Artistic culture of Mesoamerica. Customs and culture of clothing
Art culture Mesoamerica
Long before Europeans discovered the American continent, the cultural civilizations of the Olmecs, Aztecs, Mayans and Incas arose in Central and South America, which had original and original character. It is possible to understand this uniqueness only by taking into account the historical features under which the artistic culture of the so-called pre-Columbian America(before 1492, the time of the discovery of the American continent by Christopher Columbus).
The largest center of artistic culture became Mesoamerica, which included the territory of modern Mexico (except for the desert in the north) and extended south to approximately Nicaragua. This unique civilization, which is the greatest asset of world culture, was an amazing constellation of nations, city-states, ceremonial, political and economic centers known throughout the world today: Tenochtitlan, Teotihucan, Palenque, Chichen Itza.
Structure and meaning artistic language Mesoamerica provides an opportunity to comprehend the ideas and concepts that underlay complex picture a world in which myth and man are inextricably linked. In this cultural area, a unique architectural style was formed, inextricably linked with other forms of art and reflecting ideas about the structure of the Universe and the movement of stars.
What is characteristic of the art of these peoples? First of all, the affirmation of the omnipotence and greatness of the sacred deity, the cult of ancestors, the glorification of victories over enemies, the exaltation of rulers and the supreme nobility.
Artistic culture of the classical period
The oldest civilization of pre-Columbian America was the Olmec culture, who lived on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in the 2nd-1st millennia BC. e. Research has shown that the Olmecs had well-planned cultural centers and step pyramids, stone sculpture, decorative objects applied arts, hieroglyphic writing, ritual calendar. The Olmec architecture was poorly preserved, since earth and rubble, covered with a thick layer of stucco, were used as building materials.
Olmec sculptures, represented by huge stone heads up to 3 m high and weighing up to 40 tons, became world famous. Their purpose is still unknown, but most likely they were of a cult nature. These giant heads, discovered during excavations, still amaze today with their monumentality, mastery of execution, and realistic reproduction of the individual traits of personalities famous at that time.
One of the famous sculptures depicts young man with a wide and flat nose, as if flattened in the middle, thick lips and almond-shaped eyes, slightly covered with heavy eyelids. The height of the sculpture is 2.41 m, weight 25 tons. On the young man’s head is a tight-fitting helmet with headphones decorated with a relief pattern.
By the beginning of the new era, the Olmec culture had disappeared. What caused its decline is unknown, but it was replaced by new civilizations, and above all Teotihuacan city in Central America (2nd century BC - 7th century AD). In this city, located near modern Mexico City, two main temples dedicated to the Sun and Moon have been preserved from its heyday. They are located at the top of a huge step pyramid. The temples were decorated with colorful paintings and brightly painted statues of gods. The eyes of the statues are inlaid precious stones and mother of pearl.
The most grandiose architectural structure - pyramid of the sun(Mexico), currently 64.6 m high (in all likelihood, it was even higher in ancient times). Unlike other pyramidal structures that had a stepped shape, the Pyramid of the Sun consists of four large, decreasing truncated pyramids, placed one on top of the other. On one side of the pyramid there is a system of gradually narrowing ramps that led to the sanctuary in the temple. The planes between the terraces of the building were constructed in such a way that spectators located at the foot of the large staircase could not see what was happening at its top. The pyramid was built from a huge number of mud bricks and faced with plastered stone slabs.
Most likely, the pyramid also served as a “sundial”, accurately marking the onset of the equinox. On March 20 and September 22, an amazing sight could be observed here: exactly at noon, the sun's rays caused a gradual disappearance of the direct shadow on the lower step of the western facade. The transition time from complete shading to illumination took exactly 66.6 seconds. Of course, in order to achieve such a visual effect, one had to have perfect knowledge in the fields of mathematics, astronomy and geodesy.
Several small stepped pyramids were symmetrically located around the Pyramid of the Sun, emphasizing the monumentality of the main building. In architectural decor there are decorations in the form of huge snake heads painted with white paint. On the head of each snake there was a crown of feathers, symbolizing a particularly revered deity of light.
In the middle of the 9th century. the city was abandoned by its inhabitants and turned into a heap of ruins. The civilizations of the classical period were destroyed by the invasion of peoples from the north, first the Toltecs, and in the 11th century. new conquerors - Aztecs who created their own civilization.
Aztec artistic culture
The main feature of the art of the Aztec hunting tribes was the worship of the gods. Surviving legends and tales tell of the numerous campaigns and bloody battles of this warlike people before they created a powerful empire with a highly developed culture. The main place of worship of the gods were temples, which by the beginning of the conquest by the Spaniards in the 16th century. there were more than 40 thousand.
The capital of the Aztecs was especially striking in its splendor Tenochtitlan(“a fruit tree growing from stone”), or Mexico City - now the capital of Mexico (named after the main god of war - Mehitli). The city center was located on an island in the middle of a picturesque lake, surrounded by buildings on stilts and dams, cut by canals. In case of danger, bridges spanning the canals were raised, and the city turned into an impregnable fortress. Alas, Tenochtitlan did not escape a sad fate: at the beginning of the 16th century. the city was conquered and destroyed by the Spanish conquerors - the conquistadors.
We know very little about Aztec architecture, since many structures were destroyed or completely rebuilt. Information about them is preserved only in the descriptions of Spanish eyewitnesses. It is known that in the center of Tenochtitlan there were three palaces of the Aztec rulers and the main temple of the supreme god of war. Two small wooden temples were built on top of the step pyramid.
The Aztec culture reached a special peak. sculpture. Monumental statues of deities are abstract and conventional in nature. As an example, we can cite the huge statue of Coatlicue- goddess of the earth and spring fertility - mother of the supreme deity of war. This statue only vaguely resembles a human figure: it has no face, no head, no arms, no legs. It is made from various materials: corn cobs, claws and fangs of jaguars, human skulls and palms, feathers, wriggling snakes, paws of eagles, etc. All this heap of various objects is strictly symmetrical and balanced.
Have a different character funeral masks Aztecs, reflecting the facial features of the buried person. Notable in this regard is the basalt head of the “eagle warrior”, in which the strong-willed face of the young warrior is masterfully conveyed. The works also attract attention small plastic surgery: graceful figurines of a man crouching on hind legs a frightened rabbit, a coiled snake, a grasshopper preparing to jump, smoking pipes decorated with a seated figure of the god of fire.
Few surviving works jewelry art amaze with their mastery. Necklaces, pendants, earrings, and breast plates are distinguished by their elegance and fine design.
Mayan artistic culture
The Mayan civilization achieved particular success. Long before the conquest by the Spanish conquerors in the 9th-10th centuries. The Mayans invented the exact solar calendar, determined the length of the year, used the concept of zero in mathematics a thousand years earlier than European civilization, accurately predicted solar and lunar eclipses, and invented developed hieroglyphic writing. The art of the Mayan peoples was distinguished by sophistication and perfection.
One of the most eloquent evidence of this culture is architecture: majestic pyramids, magnificent palaces and white-stone cities, lost in the impenetrable jungle of Central America. To the achievements of architecture should be added beautiful monuments of sculpture, unique multi-color frescoes, paintings on vessels, graceful figurines, jewelry, wonderful works made using the technique of wood, bone and pearl carving.
The origin of the Mayan civilization is shrouded in mystery. Its appearance dates back to the turn of our era, when Caesar’s legions subjugated more and more lands to the rule of Rome; its rapid flowering occurred in the 7th-8th centuries. n. e. Only towards the end of the 9th century. The majestic cities froze, the palaces were empty, and the echo of human voices fell silent in the wide squares of the Mayan cities.
What caused the death of the once prosperous civilization is still unknown. There are several versions on this score: an earthquake, sudden climate change, depletion of previously fertile lands, epidemics of terrible diseases, alien invasion, endless wars...
Of the monuments of Mayan artistic culture, the best preserved to this day are works of architecture. They are striking in their amazing sense of proportions, majestic monumentality, and variety of architectural forms. These are not only pyramids and palaces, but also astronomical observatories, ball courts, colonnades, staircases, triumphal arches and steles.
Unlike the Egyptian pyramids, tetrahedral step pyramids were built here, on the truncated top of which a temple with two or three rooms was built. A long, wide staircase led from the base of the pyramid to the door of the sanctuary; sometimes such staircases were located on all four sides of the pyramid.
One of the peaks of Mayan architecture is Palace complex in the city of Palenque on the Yucatan Peninsula. Twenty-five buildings, scattered across a rolling plain covered with dense tropical forest, are grouped around four courtyards and connected by narrow corridors and staircases. The main decorations of the complex are the palace and the step pyramid of the Inscriptions (692). To the southeast there are three more temples - the Sun, the Cross (642) and the Foliated Cross (692). This is how the French traveler M. Pessel described his first meeting with the city: “The ruins of Palenque, appearing so unexpectedly among the endless forest ocean, were simply stunning. Here the mystery of centuries appeared before me, the mystery of a civilization that had perished and disappeared, but still miraculously continues to live in these grandiose buildings - witnesses of past power and glory.”
The palace at Palenque (now much destroyed) stands on a natural plateau, rising almost 70 m above the plain. Inside the palace there are courtyards surrounded by galleries. Richly decorated with carved and sculpted images and inscriptions, the palace has a four-story square turret, which probably served as an astronomical observatory for the Mayan priests.
The Temple of the Inscriptions is a 9-step pyramid, rising above the ground to a height of about 24 m. On its upper platform, a rectangular temple was erected, to which a staircase of 69 steps leads. The walls of the temple are decorated with panels, richly decorated bas-reliefs and relief hieroglyphic inscriptions, thanks to which the temple received its name.
As you know, step pyramids with a flat top often served as tombs of revered people. That is why kings and priests performed rituals here in order to establish a magical connection with the spirits of their ancestors. Inside the pyramid, at a depth of 25 m, in 1952, a magnificent tomb of one of the Mayan rulers was discovered. The relief on the lid of the sarcophagus of this ruler was able to tell scientists a lot. Ancient craftsmen reproduced in stone the Seven Caves - the ancestral home of many Mexican tribes and the world tree connecting the underground and upper worlds. Many symbols associated with Mayan beliefs were woven into the image of the tree (for example, a large quetzal bird with a wide open beak, symbolizing the connection between worlds, reviving the souls of the dead).
No less peculiar are the so-called stadiums— structures with courts for the iconic ball game. They represent two inclined massive walls running parallel to each other. Between them there was a court for playing ball. Participants were not allowed to touch the ball with their hands or feet. You could only play with your elbows, shoulders and sides. The winner was the team that was the first to throw the ball into a round hole made in the stone wall.
Fans were located on the tops of two walls, which they climbed using stairs located on the outside.
art Maya also had its own characteristic features. There was a canon in it, which was determined by the cult of the deified ruler and his ancestors. He achieved particular perfection in works of sculpture. The Mayan ruler was most often depicted in war scenes or seated on a throne. The main attention of the sculptors was not personality traits his appearance or inner soul
quality, but an accurate and careful reproduction of a magnificent costume, headdress and other attributes of power. A certain idealized person appeared before the viewer, frozen in a motionless pose, devoid of feelings and character traits. His face conveyed indifference and calm majesty. It inspired fear in the native captives. They, unlike the ruler, were aware human feelings: grief, pain from wounds, silent obedience... The image of the ruler was accompanied by a short hieroglyphic text containing information about his birth, reign, military victories and other successes.
The artistic culture of the Mayan peoples had a huge influence on American culture in subsequent eras.
Inca artistic culture
One of the most famous South American civilizations was the Inca Empire, an Indian people who lived from the 11th century. in the territory of modern Peru. This empire included the lands of modern Bolivia, the southern part of Ecuador, northern Chile and Argentina. Inca legends have been preserved, telling about the emergence of the world, the first deities and people. At the head of the Inca empire was the Supreme Inca, the Son of the Sun, and the Incas themselves considered themselves “sons of the Sun.” The image of the luminary in the form of a golden disk with a human face was the subject of official cult.
One of the oldest legends tells that when a couple emerged from Lake Titicaca, having received a magic golden rod from their father the Sun, they were predicted to found a city and a country in a certain place. They searched for this place for a long time, and then one day, after a long search, the rod suddenly went into the ground. Here the capital of the Inca Empire arose - Cusco, the ruins of which can still be seen today.
The Incas entered the history of world art thanks to the beauty and grandeur of their temples. On the coast of Peru, many pyramids have survived to this day, but, unlike other American civilizations, they served for collective burials of the embalmed bodies of the dead. Some step pyramids had a circular rather than rectangular plan.
One of the most outstanding structures of the Inca period is the main Temple of the Sun- “Golden Fence”. According to the descriptions, it was surrounded by a triple wall, which had a circumference of about 380 m. Well-hewn stones were tightly fitted to each other without the use of a binding solution. The wall was decorated with a belt of gold plates “four palms wide and four fingers thick,” as one eyewitness testifies. In the main wall there was a single entrance leading from the Square of the Sun directly into the sanctuary of the deity. IN central hall In the sanctuary, an image of the Sun God was erected in the form of a huge golden disk decorated with precious stones. An unquenchable fire was constantly maintained in front of him.
Around the main buildings were the quarters of the priests and temple servants and the world famous “Golden Garden” of the Incas. Its dimensions reached approximately 220 x 100 m, and the garden itself and all its inhabitants - people, birds, lizards, insects - were made in life size of pure gold and silver.
The Incas also achieved some success in sculpture. One of the most significant sculptural monuments is relief at the Gate of the Sun in Tiahuanaco. On front side A huge monolithic stone block has a relief carved with the image of the supreme deity. The deity stands on a dais with staffs in both hands. His headdress resembles radiating snakes. The figure of the deity is squat, he has unnaturally small legs, and his face is wide and square. On either side of him are three rows of minor deities, or winged geniuses, facing him. The relief gives the impression of calm grandeur and power. The most mysterious thing in this building is the frieze calendar depicting human figures, animals and ornaments. Among the many animals carved on the Gate of the Sun, you can even find an elephant.
Works have also survived to this day ceramics. Inca craftsmen created jewelry from gold, exquisite luxury items, in which they used fancy graphic patterns on mythological stories about the creation of the world, the struggle of heroes with fantastic monsters, as well as episodes from everyday life (hunting, fishing, weaving).
Questions and tasks
1. What are the most significant achievements of the artistic culture of the peoples of Central America? How did its uniqueness and original character manifest itself?
2*. What do you know about the artistic culture of the classical period? Tell us about the masterpieces of Olmec art and architectural structures in the city of Teotihuacan.
3. What are the characteristic features of Aztec art? What was the architectural appearance of their capital, Tenochtitlan? What is unique about Aztec sculpture?
4. What were the artistic achievements of the Mayans? What were the characteristic features of their architecture and fine art?
5*. Tell us about the masterpieces of art of the powerful Inca Empire. What influence did the religious and mythological ideas of this people have on the development of art?
Creative workshop
1. Compare the ancient Egyptian and Mesoamerican pyramids. What distinguishes their architectural appearance? What is their purpose?
2. Make sketches of clothing or objects of decorative and applied art (feather items, masks, geometric patterns, leather appliques) in the traditions of ancient American art.
Topics of projects, abstracts or messages
“The Artistic Achievements of the Peoples of Pre-Columbian America”; “Masterpieces of Aztec Art”; " Global significance Mayan artistic culture"; “Reflection of mythological ideas in the architecture and reliefs of the Mayans and Aztecs”; “Speaking letters (about the history of the emergence of writing of the peoples of pre-Columbian America)”, “ Ancient cities Mesoamerica"; “Mysteries of the lost civilizations of Mesoamerica”; “Traditions and myths of the peoples of pre-Columbian America and their reflection in modern culture"; “Myth and reality in the works of D. Rivera.”
Books for further reading
Aztecs: Empire of Blood and Majesty. M., 1997.
Galich M. History of pre-Columbian civilizations. M., 1990.
Gulyaev V. Ancient Maya: mysteries of a lost civilization. M., 1983.
Kinzhalov R.V. The Art of Ancient America. M., 1968.
Kinzhalov R.V. Culture of the ancient Mayans. M., 1971.
Mexico. Journey to the land of the gods: Ancient monuments. St. Petersburg, 2002.
Polevoy V. M. Art of countries Latin America. M., 1967.
Stingl M. Secrets of the Indian pyramids. M., 1978.
Tokarev S. A. Religion in the history of the peoples of the world. M., 1986.
Encyclopedia for children "Avanta Plus". Art. T. 7. Part 2. M., 1999.
Yakovets Yu. A. History of civilizations. M., 1997.
When preparing the material, the text of the textbook “World Artistic Culture. From the origins to the 18th century" (Author G. I. Danilova)
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Artistic Culture of Mesoamerica Grade 10
Pre-Columbian America (before 1492)
Territory of Central and South America Originated cultural civilizations: Olmec Aztec Maya Incas
The oldest civilization of pre-Columbian America was the Olmec culture. They lived on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in the 2nd-1st millennium BC. The Olmecs had planned cultural centers and step pyramids, stone sculpture, objects of decorative and applied art, hieroglyphic writing, and a ritual calendar.
Architecture The architecture is poorly preserved. A huge stone head up to 3m high and weighing up to 40t gained worldwide fame. Its purpose is not known, probably cultic in nature.
New civilization The city of Teotihuacan in Central America. Two main temples dedicated to the Sun and Moon have been preserved. S. 54 ab.2
Artistic culture of the Aztecs In the 11th century, conquerors came from the north - the Aztecs, who created their own civilization. The main feature of the art of the Aztec hunting tribes was the worship of the gods.
The main place of worship of the gods were temples. The capital of the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan, or Mexico City, now the capital of Mexico, was striking in its magnificence. The city center was on an island in the middle of the lake.
Aztec sculpture Monumental statues of deities were abstract and conventional in nature. The statue of Coatlicue is the goddess of the earth and spring fertility. It is made from corn cobs, jaguar claws and fangs, human skulls and palms, feathers, snakes, eagle paws, etc.
Reading. P. 56 ab 1 below, p. 57 Funeral mask Jewelry
Mayan artistic culture The Mayan tribe invented an accurate solar calendar, determined the length of the year, used the concept of zero, predicted solar and lunar eclipses, and invented hieroglyphic writing.
Architecture. Difference. (p. 58 ab.1) Egyptian pyramids Temple of the Aztec Inscriptions
Stadiums are structures with grounds for the iconic ball game. Rules of the game p. 59 ab.1 from below
Artistic culture of the Incas. The Inca Empire is an Indian people living since the 11th century. In the territory of modern Peru. There are legends about the emergence of the Inca Empire (p.61 ab.2)
Sculpture. Relief on the Gate of the Sun at Tiahuanaco
Homework: The art of primitive man The artistic culture of Western Asia Architecture Ancient Egypt Artistic culture of Mesoamerica. REPEAT FOR CHECK WORK
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A special cultural and geographical region - Mesoamerica - includes Central and Southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and the western regions of El Salvador and Honduras.
Existence ancient culture in Mesoamerica, which flourished around 1100 AD. continues to puzzle historians. We are talking about the mysterious Olmecs. Their religious rituals are far from fully understood, just as the origins of the Olmecs themselves are not understood. The earliest traces of habitation were found in the La Venta area and date back to the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e.
According to the most ancient legend, the Olmecs (“people from the land of rubber trees”) appeared on the territory of modern Tabasco about 4000 years ago, they arrived by sea and settled in the village of Tamoanchane (“We are looking for our home”). According to the same legend, it is said that the sages sailed away, and the remaining people settled these lands and began to call themselves by the name of their great leader Olmec Wimtoni.
Some scholars believe that the first empire in America was the Olmec. This was due to the creation of cities (ritual centers) with a unique, simple and powerful architecture.
Olmec culture is called the "mother of cultures" of Central America and the most early civilization Mexico. They are credited with creating the basis of writing, a calendar, and a system of numbers for later cultures of Mesoamerica. But there is still heated debate around this - not many agree that the Olmecs invented it.
In the last century BC, the Olmec civilization completely disappeared, but their heritage organically entered the cultures of the Mayans and other peoples of Mesoamerica.
The Mayan civilization covered most region of Mesoamerica.
When we talk about the "ancient Maya" we mean the history of one of the most important pre-Columbian Meso American cultures. Contrary to popular belief, the Mayan civilization never “disappeared.” At least not entirely, as their descendants still live in the region, and many of them speak any of the languages of the Mayan family.
funeral mask of King Pakal
K"inich-Hanaab"-Pacal I (the Great) ("Solar Water Lily - Shield") is probably the most famous of all the kings in the history of the classical Maya. His reign is an excellent example of what a deep mark an outstanding personality can leave in history.
Red Queen
Teotihuacan "place where the gods were made; City of the Gods" is the name given to it was one of the largest cities in Central America during the pre-Hispanic era.
MASKS Teotihuacan
Aztec Empire
MASKS Aztecas
Mexican traditional masks created for rituals have not only artistic, but also religious functions. There are countless festivals where masks are used in a combination of Christian and indigenous traditions. These festivals often include parades and street theater. These masks are carved from wood, painted with ornaments and sisal rope, animal horns or teeth.
According to the overwhelming majority of experts, local civilizations arose and developed without any tangible influence from other centers of culture located in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the valley of the river. Indus, and went through approximately the same stages of development as the ancient societies of the Old World, but with some chronological lag.
The original and distinctive character of Mesoamerican civilizations is emphasized by the fact that they were created under the absolute dominance of the stone industry, the absence of metal products (until the 9th-10th centuries), a potter's wheel, wheeled carts, domestic pack and draft animals. In most areas of Mesoamerica, the economic basis of the emerging early class society was slash-and-burn ("milpa") agriculture of high productivity. A clear astronomical agricultural calendar, highly organized plant selection and careful care of crops were ensured, even in the presence of primitive agricultural tools (the "koa" digging stick, a hoe with a stone tip and a stone celt axe), obtaining a fairly significant surplus product. There were also intensive forms of agriculture (irrigation, “floating gardens” - chinampas, “raised fields”, terraces, drainage canals, etc.). However, they were important only for the population of some areas of Mesoamerica (Valley of Mexico, Oaxaca, Puebla, Campeche - in Mexico and Peten in Guatemala) Soddy, D. Great cultures of Mesoamerica [Text] / D. Sodi. Per. from Spanish - M.: Knowledge, 1985. - P. 7.
The successful development of agriculture was not accompanied by the development of cattle breeding. The local breed of horses, which could later prove to be as useful as in the Old World, became extinct in America very early (about 10 thousand years ago). Cows and sheep were unknown, and caribou (deer) and bison, which could take their place if they were tamed, were found mainly in areas inhabited by primitive tribes, who were content with hunting them Yakovets, Yu.Ya. History of civilizations. [Text] / Yu.Ya. Yakovets. - M: Vlados, 1997. - P. 58.
In his classic essay, Kirchhoff severally distinguishes subgroups of high and low farmers of the Americas: the high farmers of the Andean region and partly Amazonian low peoples, the farmers of South America and the Antilles, the gatherers and hunters of the continent
In his work, Kirchhoff concludes that Mesoamerican culture is only part of a larger zone of American cultures descended from older cultures of non-agricultural peoples, and that elements missing from Mesoamerica, but existing in North and South America, must have existed in Mesoamerica , but in an earlier era.
Early stage. Economic activity everything is still based mainly on gathering, hunting and fishing, but with a progressive increase in the cultivation of plants. The beginning of settled life in small groups, families. The relationship between the characteristics of the ancient world and human activities. American civilizations. [Electronic resource] / Civilizations. - access mode: http: //www.all4parket.ru/nac.htm.
On early stage development (until the middle of the 2nd millennium BC) the cultures of the zone of ancient civilizations developed in isolation from each other, reaching in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. approximately the same stage of development. This explains the ease of spread of corn-based agriculture, which led to a change in farming systems among the tribes of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. The stage of the producing economy begins. The spread of corn and elements of material culture went from north to south in two main ways: by sea and, through the territory of Ecuador to the Andean region, and by land, along the Isthmus of Panama to the territory of Colombia. Communications in the Preclassic period were extremely lively and probably two-way.
The life of the population in the next classical period characterized by the independent development of all its areas. The basis was the cultural unity of the previous period. This period in Mesoamerica includes Teotihuacan, Mayan (Old Kingdom), Olmec, Zapotec and some other cultures. In South America these are the Mochica, Wari, Tiahuanaco and Lima cultures.
The Postclassic period is a time of vibrant tribal movements in Mesoamerica and the Andean region. The closed framework of local cultures of the previous period is being broken. The main cultures of postclassical Mesoamerica are the Toltec, Aztec, Yucatan Mayans, and Mixtecs. In the Andean region - the kingdom of Chimor and the Inca Empire Zubarev, V.G. Ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica / V.G. Zubarev // History of ancient Central and South America. - Tula: TSPU named after L. Tolstoy. 2004. - P. 6.
Mesoamerican culture. Inca civilization
Historical and geographical information. Olmec Civilization: Art and Religion; mythology and mystery of stone heads. Mayan culture: religion, hieroglyphic writing, Mayan books, science and mythology, worldview and ideas about the universe, system of spiritual and political government; the religious and ceremonial nature of the ball game, the mystery of the death of the Mayan civilization. Toltecs: trade and martial art - characteristic features Toltec civilization. Aztec civilization: military art, Tenochtitlan as Cultural Center Aztecs. Inca civilization: religion and mythology of the Incas, palaces and temples - the main treasure of the Inca culture, military policy and administration in the Inca empire, knot writing and Inca science.
The geographical region on the American continent, within which a deeply distinctive civilization flourished in pre-Columbian times, is designated by the term “Mesoamerica” (literally: middle America). In this region, cultures such as the Olmec, Toltec, Aztec and Classic Mayan cultures emerged, flourished and declined.
The first definition of Mesoamerica as a cultural region came from anthropologist Paul Kirchoff (1943). Early culture The Olmecs created in pre-Columbian America. Their territory includes a large part of Mexico, all of Guatemala and all of Belize. The first civilization in Mesoamerica was created by the Olmecs around 1200 ᴦ. BC e. More precisely, radiocarbon dating showed that the “fortification” of San Lorenzo originated around 1300 BC, and reached its peak after 1200 BC, when the Olmecs appeared there. *
* Kinzhalov R. The end of the sacred circle. L., 1988. P. 219.
Mesoamerica.
On the plains along the Gulf Coast, this ancient people built ritual centers with monumental architecture and sculpture. The Olmecs built temples in these centers in the form of stepped pyramids, but there are also cone-shaped temples as examples of imitation of mountains of volcanic origin.
Conquering every inch of land from the jungle, fighting wild vegetation, the Olmecs learned how to reclamate. In addition to growing crops, farmers also performed seasonal work: they helped build a religious center and transported stone used for the construction of monuments. The priestly rulers who oversaw these works lived in the centers with their families, servants and a small number of artisans.
The Olmecs were excellent craftsmen who knew how to make a wide variety of products that were deeply original in style - from miniature jade pendants to huge 20-ton basalt sculptures. The Olmecs amazed with their sculptural art. They were called the “people of sculptors”. Many different sculptures and sculptures decorated temples and especially altars. “Statues of standing and sitting people, some freaks, frogs, snails, decorations in the form of flowers, jade,” perfectly crafted. There are many images of the jaguar, whose cult the Olmecs were simply obsessed with. * Painting developed among the Olmecs. Magnificent frescoes were found in the areas of Jushtlahuaca and Oxtotitlan. They presented various subjects. The painting was amazing with its variety of colors.
The Olmec civilization was a theocracy: farmers supported the rulers with their labor, supplying surpluses of their products to the center and performing various tasks. In return, they received a guarantee that the rituals performed by the priests in the centers would help ensure their personal safety. The Olmec priests created a distinctive religion, mythology, and complex iconography centered on several gods. Two established systems can be distinguished in the development of mythology.
* Ibid. P. 219.
One mythological system identifies the “Goddess with braids” as the supreme and all-encompassing deity, who personifies the flora and fauna, heaven and earth, life and death. Heavenly milk flows from her chest - rain, she is the mistress of moisture, corn is a gift from this goddess to America. Later in this mythological system, the goddess splits into many gods, more numerous in their functionality. She is depicted sometimes as a blooming woman, sometimes as a girl with four braids descending in pairs onto her chest, sometimes as an old woman with saggy breasts. There is an image of this goddess in the form of a woman with a triune torso, personifying spring blossoming, fruiting, and the autumn-winter period. Some images of gods have two heads, which indicates that the Olmecs were thinking about the dual nature of the world. Olmec seals have been found that depict a woman in a crouched position as a woman in labor, and on her stomach there is a drawing of the Sun, which indicates that the Olmecs revered the woman as the ancestor of the clan and she was a symbol of creation, the generation of everything new, a source of development.
A new stage in this mythological system is the stage when the goddess has a “fat son”. He began to be perceived as a mediator between people and the goddess, personifying corn and the sun. The third stage of this mythological system coincides with the appearance of God as an elderly bearded man - a prototype of the future old god, personifying fire and earthquakes. He becomes the father of the “fat” god. The main cult of the Olmecs is the cult of the jaguar god, protector of corn fields. The jaguar was deified because it scared away animals that ate crops grown by the Olmecs. He became the patron of fields and farmers.
Along with the emergence of the conditionally second mythological system among the Olmecs, the god - the ruler of the underground depths with the appearance of a jaguar - acquired comprehensive power. The goddess with braids becomes his lover. From their union two sons appear - twins, half-humans, half-jaguars. Duality, dialecticality, which was characteristic of the creator mother, passes on to the sons, one of whom personifies rain, the other - corn
The latter is depicted as a boy, from whose head a shamrock of corn grows, and his hands are folded on his stomach. The appearance of two boys is also confirmed by the Aztec myth, according to which two gods tear the earth goddess into two halves, forming the firmament of heaven and earth.
Among the Olmecs, the myth of corn kernels originally hidden in the mountain was of great importance. With great difficulty, the god Quetzalcoatl found them and took them out and handed them over to people. In another version of the myth, Quetzalcoatl carries a baby (the personification of corn) from the depths of the earth to give it to people.
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Captive-shaped vessels. Mochica culture (Peru). I-VIII centuries
The most famous attribute of the Olmec civilization is the giant stone heads found in San Lorenzo, La Venta and Tres Zapotes. Οʜᴎ indicate that the Olmecs were skilled craftsmen. The basalt from which these heads are made was mined in the Tushtla Mountains, almost a hundred miles away from the places where they were discovered by archaeologists. Moving multi-ton basalt blocks over such a distance required not only enormous physical effort, but also the appropriate organization of these efforts. And although the Olmec civilization was not a city-state, its priestly rulers had great power, control and organization.
What the giant heads represented is still a mystery. It can be assumed that these are images of the heads of enemies, since in Ancient America the heads of enemies were actually preserved and immortalized in stone. The Aztecs kept the severed heads of enemies they sacrificed. There is a version that these are the heads of young men who were sacrificed to the gods. The best young man was selected for sacrifice by the priests from among the ball players. He became the personification of the maize god and ensured the harvest for 52 years. The Olmec ball game was of a religious and ceremonial nature; the game was preceded by a complex ritual.
The Olmecs believed that the act of self-sacrifice, suicide, would ensure immortality and all the blessings of life. eternal life. It is believed that the most beautiful girls of the settlement, who were selected by the priests for sacrifice, went to their death with joy and pride, just like the best young men playing ball.
In Olmec times, the idea of four sides of the Universe arose, the symbol of which was the St. Andrew's cross inscribed in a rectangle. There is a legend about four eras and a prediction that, together with the acquisition of maize in the fifth era, she will die from the old god of fire and earthquake. And the symbol of the fifth era is considered to be a god presenting maize to people, on whose shoulders and knees lie the heads of four other gods - the patrons of the previous four eras.
Fifteen centuries before Columbus's discoveries, the Olmecs invented an accurate solar calendar.
The gods suppress the “rebellion of things.” Painting a vessel. Mochica culture.
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It was unusually complex in structure and interpretation and consisted of several independently rotating “wheels” that counted interconnected cycles of time.
Period from 800 to 400. BC e. is considered the Middle Archaic time of Mesoamerica, and the Olmec culture had a fully developed and mature appearance. Stone monuments with calendar dates recorded in the long count system stood in cities. Rich ritual centers with a certain orientation and layout had complex dedicatory treasures and hiding places, mirrors made of polished stone, steles and altars. The center of La Venta stands out as a whole culture, which is usually called the La Venta culture.
Regarding the Olmec civilization, two questions - about its origins and about the folding processes - remain open to a variety of speculative constructions. Why a unique civilization flourished in the middle of the jungle remains a mystery to historians. But her disappearance is understandable. The Olmec culture quietly and smoothly passed into the Mayan culture.
About 300 ᴦ. BC e. In the geographical area adjacent to the Olmec Plains, an area covering parts of modern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize (British Honduras) and Honduras, a great civilization began to take shape.
Mochica culture. Archaeological complex. 1st-8th centuries
Here the Maya people built several majestic ritual centers, the impressive ruins of which are well preserved, despite the ravages of time and natural disasters. As a result of excavations in these centers, archaeologists received great material, testifying to the outstanding artistic and intellectual achievements of the ancient Maya. Anyone who has seen such Mayan cities as Tikal or Copan cannot help but be amazed amazing skill their builders - architects and sculptors. The Maya also made major advances in writing, astronomy, pottery and stone work, and economic, social, and religious organization.
The emergence of large ritual centers - distinctive feature Mayan culture. Strictly speaking, they (like the Olmec ones) cannot be called a city. Although it consisted of a number of large and varied buildings, its population was not large. This even gave some scientists reason to call the Mayan centers “empty towns”. The permanent population of the “towns” consisted mainly of priests, their servants and a small number of artisans. The priests lived in large houses or palaces in and around the center. The bulk of ordinary communal farmers lived in much more modest wooden and reed houses in the vicinity of the “town”. Based on historical and modern analogies, scientists suggest that during certain periods of the year, on the occasion of large religious holidays, such as the sowing festival, farmers flocked to these religious centers to take part in religious ceremonies or simply attend them. At other times of the year, some farmers were called to the centers to build new temples dedicated to the gods and palaces intended for their earthly representatives - the priests.
Wall painting in the Temple of Warriors. Chichen Itza.
The oldest Mayan hieroglyphic inscription (Leiden tablet). Nephritis. 320 ᴦ. BC e.
The Mayans erected sculptural monuments-steles with hieroglyphic inscriptions in their ritual centers. The hieroglyphic text usually referred to a priestly ruler, whose image was also present on the monument. The text could contain a description of some historical event or the genealogy of the person to whom it was dedicated this monument. The date of death of this person or his rise to power was often given. The face itself was often depicted wearing full ritual regalia (including ear and nose ornaments, bracelets, necklaces, a feathered headdress, and a ceremonial staff - a symbol of power).
Considering the fact that the Mayans created an accurate solar calendar, real hieroglyphic writing and an unusually high level of art (architecture, sculpture, painting), they are often called the “intellectuals” of the New World.
Undoubtedly, the Mayan people possessed certain spiritual values, as evidenced by the wealth of their cultural achievements, but we still know very little about this greatest civilization of antiquity. We hardly know the names of the Mayan rulers, military leaders and priests. The hieroglyphs carved on numerous steles and altars have not been fully read. Scientists cannot yet satisfactorily answer even such important questions as the origin of the Mayan civilization, the features of its socio-economic structure, the nature political structure and, finally, the reasons for the dramatic death of local cities at the end of the 1st millennium AD. e.
Archaeological excavations allow us to study the material culture of the disappeared people. It is difficult to study cultural traditions, since the Spanish conquerors eradicated the Mayan culture and traditions with zealous fanaticism. All traces of pagan religion were destroyed everywhere.
Despite the best efforts of the Spaniards to exterminate them, deeply rooted ancient beliefs persisted among the Indians. They still worshiped the gods of the sun, rain and fertility (it was to them that the Mayans secretly appealed during the sowing period in their fields), they worshiped the supreme god Itzamna and the powerful Kukulkan, in whose temples they prayed for revenge for their bitter fate.
In Mayan history there is such a fact: in the city of Tutul Shiu was collected a big library, consisting of books written by Indian priests before the arrival of the Spaniards. Having discovered this valuable archive, the Franciscan monk Diego de Landa committed an act of senseless cruelty, which deprived researchers of one of the most important sources of information that reached the 16th century. He ordered the books to be taken to the city square and publicly burned.
The literature of the ancient Mayans was at a very high stage of development. Their books, or codices as they are often called, are a single strip of paper made from plant fiber and a natural adhesive. This paper was coated on both sides with white lime. On its surface, Indian priests carefully drew complex hieroglyphic signs, painting them with plant and mineral paints. The manuscript was then folded and encased in a wooden or leather cover, creating a volume or codex resembling in appearance modern book. Only three such Mayan codes have survived. In 1739 ᴦ. was discovered in Vienna and acquired later state library Dresden has the so-called “Dresden Codex,” which contains mainly astronomical calculations. In the second half of the 19th century. fragments of two more Mayan manuscripts were found in Spain. The study showed that these are parts of the same document - the Codex Tro-Cortesianus. It is a manual for priests on astrology. This codex is now kept in the Museum of Archeology and History in Madrid. The third codex is in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, where it was discovered in 1860. in a box with forgotten documents. Large portions of this manuscript, called the Codex Peresianus, are missing. However, the surviving fragments contain vivid descriptions of some deities and religious ceremonies. The codes do not cover specific historical events. Priceless chronicles of the history of the Mayan civilization, from its mysterious origins to the moment of its death, were destroyed at the stake of the Inquisition. A valuable collection of manuscripts on the history of Northern Yucatan is contained in the books of Chilam Balam, named after a group of priests famous for their prophecies and ability to penetrate the world of the supernatural.
ʼʼThe mysterious song from the books of Chilam Balam tells about the events that heralded the end of the Mayan era.
Eat, eat your bread;
Drink, drink your water;
On this day the earth will be covered with dust;
On this day, destruction will come to the earth;
On this day a cloud will rise;
On this day a strong man will take over this land;
On this day everything will perish;
On this day you will close the eyes of the dead. *
* Gallenkamp Ch. Mayan. The mystery of a vanished civilization. M., 1966.S. 130-131.
Painting of the Temple of the Warriors. Chizen-Itza.
The ingenuity and talent of this people were most clearly demonstrated in the fields of mathematics and astronomy. Since the mentioned areas of knowledge were especially important for the priests, since they had, in their opinion, a close connection with the spiritual forces of nature, the Mayan priests studied various aspects of time in order to understand their essence and weaken their mysterious influence on the destinies of people and empires. From these works a calendar system grew that spanned millions of years. It gave rise, in turn, to a rather complex worldview. The Mayans never considered time to be a purely abstract concept through which a certain sequence of events was established. It seemed to them rather a mysterious, otherworldly and omnipotent force of creation and destruction. The Mayans believed that successive cycles - days, months, years - brought with them the mercy or wrath of God. Each god was the patron of a certain sacred number and received corresponding designations in hieroglyphs. Segments of time were represented as a “burden”, which the heavenly guards carried on their backs.
If the burden of a particular cycle was “taken” by an evil deity, it could have bad consequences. This continued until the “burden of time” was transferred to a more favorable god. Whether a particular month or year would be good or bad depended entirely on the character of the carrier deity. This strange belief partly explains the enormous influence of the priests in society. The Mayans believed that it was impossible to predict the evil intentions of the gods without priests. Οʜᴎ, having found out the various properties of the gods and understood their intricate wanderings along the roads of time and space, they could decide which periods of time they own good gods, and which ones are evil. Only astronomer priests could save people from disasters caused by misinterpretation of the divine will. They studied time in search of happy or unlucky cycles, hoping that, having learned the future, they would be able to direct their destiny along a more favorable path.
The Mayans had two systems for measuring the year: ʼʼTzolkʼʼ, or holy year out of 260 days; civil year - ʼʼhaabʼʼ, consisting of eighteen months of twenty days each; an additional month of five days was added to them, making a total of 365 days a year. ʼʼHaabʼʼ was used in the usual calendar calculation, while the shorter ʼʼTzolkinʼʼ was associated with religious rites. Every day and month we received given name and a certain hieroglyph. For each hieroglyph there was a so-called “normal form” of writing and a “capital form” - stylized signs depicting figures of people, animals and mythological creatures.
When studying calendar inscriptions, scientists were able to learn that each cycle of the “initial series” is counted from the mysterious date “4 Ahau 8 Kumhu,” which apparently marks the starting point of the Mayan chronology. This date is called “zero” date.
Amazing scientific achievements priest-astronomers who made the creation possible accurate calendar. For many centuries, they carefully took into account and recorded data about the movement of celestial bodies - about the “endless wanderings of the host of gods.” Observation of the stars was carried out from towers and high platforms along pre-marked sighting lines. The results were carefully noted on maps. On their basis, accurate tables were compiled for predicting solar and lunar eclipses. Particular attention was paid to the movement of the planet Venus. At the same time, an unusually mysterious cult of Venus arose. The Mayans calculated the cycle of movement of this planet around the Sun with an error of 14 seconds per year. In order to eliminate deviations of a cosmic nature and deviations due to the leap year, the Mayan priests made amendments to the calendar. The need for mutual coordination of various calendar systems, as well as the 365-day civil year with a 260-day ritual created additional difficulties.
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The Maya mathematical system was expressed in ornate capital-form symbols and the more common system of dashes and dots.
Itzamna, one of the main Mayan gods, creator of the world, inventor of writing, founder of the priesthood.
The Zero Principle is one of the most remarkable Mayan achievements in mathematics. Οʜᴎ used the concept of zero before the Hindus and Arabs. He was depicted in their hieroglyphs in the form of a shell, an unclenched hand, or various parts of them.
A characteristic feature of the Mayan civilization was that the development religious views went along with the development of the calendar, mathematics and writing.
Mayan cosmology attributes the creation of the world to the god Hunab Ku. The “duties” of this god were so important, and his domain so sacred, that he hardly interfered in the daily life of the people.
Besides Hunab Ku, there were many other, less significant gods. The main gods were the god of fruitful rain and deadly lightning with a head similar to a tapir, the god of the Sun and the night sky, the patron of life and death - the god of corn. All of them had a human appearance, thanks to which they can be easily recognized in hieroglyphic inscriptions.
The Mayan religious worldview expresses a deep understanding of the laws of the harmonious unity of the world and the dialectics of its development. At the root of the Mayan religious views was the connection between life and death, the eternal cycle of dying and rebirth. For this reason, all Mayan deities are dual. Οʜᴎ combine two opposite principles: life and death, love and hate, earth and sky. One of the main Mayan gods was depicted as a feathered snake: feathers are a symbol of the sky, the snake is a symbol of the earth.
The Mayans believed that after death a person’s soul remains either in a state of serene bliss or in eternal torment based on the person’s deeds and the degree of his commitment to religious ideals. Eternal bliss awaits those who deserve it. Sinners will go to Mitnal - the underworld, a kingdom of eternal cold and hunger inhabited by demons. Suicide, especially by hanging, was considered the highest act of self-sacrifice by the Mayans. It provided all the benefits of immortality. As in the Olmec civilization, among the Mayans, the most beautiful girls of the settlement, who were sacrificed to the gods, deserved an eternal serene happy life, just as the best boys - winners in the ball game - deserved the same honor: sacrificed , they ensured the well-being of the living for 60 years.
The people had no idea about the broad philosophical aspects faith or about the intellectual pursuits of the priesthood. The participation of the masses in the spiritual life of society was ensured by collective rituals to appease the gods, which influenced fertility, yield and rain. All the requirements of the ritual calendar were strictly observed. Numerous sacred days: the end of the katun, New Year, the beginning of each month, the consecration of monuments and buildings, the beginning of sowing and harvesting required special rituals, celebrations, sacrifices, prayers and dances. On such days, crowds of believers gathered near the temples. There, under the guidance of priests, they took part in various religious rituals: purification, burning of copal resin, bloodletting, dancing, chanting and final feasts. But when they began to arise crowded cities, the supply of which placed an additional burden on farmers, the Mayan priests, in search of the mercy of the gods, resorted to human sacrifices. The mass murder of prisoners of war served the same purpose. The Mayans began to consider human life the highest gift to the gods. Women and children were sacrificed as often as men.
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Ish-Chel, goddess of the rainbow and the moon, wife of Itzamna.
Human sacrifice in ancient Mexico.
Thanks to a special system of inheritance, priests and dignitaries passed on their positions by inheritance to their closest relatives. By teaching the sons of other priests and the younger sons of nobles, whom they were given as children, they, noticing their inclination towards the priesthood, developed it.
The great priest had very varied duties, was respected by the nobility, and was paid tribute. The great priest had the “key” to their activities, and it was the management of affairs that he was most concerned with; he gave advice to noble persons, answered their questions, appointed priests to villages when there was a need for this, testing them in sciences and ceremonies, entrusted them with affairs according to their position, and supplied them with books. The priests were engaged in serving in temples, teaching students, and also writing religious books.
The ancient Mayan customs and traditions include rituals associated with the birth of a child, the achievement of puberty, and marriage. The birth of a person was considered a manifestation of the favor of the gods, especially the goddess of the Moon - Ish-Chel. The priests gave the baby a child's name. They also compiled a special horoscope for each child. The birthday was celebrated according to the ritual 260-day lunar calendar, it was predicted which deity would patronize or harm the child throughout his life. Children were raised in the spirit of strict obedience to elders and priests.
Strabismus was considered by the Mayans to be one of the main signs of beauty. To do this, a rubber ball or small bead was attached to the child's hair and hung between the eyes. A wooden plank was tightly bandaged to the front of the baby's head in order to make the skull flatter and lengthen the line of the forehead, which was considered by the Mayans not only a sign of beauty, but also of height. social status. The Mayans filed their teeth into a pointed shape and inlaid them with turquoise, jade or shells. Men wore simple cotton loincloths and rawhide sandals, while women wore wide robes and covered their heads with scarves.
The day for the ceremony of puberty, reaching marriageable age, was chosen unusually carefully. On the appointed “lucky” day, all the participants in the celebration gathered in the courtyard of the patron’s house. One of the elders was appointed godfather. The priest performed a ritual of cleansing the home and expelled the evil spirit, the yard was swept, fresh leaves were scattered around and mats were spread on the ground. Those present took out smoking pipes and gave each teenager one puff. Food was distributed to children, and wine was sacrificed to the gods. The ritual ended with a feast and general drunkenness. After this, marriage was allowed. Fathers chose future wives for their sons, observing the ban on marriages between persons related by blood. Marriage issues required lengthy and complex negotiations.
Procession. Painting a vessel. Mayan culture. X-XVee.
Of a special kind An activity that cannot be ignored among the Mayans was playing ball. One and a half to two thousand years before the game of football became popular in England, the Mayans had a much more sophisticated, highly technical version. Along the long sides playing field they had stands for spectators. Each side fielded from 2 to 30 players. The ball was a heavy rubber ball.
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The gates (two richly ornamented slabs) were hung vertically on stone pillars. The slabs had round holes into which the ball had to be hit with sniper accuracy. From time to time, competitions were held between teams of prisoners of war: the losers were sacrificed to the formidable Mayan gods.
The Mayan ball game was of a religious and ceremonial nature, and preparation for each match was accompanied by a complex ritual. It was believed that certain deities would engage in a duel with each other, and much in the life of the Mayan city-states depended on who would win.
So, all spiritual and cultural values The Mayans have a religious connotation. Religious traditions and views passed through the entire “classical period” of this civilization. And the descendants of the Mayan people, after a huge number of years, retain many of the spiritual values of their ancient predecessors.
The death of the Mayan civilization dates back to the 9th century. This historical fact is still a mystery to scientists. ʼʼA huge flourishing empire suddenly died, as if as a result of an act of deliberate self-destruction. Stopped scientific research. Complex religion, the basis for the growth of Mayan culture, disappeared. Even the counting of time, on which actions and events depended, lost its meaning. The cities remained untouched - without signs of destruction or reconstruction, as if their inhabitants were planning to return soon.
Scientists racked their brains trying to satisfactorily explain the causes of such a colossal catastrophe. But none of the explanations based on hypothetical reasoning are supported by archaeological finds. The fate of the Mayans is still shrouded in mystery. *
* Ibid. P. 219
The period of time between the fall of Teotihuacan and the rise of the Aztecs is one of the most important and also one of the least studied periods in the history of Mesoamerican civilization. During this period, the Toltecs entered the arena of history. They continued and strengthened some development trends that took shape during the period of the power of the Teotihuacan Empire. The Toltecs, both in a chronological sense and in the sense of the development of Mayan culture, occupy an intermediate position between Teotihuacan and the Aztecs.
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Teotihuacan. City plan.
The Toltecs emerged as the dominant force in Mesoamerica in the 10th century. This semi-nomadic people has lived in Northern Mexico since ancient times. They subsequently settled in Tula, a mountain settlement located northwest of Teotihuacan and the Valley of Mexico. This city became the capital of the Toltecs. They controlled and exploited nearby deposits of a valuable material - obsidian, which became an important source of prosperity for Tula. In the city of the Toltecs, archaeologists excavated workshops for the production of obsidian tools, found ceramics and other things here, indicating that the Toltecs maintained lively trade relations with all regions of Mesoamerica.
One of the most widespread legends of the Toltec era concerns the founding of Tula and the rise of the Toltecs.
It was recorded in the 16th century. and is known as ʼʼThe Legend of Quetzalcoatl ʼʼ. ʼʼ This legend tells of Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, his accession to the throne of Tula and his achievement of semi-deity status. Quetzalcoatl then comes into conflict with another semi-divine character, Tezcatlipoca. The first acts as a representative of the forces of peace and enlightenment, the second symbolizes the forces of war, militancy and human sacrifice. After a series of clashes with Tezcatlipoca, Quetzalcoatl is defeated and expelled from Tula. He moves away to the east, promising to return someday. *
*Lamberg-Karlovski K., Sablov. J. Ancient civilizations. Middle East and Mesoamerica. M., 1992. P. 268.
Quetzalcoatl's legacy had a profound impact on the Aztec Emperor Montezuma II. With the victory of Tezcatlipoca, who, like Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, may have been a historical figure, characteristic features The Toltec ethnic group became militancy and demanded sacrifices.
In the first half of the 10th century. Tezcatlipoca's militant ideology became dominant.
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Painting of the Temple of the Jaguars. Chichen Itza.
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An ancient Mexican diagram of the world in the form of a cross with trees indicating the main directions. Aztec manuscript sheet
Toltec warriors and Toltec traders spread throughout Mesoamerica, spreading Toltec influence throughout the region. At the end of the 10th century. The Toltecs conquered Chichen Itza on the Yucatan Peninsula. From here the Toltecs soon established economic control over almost the entire peninsula. Chichen Itza was under Toltec control until the mid-13th century.
Toltec influence also prevailed in many parts of Mesoamerica. The most common metal among the Toltecs was copper and, to a lesser extent, silver and gold. Everyday tools continued to be made from different types of stone. Bernardino de Sahagún, a French monk, the first chronicler of the Toltecs, in his monumental work ʼʼ General history things in New Spain" notes that "the Toltecs are unusually skilled craftsmen. Any job was up to them. They processed green stone (jade), knew how to cast gold products and made beautiful things from feathers. The Toltecs were very rich. They did not know poverty. There was no shortage of anything in their homes. They did not use small ears of corn for food, but burned them to heat their steam baths. * The Toltecs did not rely on advanced farming methods such as irrigation to achieve their dominance. But they developed new, more effective ways conducting military operations.
*Gallenkamp Ch. Decree. Op. P. 146.
Valley of Mexico during Aztec times.
Toltec expansion in the 10th and 11th centuries. was more militant in nature compared to the expansion of Teotihuacan. For this reason, it is quite possible that the Aztec expansion of the 15th-16th centuries. was generated by the Toltec.
Aztec civilization is seen as the culmination of Mesoamerican cultural development and trends such as urbanization, mercantilism, and imperialism.
In less than two centuries, the Aztecs went from a poor, semi-nomadic group to masters of the most powerful empire that ever existed in Mesoamerica. The Tlo Aztecs showed themselves to be subtle politicians and magnificent warriors. By concluding temporary alliances with one or another political force in Central Mexico, they took a dominant position in the region. At first, the Aztecs acted as n
Mesoamerican culture. Inca civilization - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Mesoamerican Culture. Incan Civilization" 2017, 2018.