This is an antique comedy A cult drama dedicated to Dionysus, performed by a choir and actors. All types of ancient comedy (folk and literary) had poetic form and were performed accompanied by music; actors and choreographers wore masks. There were two historically and typologically independent forms literary comedy : Sicilian and Attic. The nature of Attic comedy changed significantly over time, therefore, already in antiquity, three successive stages were distinguished: ancient, middle and new Attic comedy. Southern Italian folk comedy developed under the predominant influence of Attic literary comedy. Roman comedy was created and developed according to the model of exclusively new Attic comedy. From different types comedies in the strict sense should be distinguished from others dramatic genres, which were “comic” in spirit, but were not considered comedy in Greece, since they were not genetically related to strictly defined forms of the cult of Dionysus. These include satyr drama (a type of tragedy) and various small dialogical forms, devoid of genre unity, which were called mimes. Only in Rome, where Greek cult and theatrical formalities lost their meaning, did Latin mime begin to be viewed as a type of comedy.

Sicilian comedy

Sicilian comedy is already known in its developed form from the work of the poet Epicharmus(c. 550-460 BC) from Syracuse. Fragments of 40 of his comedies have survived, which show that the original and main theme Sicilian comedy featured travesty depictions of myths (“The Wedding of Hebe”, “Pyrrha and Prometheus”, “Philoctetes”, etc.). However, as Aristotle points out (Poetics, V), Epicharmus and (virtually unknown to us) Formius began to use “fictional”, i.e. not mythological stories. Pure development example household theme gives an image of a parasite in a lengthy passage from the comedy “Hope, or Wealth,” but here, judging by the name, personified deities could be involved. Some passages touch on philosophical issues. The comedies of Epicharmus are written in the Dorian dialect in iambic.

Ancient Attic comedy

From 487 BC Official competitions of comic choirs begin in Athens. The first poet of comedy known by name was Chionides. Ancient comedy is known from the work of its latest representative, Aristophanes, from whom 11 comedies, staged in 425-388 BC, have survived. From other poets 5th century BC (Kratin, Kratet, Eupolis) fragments have reached. The ancient comedy opens with a prologue, which, as in the developed classical tragedy, develops into an expanded dialogic scene; Next comes the parod, i.e. a song accompanying the choir's entrance to the orchestra. Behind the people, the agon begins, a competition between the two main characters; The central part of the comedy is occupied by the parabaza, a lengthy performance by the choir (while performing the parabaza, the choruses took off their masks). The parabaza is surrounded by a series of loosely connected small scenes presented by actors, and the comedy ends with an exodus, a song that accompanies the departure of the choir from the orchestra. Parabase is a complex melic composition, built mainly according to the antistrophic principle; it is not directly related to the plot of the comedy and contains declarations by the author on various topical issues. Consistently developing plot wasn't important to ancient comedy. According to Aristotle (Poetics, V), a coherent comic "myth" (i.e. fabula) was first introduced by Crates (after 450 BC) following the example of Sicilian comedy. The content of the comedy was largely determined by its cult origin: scenes of gluttony, fights, erotic jokes characteristic of rituals associated with the cult of fertility were required, along with abuse (invective) directed against specific persons. Since Aristotle's Poetics, this personal invective has been seen as a necessary element of ancient comedy. Gods were often depicted either traditionally or personified. There are known comedies whose plot was purely mythological, for example: “Dionysoalexander” by Cratin (after 430 BC), in which the myth of the court of Paris was presented; mythological (albeit outside traditional mythology) are the comedies “The World” (421 BC) and “The Birds” (414 BC) by Aristophanes. Ancient comedy is characterized by an allegorical (mainly political) interpretation of myths, which indicates its important ideological role in a society whose consciousness was still based mainly on mythology. Comedies on “fictional” plots were political pamphlets, not everyday dramas, however, not only politicians, but also philosophers (“Clouds” of Aristophanes, 423 BC), musicians and poets became victims of comedians: attacks on tragedians and rivals -comedians are often found in Aristophanes. A favorite motif was a parody of tragedy. Thus, comedy became one of the first forms of literary and artistic criticism. The characters of ancient comedy are caricatures; if these are real persons, then their characters are narrowed and reduced to one feature, chosen by the poet for ridicule; In general, comedians are not interested in ethical problems. Like other genres of Greek poetry, comedy had its own metrical rules. Basic dialogic dimensions Greek drama- iambic trimeter and trocheic tetrameter are interpreted in comedy in many ways differently than in tragedy; the metrical development of choral parts is also unique; the language of comedy was close to colloquial. The comic choir consisted of 24 people, the number of actors could reach up to five. The masks of ancient comedy were grotesque and ugly, the masks real persons had a portrait resemblance.

Middle Attic comedy

The Middle Attic Comedy is tentatively dated to 404-336 BC., represented by the names Platonomics, Antiphanes, Aristophon, Alexis; the preservation of the texts is very poor, but an idea of ​​this period can be formed from the late dramas of Aristophanes - “Frogs” (405), “Women in the National Assembly” (389), “Wealth” (388). There are no significant structural changes, but choral interludes appear to separate comedy scenes; and in the future this becomes the norm. Political topics lose relevance and disappear; comes in their place political utopia; everyday life is depicted more realistically. Aristophanes is interested in myth either as an allegory or as a pretext for a parody of tragedy, but Plato and other poets use mythological names. Ridicule of philosophers becomes a favorite topic.

New Attic Comedy

In the 330s BC. Attic comedy was radically reformed, and already by 324 BC. refers to the first comedy of Menander, who was later recognized as the best representative of the new comedy. Thanks to the discovery of ancient papyrus manuscripts already in the 20th century, lengthy excerpts from the seven comedies of Menander became known; the text of “The Grouch” (316 BC) has been preserved in its entirety. Other significant poets of the new comedy active in the second half of the 4th century BC. (Diphilus, Philemon, Apollodorus), are known from fragments and from free imitations in the Roman palliata. There is very little information about the later representatives of the genre. The new Attic comedy, neither in form nor in content, is a continuation of the ancient one and is an ethical “comedy of characters”, the model for which was the tragedies of Euripides. The structure of the new comedy is also generally oriented towards the tragedy of the late 5th century BC. The comedy consists of a prologue and an exodus, followed by several acts corresponding to the episodes of the tragedy and separated by choir parts. The choir does not take part in the action; in many cases the poet did not write a text for the choir, but only “left room” for it. Already in Menander the division into five acts is presented; Roman theorists, starting with Horace (“The Science of Poetry”), consider such a division as a necessary structural requirement of comedy. The plot must be complex, but carefully and consistently built, while in the famous neo-Attic comedies (as well as in the Roman palliata), the principles of plot construction formulated in Aristotle’s Poetics are quite accurately observed. As in the later tragedy, summary the comedy is presented in the prologue. Fantastic and mythological plots are not allowed in the new comedy; gods are possible only as characters in the prologue. Topics - from everyday life ordinary people; And social status characters is also a paramount genre requirement. However the main task And artistic purpose The new comedy was not in a naturalistic depiction of everyday life, but in a poetic study of ethical types, which in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle were called ethos (ethos - “character”). The familiar meaning of the word “character” appeared precisely in the new comedy (Menander, fragment 72). Action was seen as the outward manifestation of ethos; each comic character was associated with a limited set plot moves and situations; appearance and the speech of the characters had to be strictly consistent with their character. Artistic method the new comedy becomes largely clear thanks to the collection of ethical essays “Characters”, compiled by Aristotle’s student Theophrastus. Rigid schematism and stereotyping were perceived in ancient times as a virtue, but the poet had to apply plot and ethical schemes with subtlety, without transgressing the boundaries of life-like verisimilitude. An important (for ancient theorists, the main) difference between the new comedy and the ancient one was the complete rejection of personal invective. Comedy should, while entertaining, instruct the audience, so maxims were a necessary element of comedy. The stage representation of the character was a mask with sharp, easily recognizable features. Descriptions of the masks of the new comedy, which are given by a lexicographer of the 2nd century AD, have been preserved. Julius Pollux (Polydeuces).

Southern Italian comedy

In the Greek cities of Southern Italy, performances by wandering Phlias actors, considered servants of Dionysus, were popular. Fliaks represented travesty mythological comedies or parodies of tragedies. A literary adaptation of the drama of the fliacs was made by Rinton from Tarentum (3rd century BC), who reworked the plots of the tragedy in the spirit of neo-Attic comedy. Such a drama was called hilarotragedy (from hilaros - “cheerful”), Roman theorists identified the genre of rhinton drama (rinthonica). The only completely preserved text is the Latin comedy of Plautus (3rd-2nd century BC) “Amphitryon”, which the author himself defines as a tragicomedy. The participation in the action of gods and kings, the necessary characters of the tragedy, was considered as an important genre-forming feature that distinguishes Rinton drama from ordinary comedy, but otherwise “Amphitryon” is a typical New Attic comedy. From the indigenous peoples of Italy, the Osci created a comedy called Atellana. In the 2nd century BC. Atellana appeared on Latin.

Roman comedy

Performances of comedies in Latin in Rome began in the mid-3rd century BC. By the end of the 1st century, an extensive system of comic genres had been created, including togata, palliata, literary atellana and mime.

The word comedy comes from Greek komoidia - “comic song” from komos “bacchanalian procession” and oide, which means “song”

Introduction

The interest of directors in ancient drama has always existed. The longer the theater lives, the more natural it is to rethink its origins. Contact ancient works directors different generations And aesthetic views. This is what explains the relevance of the topic of the essay.

Greek comedy appears in the 6th century. BC. from the following four elements: a) noisy and cheerful everyday scenes of a parody and caricature nature (especially common among the Dorians); b) dramatized songs of an accusatory nature among the villagers who went to the city on the holidays of Dionysus to ridicule the local inhabitants; c) the orgiastic-sacrificial cult of Dionysus; d) songs in honor of the gods of fertility at Dionysus festivals.

As a result of the combination of these four elements, cheerful, riotous festive processions and carnival-type scenes arise, filled with farcical buffoonery, witticisms and even obscenities, with songs, dances, dressing up as various animals (goats, horses, bears, birds, roosters), love adventures and a party. The very word comedy comes from komos, that is, a festive and cheerful crowd, party (or, in another way, from sote - “village” and os1e~ - “song”).

These unbridled games of free landowners in disguise acquired a very acute socio-political significance in the struggle against the growing rich urban entrepreneurs, who were pulling the country towards new conquests, towards maritime expansion and ruining the small free producer. The ancient Attic comedy was a sharp dramatic pamphlet against the leaders of democracy and the sophists and a preaching of ancient landowning and agricultural ideals.

Classical comedy developed under the strong influence of the growing antagonism between free private small landowners (both the peasantry and the conservative aristocracy), on the one hand, and, on the other, urban commercial, industrial and militant democracy, which increased in the middle of the 5th century, after the Greco-Persian wars.

To reveal the features of the topic in the abstract, it was decided to reveal the following aspects:

Consider the concept, history and features of ancient comedy;

Pay attention to a more detailed study of the ancient comedies of Aristophanes in modern times;

Reveal the features of the “ancient project” of E. Zhuravkin, operating in National Nature Reserve"Chersonese Tauride".

Ancient comedy: concept, history, features

The term "comedy" goes back to the ancient Greek word comoidia, literally meaning "song of komos", i.e. a song by participants in a festive village procession dedicated to glorifying the life-giving forces of nature.

Its other source was the elementary and equally ancient form of folk booth - comic scene, in which a stupid rich man, a rogue, a thief tries to deceive, infringe on the interests of the main character, but always fails, and leaves the stage in disgrace, accompanied by blows of a stick and a friendly chorus of spectators.

One of the most remarkable features of the structure of ancient Attic comedy is the active role of the chorus, the bearer of the main journalistic idea of ​​the play, although often dressed in fancy costumes of birds, animals, clouds, etc. The participation of the choir created a special compositional structure ancient comedy, reflecting the main features and origins of the choral (accusatory) and dialogic (farcical) elements.

Aristophanes is the only representative of ancient comedy whose plays have come down to us (namely 11 plays, but he wrote more than 40 plays). The heyday of his work coincides with the time of the Peloponnesian War. Her hardships fell heavily on the people of Attica, who were going bankrupt. Therefore, the theme of condemnation of war resounded with force in the works of Aristophanes (the comedy “Peace”, “Acharnians”, “Lysistrata”) Kuhn N. Myths and legends of ancient Greece. Edited by E. Rodina. - M.: Olma-MediaGroup, 2011, P.52.. Aristophanes played significant role in the development of satire, laying down its basic techniques, widely using the grotesque, caricature, and fantasy.

The comedy of Aristophanes, this “pronounced tendentious poet,” still amazes with the fearlessness of its satire.

Menander wrote more than 199 comedies, but according to the testimony of ancient authors, he won dramatic competitions only 8 times. Menander is practically the only representative of the new Attic comedy whose works have reached us. He gained fame as a great playwright with his magnificent mastery of the art psychological characteristics, allowing him to create individualized human characters, giving traditional masks truly human traits, to diversify and deepen the conventional types of the theater of masks by Corneille Pierre. Discussions about utility and parts dramatic work. Translation by N. P. Kozlova // Pierre Corneille. Plays. - M.: BEK, 2010, P.41..

Menander was in great demand in Antiquity; collections of his sayings, also known in Ancient Rus', were very widely distributed.

Menander's comedy had a great influence on the subsequent development of world drama.

Terence (195-159 BC) created 6 comedies, and all of them have reached us. Brief instructions to them have also arrived, from which we learn about the time of production of the comedies and their performers.

Terence's first comedy, “The Andriyanka,” was staged in 166, the second, “The Mother-in-Law,” was staged for the first time in 165, but the performance was disrupted because In the middle of the play, the audience ran away to watch the fist fighters and tightrope walkers. Terence staged the comedy for the second time in 160, but after the first act the audience rushed to watch the gladiator games. In the same 160, he still managed to stage the comedy “Mother-in-Law” Ibid., p.43..

Terence's third comedy, The Self-Tormentor, was staged in 163, the fourth, The Eunuch, in 161, the fifth, Phormion, also in 161, and the sixth comedy, The Brothers, in 160.

Terence raises issues of family, everyday life, education in his plays, and promotes the ideas of humanity and respect for women. Characteristic conflicts in Terence's comedies are conflicts between fathers and children, between husband and wife.

Terence's heroes speak gracefully literary language. There are no rude colloquial expressions in their speech, almost no archaisms, but it also has that richness that is characteristic of the language of Plavtov’s characters.

Terence was highly regarded in the 18th century. Theorists of the so-called “tearful comedy”, they considered him a kind of founder of this genre.

Plautus is the most prominent Roman comedian (mid-3rd century - 184 BC). There is no reliable information about his life. About 130 comedies are attributed to Plautus, but in the 1st century. BC. the famous Roman scholar and literary connoisseur Varro identified 21 comedies from this number, considering them truly Plavtian, and these comedies have come down to us. The most popular of them are “Treasure” (or “Pot”), “Kurkulion” (or “Tricks of the Parasite”), “Menechmas” (or “Twins”), “Boastful Warrior”, “Pseudolus” (or “Trickster Slave” ), "Prisoners" and "Amphitryon" Corneille Pierre. Discussions on the usefulness and parts of a dramatic work. Translation by N. P. Kozlova // Pierre Corneille. Plays. - M.: BEK, 2010, P.49..

Plautus loved to portray dexterous, intelligent, energetic slaves who usually help out their far from intelligent and passive masters. The comedies of Plautus were very popular among the plebeian masses, captivating with their wit, dynamism, and extraordinary richness of language.

Periodization ancient Greek comedy: 1. Old Attic (ancient) comedy – 2nd half of the 5th century. BC. 2. Middle Attic comedy - mid-4th century. BC. 3. neoattic comedy - end of the 4th century. BC. – 3rd and 2nd centuries. BC. Features of ancient Greek comedy (in terms of content): it was socio-political in nature; the introduction of specific historical characters in caricature form; All comedies are fantastic.

Forms of primitive folk theater are developing, and Sicilian comedy - everyday scenes - are becoming popular. Author: Epicharmus. Excerpts from his Odyssey and Briseis have survived. The comedy is close to the satyr drama, but there was no chorus in it. The Sicilian mime is also spreading. Based on imitation, mostly had 2 actors. The scheme is as follows: one actor reads the text, the other illustrates it. Friachs are everyday scenes, parodies on the theme of betrayal and theft. Source: vase painting. Another author, Kratin, became famous for his topical ridicule of politicians; fragments have reached us. History has preserved the name of Efpolis, an Athenian poet. Competitions of "comedy choirs" were established at the "Great Dionysia" only around 488 - 486. Before this, comedy was part of the Dionysus festivals only as a folk ritual game, and the state did not take upon itself its organization. The “ancient” Attic comedy is something extremely unique. Archaic and crude games of fertility festivals are intricately intertwined in it with the staging of the most complex social and cultural problems, facing Greek society. Building on ridicule. Characterized by sharp criticism of modern events, a pronounced political character, the faces of (real) contemporaries in a farcical form, but the plot is most often fantastic. Its object is not the mythological past, but living modernity, current, sometimes even topical, issues of political and cultural life. Begins with a prologue; skit (introductory song of the choir, indicating the action in the comedy in the role of birds, animals); agon (struggle, argument, competition, conflict between the main character and his rival, ending with the moral victory of the hero, because this is the ideological basis); episodies (defending the truth through a fight); exod (final song of the choir). Parabasa is a choir song that has no meaning. Monologue from the author! The first comic poets: Sicilian mimes Sophron and Xenarch (5th century BC); Epicharmus (520-500 BC) introduced the plot into comedy; Aristophanes (450-390 BC).

26. Aristophanes is a representative of ancient comedy. Stages of Aristophanes' creativity. Socio-political views of Aristophanes. The language and style of his comedies. Stages of Aristophanes' creativity: 1. 425-421 BC. – “Clouds”, “World”. Coincides with the first war between Athens and Sparta, hence the glorification of Athens and hopes for an alliance. 2. 414-405 BC - victory of Sparta. "Birds", "Frogs", "Lysistrata". Personal attacks on politicians and military men almost disappear, but ridicule of philosophers and playwrights is numerous; problems of the world, literature; a large number of parodies of tragedies and Euripides. 3. 390-388 BC - “Women in the National Assembly.” Transition from politics to everyday topics. Fantastic aspect. The main theme is utopia, a prosperous state. "Plutas" is a comedy of transition to an average comedy. Aristophanes' comedies are related to real life problems, but have phantasmagoric situations. The plot solution is comic-fantastic. That is why they seem ghostly and incredible. Ancient Greek comedy is associated with folk theater. Caricature and buffoonery are mandatory - conveyed through costumes. There is frequent appeal to the audience. Contains elements of parody, in this it is more similar to tragedy than to lyric poetry. According to Aristophanes, there are three types of parody: 1. A phrase in the mouth of a tragic poet; 2. The hero of the comedy is introduced into a situation that is familiar to everyone from the tragedy; 3. ? The task of tragic poets and playwrights, according to Aristophanes, is to teach and instruct the Athenian youth on the true path. Ancient comedy, first of all, is the views and opinions of the author himself. Aristophanes has a clear popularization of the city and the countryside. Bad characters Most often belong to the city, good farmers and workers belong to the countryside. Aristophanes often turns to the era of marathon heroes, to the epic of the Greco-Persian wars. Old and new were also associated with problems of sophistry. Aristophanes' comedies are not directed against Athenian democracy! His criticism is exclusively personal character. The idea of ​​patriotism is constantly heard. Many of Aristophanes' comedies are devoted to the problems of the world (Lysistrata, The World). He often makes fun of fashionable lyric poets. His comedy reflects the most diverse strata of society, men and women, statesmen and generals, poets and philosophers, peasants, city dwellers and slaves; caricatured typical masks take on the character of clear, generalizing images. For the first time, the question of the meaning of creativity is raised. Aristophanes called himself a purifier and critic. Means of influence: a mixture of seriousness and humor, telling the truth. Idealization – the era of marathon heroes. Positive ideals are in the villages. He called all the new schools a bunch of charlatans; had a negative attitude towards urban culture. Language and style: A large number of jokes and puns, some of them obscene. Numerous parodies. The emergence of new words, terms and distortion of old ones. Speech of the characters: many foreigners (Persians, Scythians, oriental deities). The speech of foreigners is a distortion of Greek speech, various dialects. Reproduction of the styles of tragedy, lyric poetry, parody of lyric poetry (dithyrambs in particular), oracles and legal terminology, recitations of sophists, public speeches and debates. Mangling speech + inventing new words or tongue twisters. The language is an example of Attic speech. In the choir - imitation of animals. 27. Aesthetic laws of Aristophanes’ creativity. Ideal image tragic poet (comedy “Frogs”). Euripides and Aristophanes. Aristophanes' literary and aesthetic views are expressed mainly in the comedies "Frogs" and "Women at the Thesmophoria", where he compares the style of Euripides, which seems to him subjectivist and declamatory, with the ancient solemn style of Aeschylus, and gives preference to the latter. He is very principled in his religious views, but this did not stop him from portraying the gods in a funny, even clownish way, and giving a caricature of prayer and prophecies.

In "Frogs" Euripides is depicted as a sentimental, pampered, anti-patriotic poet. Aeschylus is a poet of high and heroic morality, a serious, deep and persistent patriot. The verses of the tragedians are weighed on the scales, the verses of Aeschylus turn out to be solid, weighty, and the light verses of Euripides jump up. For Euripides it is personal, everyday, for Aeschylus it is eternal. And the goal of tragic art is to make it immortal + moral education. The struggle of the tragedians is of a political nature: here the old strong political system is justified and the modern, rich, but very pitiful democracy is condemned. 28. Philosophical prose: Aristotle. Aristotle's literary theory

Aristotle was from the city of Stagira (384-322 BC), educator of Alexander the Great, student of Plato. The author of about 1000 works, 47 of them have reached us in full, many have survived in fragments. According to Aristotle, art is a way of understanding the world. Aristotle divides the arts depending on imitation: Imitation through sound (music, singing); Imitation of colors and form (painting, culture); Imitation of rhythm (dance); Imitation in words and meter (literature). The task of the poet according to Aristotle is to talk about what could happen. In poetry, the main thing the poet recognized was the content. Introduced several concepts: Proportionality. The internal unity of the work, the unity of time, place, action (“Oedipus the King” by Sophocles as an ideal illustration of this); Expediency. The size of the plot must correspond to the essence of the case. An epic is not a story with a chronology! (a perfect example is Homer, The Iliad). Everything is connected by internal unity. Tragedy should consist, according to Aristotle, of six elements: 1. Plot; 2. Characters; 3. Stage setting; 4. Thoughts; 5. Text; 6. Musical composition. The drama should not contain anything that interferes with its integrity and harmony. The unity of time is invariably subordinated to the unity of action. He opposed the basic principles of his teacher’s idealistic philosophy: first of all, he denied the existence of two worlds, the world of ideas and the world of things, believing that there is only one world - the material one. Along with materialistic principles, he is not alien to idealistic views: it recognizes pure form without content. In his treatise “Poetics” raises the question of the essence of beauty. Starts from an ethical understanding of beauty, and sees beauty in the very form of things and their arrangement. He believed that art is a creative imitation of nature, that art helps people understand life. In his opinion, the poet’s task is “to talk not about what actually happened, but about what could happen, therefore, about the possible - according to probability or necessity.” He believed that poetry was more philosophical and serious than history. Poetry comes to the forefront of all forms of art, and among the forms of poetry, tragedy is placed above all. An example of a tragic character is the image of Sophocles' Oedipus. Aristotle insisted on unity of action, demanding only the depiction of people who were noble in their way of thinking, in their behavior, and not in their origin. The problem of catharsis: 1. ethical – cleansing a person from vices. 2. aesthetic - the combination of musical rhythm and harmony is achieved in a person by a feeling of fear or compassion, the concept of justice. 3. catharsis – the highest emotional point, as a result of compassion for what is happening. 4. religious.

29. Plato’s aesthetic views. Plato (427 - 347 BC) was from Athens. He came from an old aristocratic family. In his youth he was a playwright, musician, painter, and athlete. However, all these activities stopped after meeting Socrates. And his death had such an effect on Plato that Socrates became a constant hero in almost all of his works. He led an anti-democratic party. He was a student of Socrates. After the death of the latter, he moved to Megara, and from there to Syracuse. He founded a school, the "Academy", in Athens. Plato is prescribed about 43 works. Most of them are written in the form of dialogue. Both the number of characters and the volume of essays are different. IN chronological order the connection with the political trends of the time is taken into account. Groups: The earliest group, conventionally called “Socratic Dialogues”. Small volume, unclear philosophical doctrine, presentation of the teachings of Socrates and definition of various ethical concepts. Examples: dialogue “Fox”, dialogue “Little Hynia” (categories of truth and lies) + dialogue “Crito”, essay “Apology of Socrates” (relates to the trial of Socrates and his death). General: the dialogue takes place in an everyday setting, the types of characters are realistically drawn, there are many jokes and puns, the same thought runs through the refrain; The second group is devoted to the aristocratic ideal of the state and ideas. It includes the dialogues “Symposium”, “Phaedrus”, “Phaedo” and the first half of the books “The Republic”. General: dialogues about knowledge and the idea of ​​an ideal state system, dialogues between learned men about the soul (philosophical knowledge as the growth of the wings of the soul (the image of Eros)), about Eros: connection with philosophers, this is an absolute innovation of the author! New form dialogue: clearer thoughts and ideas, clearer concepts, more abstract style of dialogue. Justification of Plato's teaching about ideas (philosophical and ethical categories). This group includes the dialogues “Sophist”, “Phaetetus”, “Politician”. General: lack of everyday background, all attention is concentrated on philosophical concepts. A new presentation of Plato's ideas. The penetration of the ideas of Pythagoras, Plato refuses some of his own. Dialogues “Timaeus”, “Critias” + “Laws”. General: These are nothing more than long spatial monologues. The language is dry and abstract. The doctrine of ideas and the state is also connected with literary theory. Plato divided people into three groups: 1. Lower (peasants, artisans); 2. Medium (warriors, guards); 3. Highest (sages, philosophers). Plato created the concept of “beautiful”. According to him, it does not exist in the real, visible world, but it does exist in the world of ideas. Only those who rise to it will see it. Beauty exists forever, it is unchanging. The beautiful is in itself and one with itself. To see it, you need knowledge and contemplation. The above categories are full of creative inspiration! The latter, according to Plato, is counterintuitive. The poet's pen includes extremely negative judgments and creative activity. According to Plato's teachings, there is a world of eternal, unchanging ideas. The material world can never be perfect. This is where aesthetics comes from. If the material world is only a reflection of the ideal world, and the artist and poet in their works strive to imitate the world around them, his skill is false and is only a pale copy of higher ideas. This kind of art cannot exist in an ideal society, and therefore even Homer must be expelled from the walls of a city ruled by philosophers. For Plato, the highest embodiment of beauty is a proportionate, harmonious cosmos. Plato's dialogues are unique dramatic scenes. The drama of human thought, because the search for truth is no less dramatic than the events of life. 30. Greek historiography. “History” of Herodotus - theme, composition, style features. Novella of Herodotus. Historiography has two meanings: The history of the study of a certain problem; The history of describing a certain problem. The history of the archaic ancient city policies of Greece influenced the development of historiography. Asia Minor was predominantly under the influence of the Ionians and Dorians. There, in their cities, the development of thought arises. In connection with travel, writing was needed. Periplus - descriptions of voyages. Logos - (“word”, story, Greek) more detailed descriptions. Logographers are those who wrote logos. The first Greek author who decided to write something like a historical chronicle was Herodotus. Coming from a noble family, a wealthy man, related with the nobility. He spent a significant part of his life in Athens, traveled through cities, collecting materials, and at the end of his days settled in Thurii. He communicated with many Athenian residents and knew many family legends. Herodotus was a political emigrant. I was looking for the reasons for the war with Persia. This is why I started writing my work. Herodotus had to explain a huge number of things and prove various facts. For the first time he turned to logos and began to connect them. Lygian, Egyptian, Babylonian logos include stories in their narrative - all of the above are connected in one way or another with the Persians. Logos allow you to use sources. Herodotus either uses the stories of travelers, or visits the described places himself, talking with local residents. Herodotus believed in the Gods. The ancients called Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484-426 BC) “the father of history”. Life and work took place in the years after the great victories of the Greeks over the Persians, during the years of brilliant achievements of Athenian culture. Herodotus is an ardent patriot of Athens; traveled a lot in the Mediterranean, deeply studied Egypt and Scythia. The works of Herodotus are divided into nine books, named after the muses. The composition of “Stories” resembles an epic poem in prose. The main theme is the heroic struggle of the Greeks with the Persians; The progressive thought about the superiority of the Greeks - patriotic warriors, well trained in gymnastics and military affairs - over the hordes of Persians, driven by whips, resonates especially strongly in this topic. Along with scientific observations and geographical descriptions, there are many legendary and mythological tales coming from ancient historians. Many folk tales and short stories give the story literary and artistic specificity. Drama is introduced if the story is told about famous people antiquity (Solon, Polycrates). At the same time, Herodotus pursues the main idea - fate and the gods cruelly punish a “proud” person, there is a harsh law about the vicissitudes of life. The second book of the History is devoted to a description of what he saw and heard during his travels in Egypt. He is amazed by the power and beauty of the Nile. A wealth of material about the buildings of the Egyptians, about laws, customs, plants and animals, about papyri, even about morals. The life of tribes and heroes, semi-mythical tales. The works of Herodotus had rationalistic features characteristic of the era. The chapters of the third book provide material about the life of the Scythians.

31. Greek historiography. “History” by Thucydides – theme, features of composition and style. Functions of speeches. Thucydides (460-396 BC) - historian after Herodotus, writes about the contemporary war with Sparta. Born in Attica, he belonged to a noble and wealthy family. He took part in the Peloponnesian War. He was elected strategist, but did not provide assistance to the city of Amphipolis on time, was accused of high treason and spent about twenty years in exile. He is of Dorian origin, lived in Athens, but tried to write in the Ionian dialect! Athens at that time was the center of culture, philosophers gathered there, construction was underway there. Thucydides is a rationalist scientist. Refuses to express personal opinion. He wrote until his deathbed. A sincere patriot of Athenian democracy, he highly valued Pericles and glorified the culture of Athens. His political views and his concept of the historical process are influenced by the era of Pericles with its high level of science, art, and philosophy, the era of rationalistic criticism of myths and the development of sophistic schools. Thucydides strove for a systematic critical verification of sources and clarification of causality and patterns of events. His interests lay in modernity. A review of previous periods serves the purpose of analyzing and showing the features of the contemporary events of the Peloponnesian War. He recognized the importance of maintaining chronology. He condemned the ancient chronicle chronological system, when at the head of each described year they placed the name of the official who gave the name to the year, and based his history on summer and winter, the main parts of the solar year. Thucydides himself described his creative approach to artistically constructed oratorical speeches of famous figures of the Peloponnesian War: “my speeches are composed in such a way that, in my opinion, each speaker, always in accordance with the circumstances of a given moment, could most likely talk about the present state of affairs.” 32. Historical works of Xenophon. Features of language and style.

Xenophon.

a) Biographical information.

Xenophon (c. 430-350 BC) - historian and philosopher who lived during the decline of Athens. An Athenian by birth, a Laconophile by political convictions, Xenophon is widely known for his “Anabasis” - the story of the return of 10,000 Greeks, mercenaries of Cyrus the Younger, to their homeland from Persia.

Xenophon's life is stormy and full of adventures. In his youth, he was a student of the Athenian philosopher Socrates, to whom he dedicated several of his best works. In 401, Xenophon went to the service of the satrap of Asia Minor, Cyrus the Younger, who planned to overthrow his older brother, Artaxerxes, from the Persian throne. But this complex and boldly constructed political adventure ended tragically for the conspirators: Cyrus the Younger himself was killed, the military leaders of the Greek mercenaries were treacherously destroyed.

With terrible difficulties, most of the Greek mercenaries returned to the shores of the Pontus Euxine. Xenophon subsequently sided with Sparta against Athens; he was convicted of treason against his native city, and he long years lived in Sparta, in the estate given to him by the Spartans in Skillunta. When the Athenians united with Sparta to fight against Thebes, Xenophon was able to return to his homeland, but soon died, having outlived his son, who died for Athens.

b) The hero in the works of Xenophon is also ideal.

Xenophon's work is extremely diverse. He is the author of notes on Socrates ("Memorabilia"), the first adventure-historical novel ("Anabasis"), the first novelized biography "The Education of Cyrus" ("Cyropedia"), "History of Greece" of the early 4th century. BC. (after the disasters of the Peloponnesian War), many philosophical and political treatises. It is the breadth of interests of Xenophon, who combined the observation of a historian, the philosophical sharpness of thought and the skill of an artist, that makes it possible to consider his ideal of beauty and the means by which he depicts this person.

Xenophon develops the classical understanding of the beautiful, identifying it with the useful and vitally expedient. Hence his assertion of the unity of physical and spiritual beauty, that is, kalokagathia.

The image of an ideal hero, a noble, brave, wise, generous man, is depicted more than once by Xenophon in his books. This is Cyrus the Elder (“Kyropedia”), Cyrus the Younger (“Anabasis”), the Spartan king Agesilaus (“Agesilaus”). Xenophon himself acts as such an ideal hero, having comprehensively outlined his activities as a strategist of the mercenary troops of Cyrus the Younger (“Anabasis”). The author's third-person narration, as if gradually and completely disinterestedly, with a complete impression of objectivity, depicts Xenophon the Athenian, who arrived to Cyrus in Sardis at the invitation of his friend Proxenus and after questioning the Delphic oracle on the advice of Socrates.

Xenophon here is a model of modesty, so that until Book III we hardly see his name. Even after taking command of the army, he always remembers that he is junior compared to Chirisophus, and cedes leadership to him (III, 2, 37). He unquestioningly goes to the most dangerous task (III, 4, 42), never mentions the superiority of Athens, deeply revering the Spartan warriors. He is devoid of self-interest and refuses the rich gifts of the Thracian Sevf (VII, 6, 12). A sense of duty comes first for him. Therefore, he does not leave for Athens until he himself transfers the army to the Spartan Thibron (VII, 7, 57). Always kind, he takes upon himself the guilt of his friend (VI, 4, 14), comes to the aid of soldiers dying from cold and snow (IV, 5, 7).

Piety never fails him, and he makes sacrifices to Zeus, Apollo, Artemis, Hercules, the Sun, the god of the river (IV, 3, 17) and even the wind (IV, 5); believes in omens, dreams and oracles (IV, 3, 8; III, 1, 11; III, 1, 5). This is an experienced strategist, with great skill he crossed mountains and rivers with his army among hostile foreigners (Book IV). At the same time, he is also a strict commander, for whom the most important thing is order (III, 1, 38) and the inspired unity of the army (VI, 3, 23).

Xenophon also acts as a skilled orator, mastering all types of speeches. He either calls and inspires the soldiers (III, 1, 15-26), then exhorts his allies (VII, 7, 8-48), then defends himself against the accusations of enemies (V, 7, 6-34), and always acts with impeccable logic proof. As a result of one such speech, the Thracian Sevf, who tried to deprive the soldiers of the agreed payment, gave them 1 talent of money, 600 bulls, 400 sheep, 120 slaves and hostages.

We can say on the basis of Anabasis that Xenophon is in it the hero whom he himself loved in Cyrus the Elder, and in Cyrus the Younger, and in King Agesilaus. If in Cyropaedia Xenophon created the ideal of a sovereign, then in Anabasis he sculpted the type of ideal leader. The portrait of the military kalokagathia is drawn in Anabasis with classical clarity and certainty.

c) “Beautiful” and “good” in the aesthetics of Xenophon.

The harmonious combination of physical and internal perfection permeates Xenophon’s entire relationship to the beautiful, which the reality surrounding a person is full of.

Xenophon is attracted to beautiful things made by human hands, that is, those that demonstrate his taste, skill, and artistic capabilities. Xenophon admires golden cups, bowls, weapons, jewelry, clothing (Anabasis, VI, 4, 1-9; Cyropaedia, V, 2, 7). In "Anabasis", depicting his estate, the temple near it, the surrounding landscape (meadows, wooded mountains, orchards), Xenophon acts both as an artist and as a skillful owner. He loves everything that is alive, agile, flexible, beautiful and perfectly fulfills its role, its purpose. Remarkable, for example, are the descriptions of dogs, “strong in appearance,” “proportionate,” “light,” with a “cheerful look,” “cheerful disposition,” “attractive to behold” (“Kinegetik”), and horses (“On Horseback Riding.” "). Xenophon enthusiastically depicts colorful processions and festivals in the radiance of gold weapons and purple clothes (Cyropedia, VIII, 3, 9-16).

Thus, sensuous-visual and contemplative-expedient beauty comes to the fore here.

The idea of ​​life order is also important for Xenophon. “There is nothing in the world as useful, as beautiful as order,” he writes (Economist, VIII, 3). Order is not only something useful and pleasant, not only a joyful sight. He is a subject of delight. Ischomachus, the hero of Economics, tells Socrates about the “excellent and highly exemplary order” on the ship (VIII, 11-16). With admiration he depicts order in a home environment, where everything has its place and beautiful view: cloaks, bedspreads, copper dishes, tablecloths, kitchen pots. “All objects, perhaps, seem more beautiful because they are put in order” (VIII, 19-20). Here, as we see, the cosmic mind and harmony of nature of the pre-Socratic ideal are replaced by a purely human order of life. We can say that in the aesthetics of the pre-Socratic period, “order” and “structure” are the natural structure of things, while in classical Xenophon they are established by man and consciously put into practice by him.

It is also important that everything “good”, “kind”, “good” in Xenophon often has not a moral meaning at all, but one in which the beauty of a person is most manifested; in his “virtue” there are often more aesthetic motives than ethical ones .

According to Xenophon, “those people are beautiful whose labors drive out the ugly and boorish from the soul and body and the craving for virtue grows” (Kinegetik, XII, 9). Even hunting “teaches systematic work and gives rise to excellent knowledge,” and therefore great virtue (ibid., XII, 18). People do bad things because they do not see the “body of virtue” (ibid., XII, 19-22). It is difficult to express the classical attitude towards beauty better than Xenophon. Beauty is the body of virtue, that is, physical virtue realized. Hence the idea of ​​the usefulness of beauty and love developed by Xenophon ("Feast", VIII, 37-39), since citizens see that a person in love strives for virtue, and this virtue acquires "an ever greater brilliance of glory" (ibid., VIII, 43).

Beauty and the love that corresponds to it have enormous objective significance. Beauty is the beginning of friendship, human unity and universal virtue (ibid., VIII, 26-27). Therefore, for Xenophon, the main value is “love of the soul, of friendship, of noble deeds” (ibid., VIII, 9-10).

We see, therefore, that Xenophon, this warrior, philosopher, historian and writer, was one of the exponents of the characteristic classical Greece understanding of the ideal and the beautiful in objective reality, in all spheres of itself, it would seem ordinary life, full of order, harmony, harmony and benefit.

The “ancient” Attic comedy is something extremely unique. Archaic and crude games of fertility festivals are intricately intertwined in it with the formulation of the most complex social and cultural problems facing Greek society. Athenian democracy raised carnival liberty to the level of serious public criticism, while keeping the external forms of ritual play intact. You must first get acquainted with this folklore side of “ancient” comedy in order to understand the specifics of the genre.

Aristotle (Poetics, ch. 4) traces the beginning of comedy to “the originators of phallic songs, which to this day remain in custom in many communities.” “Phallic songs” are songs performed in processions in honor of the gods of fertility, especially in honor of Dionysus, while carrying the phallus as a symbol of fertility. During such processions, mocking mimic scenes were played out, jokes and swear words were made at the address of individual citizens (p. 20); these are the very songs from which the satirical and accusatory literary iambic style developed in its time (p. 75). Aristotle's indication of the connection between comedy and phallic songs is fully confirmed by consideration of the constituent elements of “ancient” Attic comedy.

The term "comedy" (Komoidia) means "song of the komos". Komos is a “gang of revelers” who make a procession after a feast and sing songs of mocking or laudatory, and sometimes even love, content. Komos took place both in religious rituals and in everyday life. In ancient Greek life, komos sometimes served as a means of popular protest against any oppression and turned into a kind of demonstration. In comedy, the element of komos is represented by a chorus of mummers, sometimes dressed in very fantastic costumes. Often, for example, animal masquerade occurs. “Goats”, “Wasps”, “Birds”, “Frogs” - all these titles of ancient comedies were given to them based on the costume of the choir. The chorus glorifies, but most often denounces, and its ridicule, directed against individuals, usually has no connection with the comedic action. The songs of Komos were firmly established in Attic folklore, regardless of the religion of Dionysus, but they were also part of the ritual of Dionysus festivals.

Thus, both the chorus and the comedy actors go back to the songs and games of fertility festivals. The ritualism of these celebrations is also reflected in the plots of the comedy. In the structure of “ancient” comedy, the moment of “competition” is obligatory. Plots are most often constructed in such a way that the hero, having won a victory over the enemy in a “competition”, establishes some new order, “turning” (in the ancient expression) upside down some aspect of the usual public relations, and then a blissful kingdom of abundance begins with wide scope for food and love joys. Such a play ends with a wedding or love scene and the procession of komos. Of the “ancient” comedies known to us, only a few, and moreover, the most serious in their content, deviate from this scheme, but they, in addition to the obligatory “competition”, always contain in one form or another also a moment of “feast”

* Ancient Attic comedy

Attic comedy uses typical masks (“boastful warrior”, “scientific charlatan”, “jester”, “drunken old woman”, etc.), Its object is not the mythological past, but living modernity, current, sometimes even topical, issues of political and cultural life. “Ancient” comedy is a predominantly political and accusatory comedy, turning folklore “mocking” songs and games into a weapon political satire and ideological criticism.

Other distinguishing feature“ancient” comedy, this is complete freedom of personal mockery of individual citizens with open naming of their names. The person being ridiculed was either directly brought on stage as comic character, or became the subject of caustic, sometimes very rude, jokes and hints made by the choir and comedy actors. For example, in the comedies of Aristophanes, such persons as the leader of radical democracy Cleon, Socrates, and Euripides are brought onto the stage. More than once attempts were made to limit this comedic license, but throughout the 5th century. they remained unsuccessful.

using also typical masks of folklore and Sicilian comedy. even when the characters are living contemporaries; Thus, the image of Socrates in Aristophanes to a very small extent recreates the personality of Socrates, but is mainly a parodic sketch of a philosopher (“sophist”) in general with the addition of typical features of the mask of a “scientific charlatan.”

The plot of the comedy is mostly fantastic in nature.

The comic choir consisted of 24 people, i.e. twice as large as the tragedy choir of pre-Sophocles' times. It split into two semi-choirs, sometimes warring with each other. The most important part of the choir is the so-called parabass, performed in the middle of the comedy. It usually has no connection with the action of the play; the choir bids farewell to the actors and addresses the audience directly. Parabasa consists

of two main parts. The first, pronounced by the leader of the entire choir, is an appeal to the audience on behalf of the poet, who here settles scores with his rivals and asks for favorable attention to the play. The second part, the choir song, is strophic in nature and consists of four parts

and the race, in which the ideological side of the play is often concentrated. Agon in most cases has a strictly canonical construction. Two characters “compete” with each other, and their dispute consists of two parts; in the first, the leading role belongs to the side that will be defeated in the competition, in the second - to the winner; The following structure can be considered typical for “ancient” comedy. The prologue sets out the hero's fantastic project. This is followed by a parod (introduction) by the choir, a live stage where the actors also participate. After the agon, the goal is usually achieved. Then the parabasa is given. The second half of the comedy is characterized by farce-type scenes. The play ends with a procession of komos. The development of coherent action and the strengthening of the actor's parts led to the creation of a prologue spoken by the actors and the relegation of the parabass to the middle of the play. BOOK PAGE 157-161

Comedy is one of the genres ancient Greek drama. Along with comedy, tragedy and satirical drama. This direction takes its origins from folk ritual events that were held in honor of fertility. Such festivals mainly consisted of cheerful songs, jokes, ridicule and obscenities, which, according to ancient Greek society, were needed to praise and please the productive forces of nature. Dispute played an important role in these ritual actions.

Most often, comedy performances were staged during holidays in honor of the Great Dionysius. They were the final stage of each of the 3 days of the festival. It is worth saying that these days were a real “arena” in which all playwrights, comedians and tragedians organized competitions for superiority and skill. It is believed that the first ancient Greek comedic playwright was Epicharmus. His creations subsequently became the basis for the Roman folk comedy Atellana and the works of Plautus.

New stage

The next stage of maturation was the development of ancient Attic comedy. She already had greater expressiveness and had some features and character traits. For example:

The basis of the entire action was a thesis. He became the subject of controversy and was proven at the end of the performance;
An important part of the comedy was the parabase, which consisted of the chorus addressing the audience;
All plots of stage action were taken from the usual Everyday life and disclosed problems to the public;
In ancient Greek comedy, not only scenes from life were ridiculed, but also real individuals.

The comic performance was always accompanied by fun and laughter. An integral part any action included pantomime, dancing, and songs. It is worth noting that the choreography used in the comedy was quite frank, even erotic in nature, which was manifested in movements and facial expressions. Special attention in the performance was given to costumes and masks. The stage comedy attire was quite different from the tragic one. The actors' masks were ugly, disfigured and represented different emotional states. The comedy participants did not wear buskins, but used special pads that enlarged their bellies and buttocks to enormous sizes.

Already in the fourth century BC. The ancient Greek comedy genre was quite developed. The new stage of evolution brought more depth and more attention to inner world heroes who found themselves in various funny life situations.