the epigram is very wide - from friendly ridicule to angry denunciation. Characteristic features are wit and brevity.

Oh yeah(from Greek ode- song) is a small lyrical form, a poem, distinguished by the solemnity of style and sublimity of content.

Sonnet(from Italian soneto- song) - a small lyrical form, a poem, usually consisting of fourteen verses.

Poem(from Greek poiema- creation) is a medium lyric-epic form, a work with a plot-narrative organization, in which not one, but a whole series of experiences are embodied. The poem combines the features of two literary genres - lyricism and epic. The main features of this genre are the presence of a detailed plot and, at the same time, close attention to the inner world of the lyrical hero.

Ballad(from Italian ballada- dance) - a medium lyric-epic form, a work with a tense, unusual plot, a story in verse.

DRAMATIC GENRES

Comedy (from Greek komos- a cheerful procession and ode- song) is a type of drama in which characters, situations and actions are presented in funny forms or imbued with the comic. In terms of genre, there are satirical comedies (“The Minor” by Fovizin, “The Inspector General” by Gogol), high comedy (“Woe from Wit” by Griboyedov), and lyrical (“The Cherry Orchard” by Chekhov).

Tragedy(from Greek tragedy- goat song) is a type of drama, a work based on an irreconcilable conflict in life, leading to the suffering and death of the heroes. For example, Shakespeare's play Hamlet belongs to the tragedy genre.

Drama- a play with an acute conflict, which, unlike the tragic one, is not so sublime, more mundane, ordinary and can be resolved one way or another. The specificity of the drama lies, firstly, in the fact that it is based on modern, not ancient material, and secondly, the drama establishes a new hero who rebels against circumstances.

Rental block

Throughout the history of the existence of verbal art, repeated attempts have been made to divide literature into genera. However, the reasons for this division were different.

One of the earliest experiments in grouping works of literature by gender was carried out in antiquity, as evidenced by the treatises of Plato and Aristotle. However, at the end of the 19th century. another basis for classification appeared: epic, lyricism and drama began to be thought of as types of artistic content. Thus, in the perception of the German philosopher F.W. Schelling (1775-1854) associated lyricism with infinity and the spirit of freedom, epic with pure necessity, drama seemed to him a synthesis of both.

German philosopher W.F. Hegel (1770-1831) characterized epic, lyric poetry and drama using the categories “object” and “subject”: epic poetry is objective, lyric poetry is subjective, while dramatic poetry connects these two principles.

The great Russian critic V.G. Belinsky, being a supporter of the Hegelian approach in defining types of literature, instilled these ideas in national literary criticism.

Epic (from Greek epos - word, narration, story) is a type of literature that is characterized by the depiction of reality in an objective narrative form. As a rule, the time of the depicted action and the time of the narration about it do not coincide - this is one of the most important differences from other types of literature.

Methods of presentation - narration, description, dialogue, monologue, author's digressions. The author's description of events unfolding in space and time, the narration of various life phenomena, people, their destinies, characters, actions, etc., is distinguished by a calm, contemplative, detached attitude towards what is depicted.

The epic text is like a certain fusion of narrative speech and statements of characters. It has an unlimited volume (from short stories to multi-volume cycles (for example, “The Human Comedy” by Honoré de Balzac unites 98 novels and short stories) - this allows you to “absorb” such a number of characters, circumstances, events, destinies, details that are not available to anyone else. other types of literature, nor any other type of art.

The epic, in comparison with other types of literature, has the richest arsenal of artistic means, which makes it possible to reveal the inner world of a person with the greatest depth and show it in development.

A special role in epic works is played by the author-narrator or storyteller.

Drama (other-gr. drama - action) - a type of literature that reflects life in actions taking place in the present.

Dramatic works are intended for production on stage; this determines the specific features of drama:

1) lack of narrative-descriptive image; 2) “auxiliary” of the author’s speech (remarks); 3) the main text of a dramatic work is presented in the form of replicas of the characters (monologue and dialogue); 4) drama as a type of literature does not have such a variety of artistic and visual means as epic: speech and action are the main means of creating the image of a hero; 5) the volume of text and time of action is limited to the stage; 6) the requirements of stage art dictate such a feature of drama as a certain exaggeration (hyperbolization).

Lyrics (Old Greek lyra - a musical instrument to the sound of which poetry was performed) - a type of literature that highlights the subjective image of reality: individual states of human consciousness, thoughts, feelings, impressions of the author. In the lyrics, an image-experience is created; if there is sometimes a series of events in it, then it is outlined very sparingly. The most important property of lyrics is the ability to convey an individual (feeling, state) as universal. Lyrics are a way of artistic comprehension of events not only in the inner world of a person, but also in the external world: everyday life and nature, history and modernity, planetary life, the universe, the universe. Characteristic features of lyrical works: poetic form, rhythm, lack of plot, small size (“as short and as complete as possible”), increased expressiveness, the presence of a lyrical hero, on whose behalf the experience is expressed (it should be borne in mind that the author cannot be identified with with a lyrical hero).

The “fourth” type of literature is lyric-epic, which includes lyric-epic poems, ballads, lyrical prose, and a novel in verse. Each of the literary genres can include both poetic (poetic) and prosaic (non-poetic) works. In addition, it should be taken into account that the words “epic” (“epicity”), “dramatic” (“dramaticism”), “lyrical” (“lyricism”) are polysemantic and serve not only to indicate the generic affiliation of a particular work, but also to characterize any objects, events, states.

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