What is a fairy tale, and what types of fairy tales are there? In the works of Propp V. Ya. “Morphology of a fairy tale” and “Historical roots of a fairy tale,” a definition of a fairy tale is given, based on a study of its structure. This is a genre of fairy tales that can usually begin with the desire to have something, causing harm or damage to someone, the fairy tale further develops through the hero's departure from home, meeting with a donor who gives him a magical remedy or an assistant with the help of which the object of the search located. This is followed by a duel with the enemy and the hero’s triumphant return home. This is a brief schematic presentation of the compositional core that underlies so many and varied subjects. Fairy tales in which a similar pattern is present are called fairy tales.

In the book “Morphology of Fairy Tales,” V. Ya Propp devotes an entire chapter to the question of the classification of fairy tales, “On the history of the issue,” where he describes several different classifications fairy tales, finds pros and cons in them and come to the conclusion that a perfect classification does not exist, because very difficult among this huge amount fairy tales, highlight something common to everyone, which could subsequently unite them into groups. However, I would like to cite as an example the classification of Aarne, the founder of the so-called Finnish school, who introduced subcategories of fairy tales in order to get a rough idea of ​​fairy tales in general. Fairy tales cover the following categories:

1) a wonderful opponent

2) wonderful husband (wife)

3) wonderful task

4) a wonderful helper

5) wonderful item

6) miraculous power or skill

7) other wonderful motives.

The specificity of fairy-tale fiction in a fairy tale lies in the presence of such an important artistic component as the chronotope (inseparable space and time - the main categories of the picture of the world). All fairy tales have a common chronotope. It is characterized by the fact that the content of fairy tales is not inscribed in real historical time and in real geographical space. It's fabulous. The artistic world of a fairy tale is outside reality, so it can be called closed.

It follows from this that fairy tales are connected to reality by their deep historical roots. Much of what has come to be perceived as fiction in them actually reflects the archaic life and ancient worldview of people. At the same time, the fairy tale is always aimed at the real future, which, according to the people, should be better than the real present. The fairy tale is the opposite of reality. This means that, in response to certain life problems, the fairy tale offered their utopian solution.

However, the main problems connecting the fairy tale with life were moral. For example, all nations have created a fairy tale about an orphan who is offended by an evil stepmother ("Cinderella", "Morozko", "Wonderful Cow"). The fairy tale does not know the reasons for this phenomenon, does not see real ways to overcome it - it only tells people: this is unfair, it should not be this way. And in his “closed” world, with the help of his special, fairy-tale fiction, he “corrects” this injustice. Consequently, the aesthetics of fairy tales acted in unity with folk ethics. The entertaining nature of fairy tales did not interfere with their ideological aspiration, which, in an extremely generalized form, represents sympathy for the defenseless and innocently persecuted.

Thanks to the “closedness” of the artistic world of a fairy tale, each of its plots could be philosophically perceived as a kind of metaphor for real human relations and, therefore, acquired life analogies. People who were unfairly offended in life or deprived of something necessary (and these always make up the majority) received consolation and hope from fairy tales. A fairy tale was necessary for people because it helped them live.

Finally, fairy tales are also connected with life by the fact that in the process of natural execution they were filled with truthful everyday details and colored with a kind of “spontaneous realism.” This fact is extremely important for working on fairy tales with students, as they help them learn the local storytelling tradition, which should also be taken into account when getting to know the fairy tales of the region.

“There is no fairy tale without truth,” says the proverb. And so it is. Truth and fiction, these two opposite principles were dialectically combined in a fairy tale into one artistic whole [Propp 2012: 322].

Fairy tales have a national and even local flavor. They reflect historical and natural conditions the life of every nation, its surrounding flora and fauna, its way of life. However, the plot composition of fairy tales, presented in their national interpretations and versions, is mainly international. For this reason, some fairy tales passed from one people to another, that is, borrowing processes took place. The worldwide similarity of fairy tales has made it possible to create international plot indexes, which greatly facilitates the search for plots and their analogues. And when working on a fairy tale, it helps to identify a comparative basis of motives and plots.

The universal unity of fairy tales was manifested in their common poetic techniques. At the heart of a fairy tale is always the antithesis between dream and reality, which receives a complete but utopian resolution. The characters are contrastingly distributed along the poles of good and evil (their aesthetic expression becomes the beautiful and the ugly). The plot is consistent, one-line, developing around the main character, whose victory is mandatory.

Russian folk fairy tales are distinguished by a special style, the so-called fairy-tale imagery.

The composition of the fairy tale, the fairy-tale world, is specific. The fairy-tale world is divided into “this world” and “another world”. Separates them either dense forest, either a fiery river, or a sea-ocean, or a colossal space that the hero overcomes with the help of a magic bird. Another world can be located underground (and the hero usually gets there through a well or cave), less often - under water. This world is not a “different reality” in fairy tales: everything there is like “ours”: oak trees grow, horses graze, streams flow. And yet this is a different world: not just kingdoms, but copper, silver and gold. If the world is underground, then the hero first plunges into darkness and only then gets used to its special light. There is no afterlife and the hero does not meet his ancestors. But this is precisely the kingdom of the dead, and other creatures live there: Baba Yaga, Koschey the Immortal. Finally, there and only there the hero passes the main test and meets his betrothed.

As for “our” world, it can only be called such: the action of a fairy tale takes place in an extremely uncertain space. Sometimes the storyteller seems to want to clarify what this “certain kingdom, certain state” is, but usually the clarification is ironic: “on a smooth place, like on a harrow,” “against the sky on earth.” This makes the fairy-tale world unreal, not tied to a specific geography.

Like the formulas of “white” and “black” conspiracies, fairy-tale formulas could form “mirror” pairs within one text: “Soon she gave birth to two twins, their hair is threaded with pearls, there is a clear month in their head, a clear sun in the crown; on the right - then in their hands they have red-hot arrows, on their left hands there are long spears" [Afanasyeva A.N. 2011:205].

The formulas were subject to variation. For example: “By the sea of ​​Lukomoria there is an oak tree, on that oak tree there are golden chains, and a cat walks along those chains: it goes up and tells stories, it goes down and sings songs”; “I have a miracle in the forest: there is a birch tree, and on the birch tree a cat walks with a samogud, walks up and down, sings songs”; The given formula, depicting a bajun cat from the fairy tale “Wonderful Children,” could be torn away from its work and attached to other plots in the form of a saying.

The style of a fairy tale is subject to general folklore laws. There are a lot of so-called formulas here - traditional phrases, often repeated poetic cliches. Part of these formulas forms the frame of the fairy tale. Among them is a saying that attracts the attention of listeners, becoming business card storyteller, evidence of his skill: “On the sea, on the ocean, on an island on Buyan, there is a green oak tree, and under the oak tree there is a baked bull, he has crushed garlic in his butt; take it from one side and cut it, and dip it from the other and eat it! This is not yet a fairy tale is just a saying."

A folklore saying about a learned cat was used by A. S. Pushkin in the introduction to the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila”.

Sayings are special texts, tiny humorous fables that are not assigned to specific fairy tale plots. The saying introduces you to a fairy-tale world. The task of the saying is to prepare the soul of the listener, to evoke in it the correct fairy-tale attitude. It calls the listener out of his ordinary thinking. An example of a saying: “When the pigs drank wine, and the monkeys chewed tobacco, and the chickens pecked it” (Tuvan fairy tale). This formula sets the narrative a special fairy-tale-surreal tone.

There are many middle and medial formulas in the fairy tale: “The fairy tale is told soon, but the deed is not done soon,” “Were we driving close, or far, or low, or high.” They serve as bridges from one episode to another. These traditional portrait-descriptive formulas describe, for example, a horse (“The horse runs, the earth trembles, flames flare from its nostrils, smoke pours from its ears”) or a heroic ride: “I hit my good horse, hit him on the steep thighs, pierced the skin to the meat , beat meat to the bone, broke bones to the marrow - his good horse jumped over mountains and valleys, let dark forests between his legs"; or Baba Yaga: “Suddenly it began to spin and become clouded, the earth became a navel, from under the ground there was a stone, from under the stone Baba Yaga became a bone leg, he rode on an iron mortar, he pushed with an iron pusher.”

But there are especially many traditional formulas in the world fairy-tale folklore female beauty(these are precisely formulas: a fairy tale does not know individual characteristics). Here, for example, is the formula for female beauty from a Turkmen fairy tale: “Her skin was so transparent that the water she drank could be seen through her throat, the carrots she ate could be seen through her side.” The beauty in the Russian fairy tale is just as pampered: “Far distant lands in the thirtieth state, Vasilisa Kirbitievna sits in a tower - the cerebellum flows from bone to bone.”

However, more often they talk about the impression that the beauty made on the hero - he simply loses consciousness: “There was a portrait of a beautiful girl hanging on the wall. When he decided to see it, he fell and almost broke his head on the floor” (Abkhaz fairy tale); “And she was so beautiful that you can’t tell it in a fairy tale or describe it with a pen” (Russian fairy tale); “She was so beautiful that it was a pity to touch her with unwashed hands” (Turkmen fairy tale).

Many fabulous formulas ancient origin and preserve ritual and magical elements in schematic form.

These are, for example, the formulas used in the episode of the hero’s visit to Yaga’s hut. Firstly, the hero pronounces a spell formula to stop the continuously spinning hut: “Hut-hut, stand with your back to the forest, with your front to me, let me go out, I won’t last forever, spend the night for one night!” Secondly, the hero responds with the formula to Yaga’s grumbling, greeting the hero with the formula: “Fu-fu-fu, it smells like the Russian spirit!” The antiquity of this formula is confirmed by the fact that it can be found in the tales of Indo-European peoples: the guardian kingdom of the dead amazed by the smell of a living person. The most important actions of fairy-tale characters and their remarks are also expressed in formulas. So, the heroine always consoles her chosen one in the same way: “Go to bed - the morning is wiser than the evening!”

Another framing formula is the ending. Usually she is also humorous and brings the listener back from fairy world into the real world: “They played a wedding, feasted for a long time, and I was there, drinking honey and beer, it flowed down my lips, but it didn’t get into my mouth. Yes, I left a spoon on the window; whoever is light on his feet, run to the spoon.”

There are more final formulas in a fairy tale than initial formulas. Most often it is reported that the narrator is present at a fairy feast. But this presence is colored in humorous, parodic tones: there was something, but nothing got into the mouth. And what kind of feast is this if it refers to fabulously uncertain times? This is not only a feast at which nothing ends up in the mouth, it is also gifts received at the feast, of which absolutely nothing remains. The fairy tale is over. The final formula sounds like this: “Here’s a fairy tale for you, and I’ll have a bunch of bagels,” “Here’s the end of the fairy tale, and I’ll have a bunch of vodka.” This formula gives reason to think that once upon a time the fairy tale was told by professionals - bahari and buffoons.

Framing is an optional element of the composition of a fairy tale. More often, a fairy tale begins with a message about the heroes; special compositional formulas are used for this. They fix the action in time and space (the fixation can be parodic: “At number seven, where we sit”), or point to the hero (“Once upon a time,” “In a certain kingdom, a certain state”), or introduce absurd circumstances, for example: “When the goat’s horns pointed to the sky, and the camel’s short tail dragged along the ground...” [Lazarev A.I. 2011:62].

Each fairy tale genre has its own characteristic motifs. A motif is the simplest narrative unit, an elementary plot or an integral part of a complex plot. As the simplest motive, Veselovsky cited the formula a+b: “the evil old woman does not love the beauty - and sets her a life-threatening task.” The motive contains the possibility of increment and development. So, there may be several tasks, then the formula becomes more complicated: a + b+b and so on. As Veselovsky noted, artistic forms of plotting have developed historically. This happened in different ways: for example, by complicating elementary (single-motive) plots.

A fairy tale also knows such motifs as the abduction of a bride, a miraculous birth, a miraculous promise and its fulfillment, the death and miraculous revival of a hero, miraculous escape, violation of a ban, miraculous abduction (or disappearance), substitution of a bride (wife), recognition by a miraculous sign, miraculous death of the enemy. In different fairy tales, the motives are specified (for example, the miraculous death of the enemy may be in an egg, in a river of fire). The more complex the plot, the greater the number of motives it includes.

The simplest way to complicate a motif is repetition (repeated use of any element of a folklore text). The tale made extensive use of this artistic medium. There is repetition in the composition of fairy tales different types: stringing - a+b+c… (“Stuffed fool”); cumulation - a+(a+b)+(a+b+c)…("Tower of the fly"); circular repetition - an: the end of the work goes to its beginning, the same thing is repeated (“The priest had a dog...”); pendulum repeat - a-b ("Crane and Heron"). In more complex plots of fairy tales, a hierarchy arises: a lower narrative level (motive) and a higher one (plot) are formed. The motifs here have different contents and are arranged in an order that allows them to express the general idea of ​​the plot. The main structural feature of such a plot is the central motif corresponding to the climax (for example, a fight with a snake). Other motives are fixed, loosely fixed or free in relation to the plot. Motives can be presented either succinctly or in expanded form; can be repeated three times in the plot with the increase of some important feature (a fight with a three-, six-, nine-headed snake) [Anikin 2012: 383].

V.Ya. Propp, in his book “Morphology of Fairy Tales,” decomposed the motif into its constituent elements, especially highlighting the plot-necessary actions of fairy-tale characters and defining them with the term “functions.” He came to the conclusion that the plots of fairy tales are based on the same set and the same sequence of functions. This results in a chain of functions. In the identified V.Ya. Propp's scheme "fits" the entire repertoire of fairy tales.

To detect a motive in a fairy tale, it is necessary to take into account the functions of the acting characters, as well as such elements as the subject (the producer of the action), the object (the character to whom the action is directed), the location of the action, the circumstances surrounding it, and its result. As already noted, fairy tale motifs are often subject to tripling: three tasks, three trips, three meetings, and so on. This creates a measured epic rhythm, a philosophical tonality, and restrains the dynamic speed of the plot action. But the main thing is that triplings serve to reveal general idea plot. For example, the increasing number of heads of three snakes emphasizes the significance of the feat of the snake fighter; the increasing value of the hero's next spoils is the severity of his trials. “A song is beautiful in its harmony, but a fairy tale is beautiful in its composition,” says the proverb, which pays tribute to the fairy-tale composition.

The sequence of functions of the characters leads to a monotonous construction of fairy tales, and the stability of functions leads to uniformity fairy tale images. This is a distinctive genre feature of a fairy tale.

A fairy tale is the oldest genre of oral folk art, a classic example of folklore.

Telling fairy tales in Rus' was perceived as an art that everyone could join, regardless of gender and age, and good storytellers were very highly revered by the people. They teach a person to live, instill optimism in him, and affirm faith in the triumph of goodness and justice. Behind the fantastic nature of fairy-tale plots and fiction, real human relationships are hidden.

The term “fairy tale” itself appeared in the 17th century. , and was first recorded in the charter of Voivode Vsevolodsky. Until this time, the word “fable”, a derivative of the word “bayat”, that is, to tell, was widely used. Unfortunately, the names of professional storytellers of past times are not known to modern researchers, but the fact is known that already in the 19th century scientists began to closely study Russian folklore, including fairy tales.

A fairy tale is a generalizing concept. The presence of certain genre characteristics allows us to classify this or that oral prose work as a fairy tale. Belonging to the epic genus puts forward such features as narrative and plot. A fairy tale is necessarily entertaining, unusual, with a clearly expressed idea of ​​the triumph of good over evil, truth over falsehood, life over death; all the events in it are brought to an end, incompleteness and incompleteness are not characteristic of a fairy tale plot...

The main genre feature of a fairy tale is its purpose, that which connects the fairy tale with the needs of the collective. “In Russian fairy tales that have come down to us in the records of the 18th – 20th centuries, as well as in fairy tales that exist now, the aesthetic function dominates. It is due to the special nature of fairy-tale fiction.”

Fiction is characteristic of all types of fairy tales of different peoples .

IN AND. Dahl interprets the term in his dictionary “fairy tale” as “a fictional story, an unprecedented and even impossible story, legend” and gives a series folk proverbs and sayings associated with this type of folk art, for example the famous “neither to say in a fairy tale, nor to describe with a pen.” This characterizes the fairy tale as something instructive, but at the same time incredible, a story about something that cannot actually happen, but from which everyone can learn a certain lesson. Already at the beginning of the 20th century, a whole galaxy of collections of Russian folk tales was published, incorporating the pearls of folk art.

What distinguishes Russian folk tales from other fairy tales of the peoples of the world, first of all, is their educational orientation: let us at least remember the famous saying that a fairy tale is a lie, but there is a hint in it. Labor in Russian folk tales is portrayed not as a heavy duty, but as an honorable duty for everyone. They glorify moral values, such as altruism, willingness to help, kindness, honesty, and ingenuity. They are one of the most revered genres of Russian folklore thanks to a fascinating plot that reveals to the reader amazing world human relationships and feelings and makes you believe in miracles. Thus, Russian fairy tales are an inexhaustible source of folk wisdom, which is still used today.

The educational function of a fairy tale is one of its genre features.“Fairy-tale didacticism permeates the entire fairy-tale structure, achieving a special effect by the sharp opposition of positive and negative. Moral and social truth always triumphs - this is the didactic conclusion that the fairy tale clearly illustrates.”

The history of the emergence of fairy tales as a genre.

The historical roots of the Russian fairy tale are lost in hoary antiquity; each historical stage of the life of the Russian people is reflected in the fairy tale, introducing natural changes into it. The study of these changes, or rather, the generalization of these changes, makes it possible to talk about the specific process of the life of Russian tales, that is, about its history.

Install exactly. When exactly the Russian fairy tale was defined as a genre, when exactly it began to live as a fairy tale, and not a belief or tradition, is impossible.

The first mentions of Russian folk tales date back to Kievan Rus, however, its origins are lost in time immemorial. As for feudal Rus', then there is no doubt that fairy tales, in our understanding, were one of the widespread genres of oral folk art in Kievan Rus. Monuments of ancient Russian literature have preserved enough references to storytellers and fairy tales not to doubt this.

The earliest information about Russian fairy tales dates back to12 century. IN teachings "Word O rich And wretched" in the description of a rich man going to bed, among the servants around him, who amuse him in various ways, those who “bad and blaspheme” are indignantly mentioned, that is, they tell him fairy tales for the coming sleep. This first mention of the fairy tale fully reflected the contradictory attitude towards it that we have observed in Russian society for many centuries. On the one hand, a fairy tale is a favorite entertainment for fun, it has access to all layers of society, on the other hand, it is branded and persecuted as something demonic, not permissible, shaking the foundations of ancient Russian life. Thus, Kirill of Turov, listing the types of sins, also mentions the telling of fables; Metropolitan Photius at the beginning of the 15th century conjures his flock to refrain from listening to fables; Tsarist decrees of the 17th century speak disapprovingly of those who destroy their souls by “telling unprecedented tales.”

All this gives us reason to believe that in Ancient Rus' the fairy tale had already emerged as a genre from oral prose, demarcated from tradition, legend and myth. Her genre features- “the attitude towards fiction and entertainment functions are recognized equally by both its bearers and its persecutors. Already in Ancient Rus' they -<сказки небывалые>and it is as such that they continue to live in the popular repertoire in subsequent centuries.”

Researchers about the fairy tale and its genre features.

While studying the fairy tale, scientists have defined its meaning and features in different ways. Some of them, with absolute clarity, sought to characterize fairy-tale fiction as independent of reality, while others wanted to understand how the attitude of folk storytellers to the surrounding reality was refracted in the fantasy of fairy tales. Should any fantastic story be considered a fairy tale or should it be distinguished in oral folk prose and its other types - non-fairy tale prose? How to understand fantastic fiction, without which none of the fairy tales can do? These are the problems that have long troubled researchers.

A number of folklore researchers called a fairy tale everything that “affected ». Thus, academician Yu.M. Sookolov wrote; “By folk tale in the broad sense of the word we mean an oral-poetic story of a fantastic, adventurous or everyday nature.” The scientist’s brother, Professor B.Yu. Sokolov also believed that every oral story should be called a fairy tale. Both researchers argued that fairy tales include a number of special genres and types and that each of them can be considered separately.

An attempt to distinguish a fairy tale from other genres of folklore was made more than a hundred years ago by K.S. Aksakov. Speaking about the difference between fairy tales and epics, he wrote: “Between fairy tales and songs, in our opinion, there is a sharp line. The fairy tale and the song are different from the beginning. This distinction was made by the people themselves, and it is best for us to directly accept the division that they made in their literature. A fairy tale is a fold (fiction), and a song is reality, says the people, and its words have a deep meaning, which is explained as soon as we pay attention to the song and the fairy tale.”

Fiction, according to Aksakov , influenced both the depiction of the scene in them and the characters of the characters. Aksakov clarified his understanding of the fairy tale with the following judgments:<<В сказке очень сознательно рассказчик нарушает все пределы времени и пространства, говорит о тридесятом царстве,о небывалых странах и всяких диковинках>>. Aksakov believed that the most characteristic thing about fairy tales is fiction, and conscious fiction at that. The famous folklorist A.N. did not agree with this interpretation of fairy tales. Afanasiev . << Сказка- складка, песня- быль, говорила старая пословица, стараясь провести резкую грантцу между эпосом сказочным и эпосом историческим. Извращая действительный смысл этой пословицы, поинимали сказку за чистую ложь, за поэттческий обман,имеющий единою целью занять свободный достуг небывалыми и невозможными вымыслами. Несостоятельность такого воззрения уже давно бросалась в глаза>>,” wrote this scientist. Afanasyev did not allow the thought that<<пустая складка>> could be preserved by the people for a number of centuries and over the vast extent of the country, holding and repeating<< один и то жк представления>>. He concluded:<< нет, сказка- не пустая складка, в ней как и вообще во всех созданиях целого народа, не могло быть, и в самом деле нет ни нарочно сочиненённой лжи, ни намеренного уклоднения от действительного понимания сказки.

The feature accepted by Aksakov as significant for a fairy tale narrative was, with some clarifications, used as the basis for the definition of a fairy tale proposed by the Soviet folklorist A.I. Nikiforov. Nikiforov wrote:<< сказки - это устные рассказы, бытовом смысле события (фантастические, чудесные или житейские) и отличающиеся специальным композиционно - стилистическим построением>>. Explaining the meaning of his definition, Nikiforov pointed to three essential features of a fairy tale: the first feature of a modern fairy tale is the goal of entertaining listeners, the second feature is unusual content in everyday life, and finally, the third important feature of a fairy tale is a special form of its construction.

The dictionary of literary terms gives the following definition of a fairy tale as a genre: A fairy tale is one of the main genres of folk oral and poetic creativity.

Traditionally, there are three types of fairy tales:

1) magical;

2) household;

3) a fairy tale about animals.

Each of these types has its own characteristics.

1. Magic tales.

The task of the genre: to evoke admiration for a good hero and condemn the villain, to express confidence in the triumph of good.

According to the type of conflict, fairy tales are:

Heroic: the hero fights with magical powers;

Social and class: the hero fights with the master, with the king;

Family (pedagogical): the conflict occurs in the family or the fairy tale is of a moralizing nature.

Heroes are divided into: intercessors, villains, sufferers, helpers.

General features of fairy tales:

The presence of obvious fantasy, magic, miracle (magical characters and objects);

Encounter with magical forces;

Complicated composition;

Expanded range of visual and expressive means;

Description dominates gialogue;

Multi-episode (the tale covers a fairly long period of the hero’s life).

Examples of fairy tales are:<<Царевна-лягушка>>, <<Крошечка волке>> and others.

2. Household tales.

The task of the genre: to ridicule a person’s bad character traits, to express joyful surprise at his intelligence and resourcefulness.

Everyday tales are divided into the following types:

Anecdotal;

And novelistic ones:

Satirical anti-lord, anti-royal, anti-religious;

Fairy tales - competitions;

Fairy tales are ridicule;

General Features:

It is based on an extraordinary incident within the framework of real human relationships (there is practically no fantasy);

There is a wonderful assumption based on, for example, hyperbole:

The hero is so cunning that he can outsmart everyone in the world and go unpunished;

Instead of magic, ingenuity is used;

Realism is conventional (real life conflicts receive an extraordinary fairy-tale resolution);

The acting characters are antagonists;

The positive hero is an ironic successor;

The semantic emphasis falls on the denouement;

Widespread use of dialosh;

Abundance of verbs.

Heron: ordinary people (priest, soldier, man, woman, king, gentleman).

Examples of everyday tales are:<<Каша из топора>>, <<как мужик с барином обедал>>, <<Кому горшок мыть>> and others.

3.Tales about animals.

The task of the genre: to ridicule bad character traits, actions, to evoke compassion for the weak, the offended.

By conflict animal tales depict:

The fight between predators;

The fight of a weak animal with a predator;

The fight between man and beast.

Heroes: animals (features of animals and conditionally humans).

Special subgroups:

Tales of fox tricks;

Cumulative (chain tales).

Chain tale (cumulative tale, recursive tale, chain tale) - a tale in which dialogues or actions are repeated and developed as the plot develops. The effect of these tales is often based on repetition and characteristic rhyme.

With endless repetition:

Boring tales like “About the White Bull.”

A unit of text is included in another text (“The priest had a dog”).

With final repetition:

“Turnip” - plot units grow into a chain until the chain breaks.

General Features:

The specific composition of the characters (fairy-tale images - traditional types: fox - cunning, wolf - stupid):

Anthropomorphism (transferring mental properties and character traits inherent in humans to animals);

Conflicts reflect real life relationships between people;

Lightweight composition;

A narrowed set of visual and expressive means;

Extensive use of dialogue;

Abundance of verbs;

Low-episode, fast-acting;

Introduction of small folklore forms.

Examples of fairy tales about animals are:<<Кот, Петух и Лиса>>, <<Лисичка-сестричка и Волк>>,<<Лиса, Заяц и Петух>> ,<<Лиса и Тетерев>> and others.

Russian folk song (genre varieties, poetic style)

Russian folk song is a folklore work that is preserved in people's memory and passed on from mouth to mouth, a product of the collective oral creativity of the Russian people.

Most often, a folk song does not have a specific author, or the author is unknown, but folk songs of literary origin are also known. An essential feature of most genres of Russian folk song is the direct connection of folk song with everyday life and work activity (for example, labor songs accompanying various types of labor - barge hauling, mowing, weeding, reaping, threshing, etc., ritual songs accompanying agricultural and family rituals and festivals - carols, Maslenitsa, vesnyanka, Kupala, wedding, funeral, calendar games, etc.).

In folk versification, there is a certain number of stressed words in a verse (usually three or four words), the number of syllables from stress to stress can be different; as a rule, these are unrhymed poems

Typology

Russian folk songs are divided into:

Song epic

epics (South Russian, Central Russian, Siberian);

northern epic tradition;

historical songs;

fables and buffoons;

songs in fairy tales.

Calendar ritual songs

winter greetings (carols, shchedrovki, grapes, osenki)

Christmastide (see Christmastide);

Maslenitsa;

spring (stoneflies, volochebnye, Easter);

songs of plowing and sowing;

Voznesensk;

Trinity-Semitic (see Semik, Trinity);

summer (Kupala songs);

pounding, mowing, reaping.

Family ritual songs

birth and nurturing rituals (petushka);

crying and lamentations;

wedding;

lullabies.

Folk songs are similar to other works of folklore due to their linguistic features: folk verse, repetitions, comparisons, constant epithets, the use of words with diminutive suffixes.

Family ritual songs accompanied by rituals associated with the most important events in a person’s life. Wedding songs were sung: bachelorette party songs; majestic songs of the wedding feast; wedding lamentations of the bride. Recruitment songs accompanied the ceremony of seeing off soldiers. There were also funeral songs and lamentations. The wedding ceremony was one of the most difficult. A folk wedding was divided into several stages: the pre-wedding cycle (matchmaking, conspiracy, marriage, bachelorette party), the wedding ceremonies themselves (getting ready for the bride, coming to pick up the bride, wedding, wedding feast) and post-wedding (retreats). Before the wedding, the bride was supposed to lament: to regret her free, girlish life. These are ritual lamentations:

Historical song are called epic and some lyric-epic works that tell about historical events and episodes from the lives of historical figures.

Historical songs are the continuation and development of the epic folk epic. The epic glorifies the exploits of heroes. Their exaggerated images embody popular ideas about Russian strength, power, and readiness to defend the Motherland. The enemy force appears in the epic as a fantastic, fairy-tale creature that does not have an unambiguous historical prototype. Historical events of hoary antiquity in epics lose their features of reality.

In historical songs, on the contrary, very specific historical events are mentioned and specific historical figures are named. Only outstanding events and outstanding historical figures are honored with people's memory: these are Tsars Peter I, Ivan IV (the Terrible), this and people's intercessors- leaders of peasant uprisings Stepan Razin, Emelyan Pugachev, this is also a free Cossack, a brave conqueror of Siberia Ermak Timofeevich...

Historical songs expressed the feelings of nameless authors in connection with wars, campaigns, and popular uprisings. This is a popular assessment of history, its creators, an expression of the soul of the people.

In the 16th century, song cycles developed around Ivan the Terrible and the hero nominated by the people, Ermak. By folk songs it is clear why the king received his nickname. The Tsar is great, his merits are undeniable. At the same time, Ivan the Terrible, at the slightest suspicion, is ready to “execute and hang” his gunners, during punitive campaigns he destroys entire cities, and in anger sends his son to execution

Songs were sung not only in connection with rituals, but also simply for pleasure: at gatherings, during everyday work. These songs have served the people for centuries to express experiences and feelings, which is why they are called lyrical. In song folklore, lyrical songs occupy a large part. These songs appeared later than ritual songs. All shades of the spiritual life of the people were embodied in them.

In love songs they talked about the first meetings of lovers, their love joy and longing, fidelity and betrayal. Family songs told about an unhappy wife and a strict or old husband; about a husband who did not marry for love and is now unhappy, all that remains for him to remember is his former love. The young people sang about harsh parents, the daughter-in-law about an unkind mother-in-law.

There were songs of robbers, prisons, soldiers, coachmen, barge haulers, songs about serfdom - they helped to endure the hardships of life and ease mental anguish. Such songs healed the human soul. The singer felt that he was not alone in his grief, that such grief was experienced by many, many people. The people's sympathy for the suffering, which was heard in these songs, brought comfort. Here, for example, is the robber’s song “Don’t make noise, mother green oak tree, Don’t disturb me in my thoughts...”. It is sung by Vladimir Dubrovsky’s bandit group, and Pugachev sings it in A. S. Pushkin’s story “The Captain’s Daughter.” Although the robbers violated many laws, in the song one can hear sympathy for their unfortunate lot. It glorifies bravery and one hears sad thoughts about imminent death, the expectation of severe retribution.

These types of lyrical songs are also called drawn-out, “vocal”, “long”. All these definitions indicate the leisurely, sing-song nature of the song. The main thing in the song is the music. It is difficult to convey content without music, since there is practically no rhyme and the lyrics of the song are not perceived as poetry. The rhythmic pattern appears here only when singing; the singer inserts numerous repetitions, exclamations, and interjections into the text, which, on the one hand, enhances emotionality, and on the other, emphasizes the rhythm.

Russian epic epic (cyclization, themes, images, poetics)

EPIC - folk epic song, a genre characteristic of the Russian tradition. The basis of the plot of the epic is some heroic event, or a remarkable episode of Russian history (hence the popular name of the epic - “old man”, “old woman”, implying that the action in question took place in the past). The term “epic” was introduced into scientific use in the 40s of the 19th century. folklorist I.P. Sakharov (1807–1863).

Means of artistic expression. Over the course of many centuries, unique techniques have been developed that are characteristic of the poetics of epics, as well as the method of their execution. In ancient times, it is believed that storytellers played along with themselves on the harp, and later epics were performed in recitative. Epic poems are characterized by a special pure-tonic epic verse (which is based on the commensurability of the lines by the number of stresses, which achieves rhythmic uniformity). Although the storytellers used only a few melodies when performing epics, they enriched the singing with a variety of intonations and also changed the timbre of their voices.

Emphatically solemn style of presentation of the epic, which tells about heroic and often tragic events, determined the need to slow down the action (retardation). For this purpose it is usedsuch a technique as repetition, Moreover, not only individual words are repeated: ... eta scythe, scythe, ... from far, far away, marvelous, marvelous (tautological repetitions), but also an intensification of synonyms: fight-fight, tribute-duties, (synonymous repetitions), often the end of one line is the beginning another: And they came to Holy Rus', / To Holy Rus' and to the city of Kiev..., triple repetitions of entire episodes are not uncommon, with enhanced effect, and some descriptions are extremely detailed.The presence of “common places” is also characteristic of epics. when describing similar situations are used certain formulaic expressions: In this way (and in an extremely detailed way) the saddle of a horse is depicted: Ay Dobrynya comes out into the wide yard, / He saddles the bridle of a good horse, / After all, he puts on a braid bridle, . “Commonplaces” also include a description of a feast (mostly at Prince Vladimir’s), a banquet, and a heroic ride on a greyhound horse. The folk storyteller could combine such stable formulas at his own discretion.

The language of epics is characterized by hyperboles, with the help of which the narrator emphasizes the character traits or appearance of the characters that are worthy of special mention. Another technique that determines the listener’s attitude to the epic is the epithet (mighty, Holy Russian, glorious hero and filthy, evil enemy), and stable epithets are often found (violent head, hot blood, frisky legs, flammable tears). Suffixes also play a similar role: everything related to heroes was mentioned in diminutive forms (cap, little head, dumushka, Alyoshenka, Vasenka Buslaevich, Dobrynyushka, etc.), but the negative characters were called Gloomy, Ignatisch, the king of Batuisch, filthy burning. A significant place is occupied by assonance (repetition of vowel sounds) and alliteration (repetition of consonant sounds), additional organizing elements of verse.

Bylinas, as a rule, have three parts: a chorus (usually not directly related to the content), the function of which is to prepare for listening to the song; the beginning (within its limits the action unfolds); ending.

It should be noted that certain artistic techniques used in the epic are determined by its theme (for example, antithesis is characteristic of heroic epics).

Plots of epics. The number of epic stories, despite the many recorded versions of the same epic, is very limited: there are about 100 of them. There are epics based on the matchmaking or struggle of the hero for his wife (Sadko, Mikhailo Potyk, Ivan Godinovich, Danube, Kozarin, Solovey Budimirovich and later ones - Alyosha Popovich and Elena Petrovichna, Khoten Bludovich); fight with monsters (Dobrynya and the snake, Alyosha and Tugarin, Ilya and Idolishche, Ilya and the Nightingale the Robber); the fight against foreign invaders, including: repelling Tatar raids (Ilya’s quarrel with Vladimir, Ilya and Kalin, Dobrynya and Vasily Kazemirovich), wars with the Lithuanians (Bylina about the Lithuanian raid).

Satirical epics or epic parodies stand apart (Duke Stepanovich, Contest with Churila).

The main epic heroes. Representatives of the Russian “mythological school” divided the heroes of epics into “senior” and “junior” heroes . In their opinion, the “elders” (Svyatogor, Danube, Volkh, Potyka) were the personification of elemental forces; epics about them uniquely reflected the mythological views that existed in Ancient Rus'. The “younger” heroes (Ilya Muromets, Alyosha Popovich, Dobrynya Nikitich) are ordinary mortals, heroes of a new historical era, and therefore are endowed with mythological features to a minimal extent. Despite the fact that serious objections were subsequently raised against such a classification, such a division is still found in the scientific literature.

Images of heroes are the people's standard of courage, justice, patriotism and strength (it is not for nothing that one of the first Russian aircraft, which had an exceptional carrying capacity at that time, was named by its creators “Ilya Muromets”).

Svyatogor refers to the oldest and most popular epic heroes. His very name indicates a connection with nature. He is tall and powerful; the earth can hardly bear him. This image was born in the pre-Kiev era, but subsequently underwent changes. Only two stories have come down to us, initially associated with Svyatogor (the rest arose later and are fragmentary in nature): the story of Svyatogor’s discovery of a saddlebag, which, as specified in some versions, belonged to another epic hero, Mikula Selyaninovich. The bag turns out to be so heavy that the hero cannot lift it, he strains himself and, dying, finds out that this bag contains “all earthly burdens.” The second story tells about the death of Svyatogor, who meets on the road a coffin with the inscription: “Whoever is destined to lie in a coffin will lie in it,” and decides to try his luck. As soon as Svyatogor lies down, the coffin lid jumps up on its own and the hero cannot move it. Before his death, Svyatogor transfers his strength to Ilya Muromets, thus the hero of antiquity passes the baton to the new hero of the epic who comes to the fore.

Ilya Muromets, undoubtedly, the most popular hero of epics, a mighty hero. The epic does not know him as a young man, he is an old man with a gray beard. Oddly enough, Ilya Muromets appeared later than his epic younger comrades Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich. His homeland is the city of Murom, the village of Karacharovo.

The peasant son, the sick Ilya, “sat sitting on the stove for 30 years and three years.” One day, wanderers came to the house, “walking kaliki.” They healed Ilya, giving him heroic strength. From now on, he is a hero who is destined to serve the city of Kyiv and Prince Vladimir. On the way to Kyiv, Ilya defeats the Nightingale the Robber, puts him in a Toroki and takes him to the princely court. Among other exploits of Ilya, it is worth mentioning his victory over the Idol, who besieged Kyiv and forbade begging and remembering God's name. Here Elijah acts as a defender of the faith.

His relationship with Prince Vladimir is not going smoothly. The peasant hero does not meet with due respect at the prince’s court, he is treated with gifts, and is not given a place of honor at the feast. The rebellious hero is imprisoned in a cellar for seven years and doomed to starvation. Only the attack on the city by the Tatars, led by Tsar Kalin, forces the prince to ask for help from Ilya. He gathers the heroes and enters the battle. The defeated enemy flees, vowing never to return to Rus'.

Nikitich- a popular hero of the Kyiv epic cycle. This heroic snake fighter was born in Ryazan. He is the most polite and well-mannered of the Russian heroes; it is not for nothing that Dobrynya always acts as an ambassador and negotiator in difficult situations. The main epics associated with the name of Dobrynya: Dobrynya and the serpent, Dobrynya and Vasily Kazemirovich, Dobrynya’s fight with the Danube, Dobrynya and Marinka, Dobrynya and Alyosha.

Alesha Popovich- originally from Rostov, he is the son of a cathedral priest, the youngest of the famous trinity of heroes. He is brave, cunning, frivolous, prone to fun and jokes. Scientists belonging to the historical school believed that this epic hero traces its origins to Alexander Popovich, who died in the Battle of Kalka, however, D.S. Likhachev showed that in fact the reverse process took place, the name fictional character entered the chronicle. The most famous feat of Alyosha Popovich is his victory over Tugarin Zmeevich. The hero Alyosha does not always behave in a dignified manner; he is often arrogant and boastful. Among the epics about him are Alyosha Popovich and Tugarin, Alyosha Popovich and the Petrovich sister.

Sadko is also one of the most ancient heroes, in addition, he is perhaps the most famous hero of the epics of the Novgorod cycle. Ancient plot about Sadko, which tells how the hero wooed the daughter of the sea king, subsequently became more complex, surprisingly realistic details appeared concerning the life of ancient Novgorod.

The epic about Sadko is divided into three relatively independent parts. In the first, guslar Sadko, having impressed the sea king with the skill of his playing, receives advice from him on how to get rich. From this moment on, Sadko is no longer a poor musician, but a merchant, a rich guest. In the next song, Sadko bets with Novgorod merchants that he can buy all the goods of Novgorod. In some versions of the epic, Sadko wins, in some, on the contrary, he is defeated, but in any case he leaves the city due to the intolerant attitude of the merchants towards him. The last song tells about Sadko's journey across the sea, during which the sea king calls him to himself in order to marry his daughter and leave him in the underwater kingdom. But Sadko, having abandoned the beautiful princesses, marries Chernavushka the mermaid, who personifies the Novgorod river, and she brings him to his native shores. Sadko returns to his “earthly wife”, leaving the daughter of the sea king. V.Ya. Propp points out that the epic about Sadko is the only one in the Russian epic where the hero goes to the other world (underwater kingdom) and marries an otherworldly creature. These two motifs indicate the antiquity of both the plot and the hero.

Vasily Buslaev. Two epics are known about this indomitable and violent citizen of Veliky Novgorod. In his rebellion against everyone and everything, he does not pursue any goal other than the desire to riot and show off. The son of a Novgorod widow, a wealthy city dweller, Vasily from an early age showed his unbridled temper in fights with peers. Having grown up, he gathered a squad to compete with all of Veliky Novgorod. The battle ends in complete victory for Vasily. The second epic is dedicated to the death of Vasily Buslaev. Having traveled with his squad to Jerusalem, Vasily mocks the dead head he encounters, despite the ban, swims naked in Jericho and neglects the requirement inscribed on the stone he found (you cannot jump over the stone lengthwise). Vasily, due to the indomitability of his nature, begins to jump and gallop over it, catches his foot on a stone and breaks his head. This character, who embodied the unbridled passions of Russian nature, was M. Gorky’s favorite hero. The writer carefully saved up materials about him, cherishing the idea of ​​writing about Vaska Buslaev, but upon learning that A.V. Amphiteatrov was writing a play about this hero, he gave all the accumulated materials to his fellow writer. This play is considered one of best works A.V.Amphiteatrova.

Historical stages of development of epics. Researchers disagree on when epic songs appeared in Rus'. Some attribute their appearance to the 9th–11th centuries, others to the 11th–13th centuries. One thing is certain - having existed for so long, passed on from mouth to mouth, the epics did not reach us in their original form; they underwent many changes, as the political system, the domestic and foreign political situation, and the worldview of listeners and performers changed. It is almost impossible to say in what century this or that epic was created; some reflect an earlier, some a later stage in the development of the Russian epic, and in other epics researchers distinguish very ancient subjects under later layers.

V.Ya.Propp believed that the most ancient are the plots associated with the hero’s matchmaking and with snake fighting. Such epics are characterized by elements that are also significant for a fairy tale, in particular: tripling the plot components (Ilya, at a crossroads, runs into a stone with an inscription foreshadowing one or another fate, and sequentially chooses each of the three roads), prohibition and violation of the prohibition (Dobrynya is forbidden swim in the Puchai River), as well as the presence of ancient mythological elements (Volkh, born from a snake father, has the gift of reincarnation in animals, Tugarin Zmeevich in different options the epic appears either as a snake, or as a serpent endowed with anthropomorphic features, or as a creature of either human or serpentine nature; Likewise, the Nightingale the Robber turns out to be either a bird or a man, or even combines both features).

The largest number of epics that have come down to us dates back to the period from the 11th to the 13th–14th centuries. They were created in the southern Russian regions - Kyiv, Chernigov, Galicia-Volyn, Rostov-Suzdal. The most relevant during this period was the theme of the struggle of the Russian people with the nomads who raided Kievan Rus, and later with the Horde invaders. The epics begin to group around the plot of the defense and liberation of the Motherland, brightly colored with patriotic feelings. People's memory has preserved only one name for the nomadic enemy - Tatar, but researchers find among the names of heroes of epics the names of not only Tatar, but also Polovtsian military leaders. In the epics there is a noticeable desire to raise the people's spirit, to express love for home country and fierce hatred of foreign invaders, the exploits of mighty and invincible folk heroes are praised. At this time, the images of Ilya Muromets, the Danube Matchmaker, Alyosha Popovich, Dobrynya Nikitich, Vasily Kazemirovich, Mikhailo Danilovich and many other heroes became popular.

With the formation of the Moscow State, starting in the 16th century, heroic epics gradually fade into the background, buffoons (Vavila and buffoons, Birds) and satirical epics with their acute social conflicts become more relevant. They describe the exploits of heroes in peaceful life, the main characters confront princes and boyars, and their task comes down to protecting their own family and honor (Sukhman, Danilo Lovchanin), while the buffoon epics ridicule the ruling strata of society. At the same time there arises new genre- historical songs, which tell about specific historical events that took place from the 13th to the 19th centuries, there is no fiction and exaggeration characteristic of epics, and in battles several people or an entire army can act as heroes at once.

In the 17th century epics are gradually beginning to supplant translated knightly romances adapted for Russian audiences, meanwhile they remain popular folk entertainment. At the same time, the first written retellings of epic texts appeared.

Cyclization of epics. Although, due to special historical conditions, a coherent epic never took shape in Rus', scattered epic songs are formed into cycles either around a hero or according to the community of the area where they lived. There is no classification of epics that would be unanimously accepted by all researchers; however, it is customary to single out the epics of the Kyiv, or “Vladimirov”, Novgorod and Moscow cycles. In addition to them, there are epics that do not fit into any cycles.

Kyiv or “Vladimirov” cycle. In these epics, heroes gather around the court of Prince Vladimir. The prince himself does not perform feats, however, Kyiv is the center that attracts heroes called upon to protect their homeland and faith from enemies. V.Ya. Propp believes that the songs of the Kyiv cycle are not a local phenomenon, characteristic only of the Kyiv region; on the contrary, epics of this cycle were created throughout Kievan Rus. Over time, the image of Vladimir changed, the prince acquired features that were initially unusual for the legendary ruler; in many epics he is cowardly, mean, and often deliberately humiliates the heroes (Alyosha Popovich and Tugarin, Ilya and Idolishche, Ilya’s Quarrel with Vladimir).

Novgorod cycle. The epics differ sharply from the epics of the “Vladimirov” cycle, which is not surprising, since Novgorod never knew the Tatar invasion, but was the largest trading center ancient Rus'. The heroes of Novgorod epics (Sadko, Vasily Buslaev) are also very different from others.

Moscow cycle. These epics reflected the life of the upper strata of Moscow society. The epics about Khoten Bludovich, Duke and Churil contain many details characteristic of the era of the rise of the Moscow state: the clothes, morals and behavior of the townspeople are described.

Collection and publication of Russian epics. The first recording of Russian epic songs was made at the beginning of the 17th century. Englishman Richard James . However, the first significant work on collecting epics, which had enormous scientific significance, was done Cossack Kirsha Danilov approximately 40–60 18th century. The collection he collected consisted of 70 songs. For the first time, records in incomplete form were published only in 1804 in Moscow, under the title Ancient Russian Poems and for a long time were the only collection of Russian epic songs.

The next step in the study of Russian epic songs was made by P.N. Rybnikov (1831–1885). He discovered that epics were still performed in the Olonets province, although by that time this folklore genre was considered dead. Thanks to the discovery of P.N. Rybnikov, it was possible not only to study more deeply epic epic, but also to get acquainted with the method of its execution and with the performers themselves. The final collection of epics was published in 1861–1867 under the title Songs collected by P.N. Rybnikov. Four volumes contained 165 epics

This was followed by collections by A.F. Hilferding (1831–1872), P.V. Kireevsky (1808–1856), N.E. Onchukov (1872–1942), etc., the material for which was collected mainly in Siberia, in the Middle and Lower Volga region, on the Don, Terek and Ural (in the Central and Southern regions the epic epic has been preserved in very small quantities).

Russian and Soviet folkloristics. For the first time, K.F. Kalaidovich tried to comprehend the Russian epic as an integral artistic phenomenon and understand its relationship with the course of Russian history(1792–1832) in the preface to his second edition of the collection Ancient Russian Poems collected by Kirsha Danilov (1818).

According to representatives of the “mythological school”, to which F.I. Buslaev (1818–1897), A.N. Afanasyev (1826–1871), O.F. Miller (1833–1889) belonged, epic songs were nothing more than derived from more ancient myths. Based on these songs, representatives of the school tried to reconstruct the myths of primitive peoples.

“Comparatist” scientists, including G.N. Potanin (1835–1920) and A.N. Veselovsky (1838–1906), considered the epic an ahistorical phenomenon. They argued that the plot, after its inception, begins to wander, changing and enriching itself.

Representative of the “historical school” V.F. Miller (1848–1913) studied the interaction between epic and history. According to him, the epic recorded historical events, and thus the epic is a kind of oral chronicle.

V.Ya. Propp occupies a special place in Russian and Soviet folklore (1895–1970). In his innovative works, he combined a historical approach with a structural approach (Western structuralists, in particular C. Levi-Strauss (b. 1909), called him the founder of their scientific method, to which V. Ya. Propp sharply objected).

Epic stories and heroes in art and literature. Since the publication of Kirsha Danilov’s collection epic stories and the heroes firmly enter the world of modern Russian culture. Traces of acquaintance with Russian epics are easy to see in A.S. Pushkin’s poem Ruslan and Lyudmila and in the poetic ballads of A.K. Tolstoy.

The images of Russian epics are also reflected in music in many ways. Composer A.P. Borodin (1833–1887) created the farce opera Bogatyrs (1867), and gave the name Bogatyrskaya to his 2nd symphony (1876); he used images of the heroic epic in his romances.

Companion of A.P. Borodin in “ mighty bunch"(association of composers and music critics) N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov (1844–1908) twice turned to the image of the Novgorod “rich guest”. First, he created the symphonic musical picture Sadko (1867), and later, in 1896, the opera of the same name. It is worth mentioning that the theatrical production of this opera in 1914 was designed by the artist I.Ya. Bilibin (1876–1942).

V.M. Vasnetsov (1848–1926), mainly known to the public for his paintings, the subjects for which are taken from Russian heroic epic, it is enough to name the paintings Knight at the Crossroads (1882) and Bogatyrs (1898).

M.A. Vrubel (1856–1910) also turned to epic stories. Decorative panels Mikula Selyaninovich (1896) and Bogatyr (1898) interpret these seemingly familiar images in their own way.

Heroes and plots of epics are precious material for cinema. For example, the film directed by A.L. Ptushko (1900–1973) Sadko (1952), for which the original music was written by composer V.Ya. Shebalin, partly using the classical music of N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov in the musical design, was one of the most spectacular films of its time. And another film by the same director, Ilya Muromets (1956), became the first Soviet widescreen film with stereophonic sound. Animator director V.V. Kurchevsky (1928–1997) created an animated version of the most popular Russian epic, his work is called Sadko the Rich (1975).

"The Tale of Bygone Years." Basic ideas and types of chronicle narration

"The Tale of Bygone Years." IN beginning of XII V. (believed to be around 1113) The “Initial Code” was again revised by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. Nestor’s work received the name “The Tale of Bygone Years” in science from the first words of its lengthy title: “Behold the tale of bygone (past) years, where the Russian land came from, who began to reign first in Kiev, and where the Russian land began to eat.”

Nestor was a scribe with a broad historical outlook and great literary talent: even before working on The Tale of Bygone Years, he wrote The Life of Boris and Gleb and The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk. In “The Tale of Bygone Years” Nestor set himself a grandiose task: not only to supplement the “Initial Code” with a description of the events at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries, of which he was a contemporary, but also to most decisively rework the story about the most ancient period of the history of Rus' - “where is Russian land has gone."

Nestor introduces the history of Rus' into the mainstream of world history. He begins his chronicle with an account of the biblical legend about the division of the earth between the sons of Noah. Citing a lengthy list of the peoples of the whole world (extracted by him from the “Chronicle of George Amartol”), Nestor inserts into this list a mention of the Slavs; Elsewhere in the text, the Slavs are identified with the “Norics” - the inhabitants of one of the provinces of the Roman Empire, located on the banks of the Danube. Nestor talks in detail about the ancient Slavs, about the territory occupied by individual Slavic tribes, but in particular detail about the tribes that lived on the territory of Rus', in particular about the “meek and quiet in customs” glades, on whose land the city of Kyiv arose. Nestor clarifies and develops Nikon’s Varangian legend: the Varangian princes Askold and Dir, mentioned in the “Initial Code,” are now declared to be just boyars of Rurik (and “not his tribe”), and it is they who are credited with the campaign against Byzantium during the time of Emperor Michael. Having established from documents (texts of agreements with the Greeks) that Oleg was not Igor’s governor, but an independent prince, Nestor sets out the version according to which Oleg is a relative of Rurik, who reigned during Igor’s childhood.

At the same time, Nestor includes in the chronicle some new (compared to the “Initial Code”) folk historical legends, such as the story of Olga’s fourth revenge on the Drevlyans, stories about the duel of a young Kozhemyaki with a Pecheneg hero and about the siege of Belgorod by the Pechenegs (we are talking about them will go below).

So, it is to Nestor that “The Tale of Bygone Years” owes its broad historical outlook, the introduction into the chronicle of the facts of world history, against the background of which the history of the Slavs unfolds, and then the history of Rus'. It is Nestor who strengthens and improves the version about the origin of the Russian princely dynasty from the “called” Norman prince. Nestor is an active champion of the ideal of the state structure of Rus', proclaimed by Yaroslav the Wise: all princes are brothers and they all must obey the eldest in their family and occupying the Kiev grand princely table.

Thanks to the state view, breadth of outlook and literary talent of Nestor, “The Tale of Bygone Years” was “not just a collection of facts of Russian history and not just a historical and journalistic work related to the urgent but transitory tasks of Russian reality, but an integral, literary history of Rus'” .

It is believed that the first edition of The Tale of Bygone Years has not reached us. Its second edition, compiled in 1117 by the abbot of the Vydubitsky monastery (near Kiev) Sylvester, and the third edition, compiled in 1118 by order of Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich, have survived. In the second edition, only the final part of The Tale of Bygone Years was revised; This edition has come down to us as part of the Laurentian Chronicle of 1377, as well as other later chronicles. The third edition, according to a number of researchers, is presented in the Ipatiev Chronicle, the oldest list of which, the Ipatiev Chronicle, dates back to the first quarter of the 15th century.

Composition “Tales of Bygone Years”. Let us now consider the composition of “The Tale of Bygone Years” as it appears to us in the Laurentian and Radzivilov Chronicles.

The introductory part sets out the biblical legend about the division of the earth between the sons of Noah - Shem, Ham and Japheth - and the legend about the Babylonian pandemonium, which led to the division of the “single race” into 72 nations, each of which has its own language. Having determined that the “language (people) Slovenian” is from the tribe of Japheth, the chronicle further tells about the Slavs, the lands they inhabit, the history and customs of the Slavic tribes. Gradually narrowing the subject of its narrative, the chronicle focuses on the history of the glades and tells about the emergence of Kyiv. Speaking about the ancient times when the Kyiv glades were tributaries of the Khazars, The Tale of Bygone Years proudly notes that now, as was destined for a long time, the Khazars themselves are tributaries of the Kyiv princes.

Precise indications of the years begin in the “Tale of Bygone Years” from 852, since from that time, according to the chronicler, Rus' was mentioned in the “Greek chronicle”: this year the Kyiv princes Askold and Dir attacked Constantinople. A chronological calculation is also provided here - a countdown of the years that have passed from one significant event to another. The calculation concludes with a calculation of the years from “the death of Yaroslavl to the death of Svyatopolch” (i.e., from 1054 to 1113), from which it follows that the “Tale of Bygone Years” could not have been compiled earlier than the beginning of the second decade of the 12th century.

Further, the chronicle tells about the most important events of the 9th century. - “the calling of the Varangians”, the campaign of Askold and Dir against Byzantium, the conquest of Kyiv by Oleg. The legend about the origin of Slavic literacy included in the chronicle ends with an important statement for the general concept of the “Tale of Bygone Years” about the identity of the “Slovenian” and Russian languages ​​- another reminder of the place of glades among Slavic peoples and Slavs among the peoples of the world.

Subsequent chronicle articles tell about Oleg's reign. The chronicler cites the texts of his treaties with Byzantium and folk legends about the prince: a story about his campaign against Constantinople, with spectacular episodes, undoubtedly of a folklore nature (Oleg approaches the walls of the city in boats moving under sails on land, hangs his shield over the gates of Constantinople, "showing victory"). The well-known legend about Oleg’s death is also given here. The sorcerer predicted the prince's death from his beloved horse. Oleg decided: “Nikoli is everywhere, I don’t see him anymore.” However, he later learns that the horse has already died. Oleg laughed at the false prediction and wished to see the bones of the horse. But when the prince stepped on the “forehead” (skull) of the horse, he was stung by a snake that “emerged” from the forehead, fell ill and died. The chronicle episode, as we know, formed the basis of A. S. Pushkin’s ballad “Song of the Prophetic Oleg.”

This legend is accompanied by a lengthy extract from the “Chronicle of George Amartol”; a reference to the Byzantine chronicle should confirm that sometimes the prophecies of pagan sages turn out to be prophetic, and therefore the introduction into the chronicle of the story about the death of Oleg predicted by the magi is not reprehensible for a Christian chronicler.

Oleg was succeeded on the Kiev “table” by Igor, whom the chronicler considered the son of Rurik. Two campaigns of Igor against Byzantium are reported and the text of the agreement concluded by the Russian prince with the Byzantine emperors-co-rulers: Roman, Constantine and Stephen is given. Igor's death was unexpected and inglorious: on the advice of his squad, he went to the land of the Drevlyans to collect tribute (usually his governor Sveneld collected the tribute). On the way back, the prince suddenly turned to his soldiers: “Go with the house tribute, and I’ll come back with more.” The Drevlyans, having heard that Igor intended to collect tribute a second time, were indignant: “If a wolf (if a wolf gets into the habit) gets into a sheep, then carry out the whole flock, if not kill it, so and so: if we don’t kill it, then we will all be destroyed.” . But Igor did not heed the warning of the Drevlyans and was killed by them.

The story of Igor's death in the chronicle is very brief; but in the people's memory there are legends about how Igor's widow, Olga, took revenge on the Drevlyans for the murder of her husband. These legends were reproduced by the chronicler and are read in the “Tale of Bygone Years” in article 945.

After the murder of Igor, the Drevlyans sent ambassadors to Olga with an offer to marry their prince Mal. Olga pretended that she “loved” the words of the ambassadors, and ordered them to appear the next day, not on horseback or on foot, but in a very unusual way: by order of the princess, the Kievans were to bring the Drevlyans to princely court in the boats. At the same time, Olga orders a deep hole to be dug near her mansion. When the triumphant Drevlyan ambassadors (they sit in the boat “proudly,” the chronicler emphasizes) were brought into the princely court, Olga ordered them to be thrown together with the boat into a pit. Approaching its edge, the princess asked with a grin: “Are you kind?” “Worse than us (worse for us) are Igor’s deaths,” answered the Drevlyans. And Olga ordered them to be buried alive in a hole.

Olga ordered the second embassy, ​​consisting of noble Drevlyan “men,” to be burned in a bathhouse, where the ambassadors were invited to “wash themselves.” Finally, the princess ordered the squad of Drevlyans sent to meet Olga to bring her into the capital of Mala with honor during the funeral feast at Igor’s grave.

A careful consideration of the legends about how Olga took revenge on the Drevlyans three times reveals the symbolic meaning of the legend’s subtext: each revenge corresponds to one of the elements of the pagan funeral rite. According to the customs of that time, the dead were buried in a boat; a bath was prepared for the deceased, and then his corpse was burned; on the day of burial, a funeral feast was held, accompanied by war games.

This story about Olga’s three revenges was already read in the “Initial Code”. Another legend was included in the Tale of Bygone Years - about the fourth revenge of the princess.

Having killed the Drevlyan squad, Olga nevertheless could not take their capital - the city of Iskorosten. Then the princess again resorted to cunning. She turned to the besieged, convincing them that she was not going to impose a heavy tribute on them, as Igor had once done, but was asking for an insignificant ransom: three sparrows and three doves per house. The Drevlyans again did not realize Olga’s treachery and readily sent her the required tribute. Then Olga’s warriors, on her orders, tied a “tser” (lit tinder, dried tinder fungus) to the birds’ legs and released them. The birds flew to their nests, and soon the entire city was on fire. People who tried to escape were captured by Olga's soldiers. So, according to legend, the princess avenged her husband’s death.

Further, the chronicle tells about Olga’s visit to Constantinople. Olga actually came to Constantinople in 957 and was received by Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus. However, the story of how she “outwitted” (outwitted) the emperor is absolutely legendary: according to it, Olga was baptized in Constantinople, and Constantine was her godfather. When the emperor invited her to become his wife, Olga objected: “Why do you want to give me water, having baptized me yourself and named me daughter?”

The chronicler enthusiastically depicts Igor's son Svyatoslav, his belligerence, chivalrous straightforwardness (he supposedly warned his enemies in advance: “I want to go against you”), and unpretentiousness in everyday life. The chronicle tells about Svyatoslav’s campaigns against Byzantium: he almost reached Constantinople and, having conquered the Balkan countries, intended to move his capital to the Danube, because there, in his words, “there is the middle of the earth,” where all the goods flow - precious metals, expensive fabrics , wine, horses and slaves. But Svyatoslav’s plans were not destined to come true: he died in an ambush of the Pechenegs at the Dnieper rapids.

After the death of Svyatoslav, an internecine struggle broke out between his sons - Oleg, Yaropolk and Vladimir. Vladimir emerged victorious, becoming the sole ruler of Rus' in 980.

In the section of The Tale of Bygone Years, dedicated to the reign of Vladimir, the theme of the baptism of Rus' occupies a large place. The chronicle reads the so-called “Philosopher’s Speech,” with which a Greek missionary allegedly addressed Vladimir, convincing the prince to accept Christianity. “The Philosopher’s Speech” had great educational significance for the ancient Russian reader - it briefly outlined the entire “sacred history” and communicated the basic principles of the Christian faith.

Various folk legends were grouped around the name of Vladimir. They were also reflected in the chronicle - in memories of the generosity of the prince, his crowded feasts, where almost all the warriors were invited, about the exploits of unknown heroes who lived during the time of this prince - about the victory of the Kozhemyaki youth over the Pecheneg hero or about the elder, with his wisdom liberated the city of Belgorod from the Pecheneg siege. These legends will be discussed below.

After the death of Vladimir in 1015, internecine struggle broke out again between his sons. Svyatopolk is the son of Yaropolk and a captive nun, whom Vladimir, having killed his brother, made his wife, killed his half-brothers Boris and Gleb. The chronicle reads a short story about the fate of the martyred princes, about the struggle of Yaroslav Vladimirovich with Svyatopolk, which ended in the latter’s military defeat and terrible divine retribution. When Svyatopolk was defeated in battle. turned to flight, a demon “attacked” him, “and weakened his bones, making him unable to mount a horse.” It seems to Svyatopolk that a pursuit is following him, he hurries his warriors, who carry him on a stretcher. “Driven by God’s wrath,” Svyatopolk dies in the “desert” (in a remote, uninhabited place) between Poland and the Czech Republic, and from his grave, according to the chronicle, “emanates... the stench of evil.” The chronicler takes the opportunity to emphasize that the terrible death of Svyatopolk should serve as a warning to the Russian princes, to protect them from renewed fratricidal strife. This idea will be heard from the pages of the chronicle more than once: both in the story of the death of Yaroslav, and in the description of the strife among his sons in the 70s. XI century, and in the story about the blinding of the Terebovl prince Vasilko by his blood brothers - David and Svyatopolk.

In 1037, the chronicle tells about the construction activities of Yaroslav (in particular, about the foundation of the famous St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, fortress walls with the Golden Gate, etc.) and glorifies his love of books: the prince “was diligent in books and revered them (them) often in the night and in the day." On his orders, numerous scribes translated books from Greek “into Slovenian (i.e. Russian) writing.” Of great importance is the dying will of Yaroslav, placed in Article 1054, who called on his sons to live in peace, to take care of the land of “their father and grandfather,” which they acquired “through their great labor,” and to obey the eldest in the family - the Kyiv prince.

Weather records in the Tale of Bygone Years alternate with stories and messages, sometimes only indirectly related to the political history of Rus', to which, strictly speaking, the chronicle should be devoted. Thus, article 1051 contains a lengthy story about the founding of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. This topic will be continued in the “Tale of Bygone Years” and further: the article of 1074 tells about the death of the abbot of this monastery, Theodosius, and gives episodes of the ascetic life in the monastery of Theodosius himself and other monks; Article 1091 describes the transfer of the relics of Theodosius and praises the saint. In the article of 1068, in connection with the Polovtsian invasion of Rus', the chronicler discusses the causes of the disasters of the Russian land and explains the “finding of foreigners” by divine punishment for sins. Article 1071 reads a story about an uprising led by the Magi in the Rostov land; The chronicler talks about the machinations of demons and cites two more stories, thematically related to the previous one: about a Novgorodian who told fortunes to a magician, and about the appearance of a sorcerer in Novgorod. In 1093, the Russian princes were defeated by the Polovtsians. This event was the reason for the chronicler’s new reasoning about why God is “punishing the Russian land”, why “crying has spread throughout all the streets.” There is a dramatic description of the suffering of Russian captives who wander, driven to a foreign land, “sad, tormented, cordoned off in winter (suffering from the cold), in greed, and in thirst, and in trouble,” saying to each other with tears: “Az beg this city.” , “Yaz sowing all (villages)...” This article, as mentioned above, may have ended the Initial Code.

The last decade of the 11th century. was full of stormy events. After internecine wars, the instigator and indispensable participant of which was Oleg Svyatoslavich (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” calls him Oleg Gorislavlich), the princes gathered in 1097 in Lyubech for a congress, at which they decided from now on to live in peace and friendship, to hold their father’s possessions and do not encroach on other people's inheritances. However, immediately after the congress, a new atrocity was committed: the Volyn prince Davyd Igorevich convinced the Kyiv prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich that the Terebovl prince Vasilko was plotting against them. Svyatopolk and Davyd lured Vasilko to Kyiv, captured him and gouged out his eyes. This event shocked all the princes: Vladimir Monomakh, according to the chronicler, complained that such evil did not exist in Rus' “neither under our grandfathers, nor under our fathers.” In article 1097 we find a detailed story about the dramatic fate of Vasilko Terebovlsky; it was probably written specifically for the chronicle and was fully included in it.

We do not know exactly what the final part of The Tale of Bygone Years in the second edition looked like. In the Laurentian Chronicle, the text of the article of 1110 is artificially cut off: the record of the chronicler Sylvester follows immediately the story of a miraculous sign in the Pechersk Monastery, which is considered as the appearance of an angel; at the same time, in the Ipatiev Chronicle, following the description of the sign, one reads a discussion about angels, which, undoubtedly, was included in the original text of the article of 1110, i.e., it should have been present in the text of the second edition of The Tale of Bygone Years. In addition, it is unknown whether article 1110 was the last in this edition: after all, Sylvester’s postscript states that he wrote “books and chroniclers” in 1116. The question of the relationship between the second edition of The Tale of Bygone Years and the third edition remains controversial , as well as the exact text that ended the second edition of the Tale.

"THE Tale of Bygone Years" AND ITS EDITIONS

In 1110–1113, the first edition (version) of the Tale of Bygone Years was completed - a lengthy chronicle collection that included numerous information on the history of Rus': about the Russian wars with the Byzantine Empire, about the calling of the Scandinavians Rurik, Truvor and Sineus to reign in Rus', about the history of Kiev. Pechersky Monastery, about princely crimes. The probable author of this chronicle is the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. This edition has not been preserved in its original form.

The first edition of the Tale of Bygone Years reflected the political interests of the then Kyiv prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich. In 1113, Svyatopolk died, and Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh ascended the Kiev throne. In 1116 by the monk Sylvester (in the Promonomakhian spirit) and in 1117-1118. An unknown scribe from the circle of Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich (son of Vladimir Monomakh) revised the text of the Tale of Bygone Years. This is how the second and third editions of The Tale of Bygone Years arose; the oldest list of the second edition has reached us as part of the Laurentian Chronicle, and the earliest list of the third – as part of the Ipatiev Chronicle.

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EDITING “THE TALE OF BYE YEARS”

Having become the Prince of Kyiv, Vladimir Monomakh retained his “fatherland” - the Principality of Pereyaslavl, as well as the Suzdal and Rostov lands. Veliky Novgorod also recognized the power of Vladimir, obeying his orders and accepting princes from him. In 1118, Vladimir demanded that “all the Novgorod boyars” come to him to swear them in. He released some of them back to Novgorod, and “keep some of them with you.” Under Vladimir, the former military power of the ancient Russian state, weakened by previous feudal strife, was restored. The Polovtsians were dealt a crushing blow, and they did not dare to attack the Russian land...

One of the measures during the reign of Vladimir Monomakh in Kyiv in 1113 was the correction of Nestorov’s “Tale of Bygone Years” in order to more correctly cover the reign of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, hated by the Kyiv working people. Monomakh entrusted this matter to the abbot of the Vydubetsky monastery, Sylvester. The Vydubetsky Monastery was founded by the father of Vladimir Monomakh, Prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich, and, naturally, supported the side of this prince, and after his death - the side of his son. Sylvester conscientiously completed the task assigned to him. He rewrote “The Tale of Bygone Years” and supplemented it with several inserts about the negative actions of Svyatopolk. Thus, Sylvester introduced into the “Tale of Bygone Years” under 1097 the story of priest Vasily about the blinding of Vasilko Rostislavich. Then, in a new way, he outlined the history of the campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsians in 1103. Although this campaign was led by Svyatopolk, as the senior prince of Kyiv, by the pen of Sylvester Svyatopolk was relegated to the background, and Vladimir Monomakh, who actually participated in this campaign, but did not lead it, was put in first place.

The fact that this version could not belong to Nestor, a monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, is clear from a comparison with it of the story about the same campaign, available in the “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon”, which probably comes, according to tradition, from Nestor himself. In the story "Paterikon" Vladimir Monomakh is not even mentioned, and the victory over the Polovtsians is attributed to Svyatopolk alone, who received a blessing before the campaign from the monks of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery.

While editing Nestor's "Tale of Bygone Years", Sylvester did not continue it for a single year, but issued an indication of the authorship of the Kiev-Pechersk monk. Under the same year 1110, Sylvester made the following postscript: “Hegumen Sylvester of St. Michael wrote this book, chronicler, hoping from God to receive mercy from Prince Volodymyr, who reigned over Kiev for him, and at that time I was abbot under St. Michael, in the summer of 6624 (1116) Indictment 9. And if you read these books, then be in your prayers.” Since Sylvester's edition received official recognition, it formed the basis for all subsequent Russian chronicle writing and has come down to us in many later chronicle lists. Nestorov’s text of “The Tale of Bygone Years,” which remained the property of only the Kiev-Pechersk tradition, has not reached us, although some traces of differences between this text and Sylvester’s edition were preserved, as already said, in individual stories of the later “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon.” In this “Paterikon” there is also a reference to Nestor, who wrote the Russian “chronicler”.

In 1118, Sylvester’s edition of The Tale of Bygone Years was continued, apparently due to the inclusion of the famous “Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh” written that year. According to the convincing assumption of M. Priselkov, the addition was made by the son of Vladimir Monomakh Mstislav, who was then in Novgorod. Of great interest among these additions are two stories about the northern countries, heard by the author in 1114, when he was present at the laying of a stone wall in Ladoga. The Ladoga mayor Pavel told him about the northern countries beyond Ugra and Samoyede. Another story about these countries, heard by the author from Novgorodian Gyuryata Rogovich, is placed under the year 1096, indicating that it was heard “before these 4 years.” Since both stories are closely related to each other in content, the words “before these 4 years” should be attributed to the time of writing this insert in 1118, when the author heard the first story.. Since the original of Mstislav’s manuscript has not reached us, but only its later lists, then the only explanation for the resulting confusion can be a random rearrangement of the original sheets from which these lists were then made. This assumption is all the more acceptable since in the available lists, under the year 1096, there is also the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh,” written no earlier than 1117.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign." Ideological content, art form, connection with folklore.

“Tales of Igor’s Campaign” was discovered by the famous collector of ancient Russian manuscripts, Count A.I. Musin-Pushkin at the end of the 18th century. From that time on, intensive study of this outstanding monument of ancient Russian literature began.

Researchers analyzed the text of the “Word”, its artistic merits, language, and considered ideological plan monument, the historical outlook of its author, clarified the circumstances of the discovery of the manuscript of the Lay and the principles of its publication. Most of these issues have now been studied quite deeply and comprehensively.

Controversy about the time of writing the Lay.

In the research literature on the Lay, a significant place is occupied by controversy about the authenticity of the monument or the time of its creation.

Distrust in the antiquity of the Lay arose after the destruction of the manuscript in a fire in 1812. There were several reasons for the emergence of a “skeptical view” of the antiquity of the Lay. Firstly, at the beginning of the 19th century. scientists knew too little about the literature of Ancient Rus', and therefore the “Word” seemed to them unnaturally perfect for the level of artistic culture of Kievan Rus. Secondly, they were confused by the unclear, “dark places” of the Lay, the abundance of incomprehensible words in it, which at first they tried to explain using material from other Slavic languages. But the main reason for the emergence of distrust in the “Word” was that direction in Russian historiography of the early 19th century, which is called the “skeptical school.” Doubt about the authenticity of the “Tale” was only a particular episode in this trend: “skeptics” also questioned the antiquity of Russian chronicles, the collection of ancient Russian laws - “Russian Truth”, the works of Kirill of Turov, etc.

In the middle of the 19th century. After the discovery of the “Zadonshchina”, the oldest known copy of which dates back to the end of the 15th century, they stopped doubting the antiquity of the “Word”. However, in the 90s. In the same century, Louis Léger put forward the hypothesis that it was not the author of “Zadonshchina” who imitated “The Lay”, but, on the contrary, “The Lay” is an imitation of “Zadonshchina”. This assumption by L. Leger was developed in the works of the French scientist, academician A. Mazon, and later in the works of the Soviet historian A. A. Zimin. A. A. Zimin believed that the “Lay” was written on the basis of “Zadonshchina” in the 18th century. and its author was Joel Bykovsky, the Yaroslavl archimandrite, from whom A. I. Musin-Pushkin acquired the collection with “The Lay”

Subsequent studies of the entire sum of issues raised in A. A. Zimin’s hypothesis: the relationship between “The Lay” and “Zadonshchina”, the language and style of “The Lay”, the history of the discovery of the collection and publication of “The Lay” by A. I. Musin-Pushkin, personality characteristics and creativity of Joel Bykovsky - clearly confirmed the authenticity and antiquity of the “Lay”

“Composition “Words”.

“The Lay” begins with an extensive introduction, in which the author recalls the ancient singer of “slavs” Boyan, wise and skillful, but nevertheless declares that he will not follow this tradition in his work, he will lead his “song” “according to the epics of this time , and not according to Boyanu’s plans.”

Having determined the chronological range of his narration (“from old Vladimer to present-day Igor”), the author talks about Igor’s daring plan to “send” his regiments to the Polovtsian land, “to drink the helmet of the Don.” He seems to be “trying on” Boyan’s poetic manner to his theme (“It wasn’t the storm that carried the falcons across the wide fields - the Galician herds ran to the Don the Great” or: “Komoni neighs beyond Sula - glory rings in Kiev”).

Genre "Words".

The composition of “Words” is unusual for a historical story. We see that the author’s focus is not so much on a consistent story about the events of the campaign itself, but rather on reasoning about it, assessing Igor’s actions, thinking about the reasons for the “toughness” and sadness that gripped the entire Russian land in the present, referring to the events of the past with its victories and misfortunes. All these features of the Lay lead us to the question of the genre of the monument. This question is all the more important because ancient Russian literature, with its strict system of genres, “The Lay” (like a number of other monuments) appears to be outside the genre system. A. N. Robinson and D. S. Likhachev compare “The Lay” with the genre of the so-called “chanson de gesture” - “songs about exploits”, its analogies in this case are, for example, “The Song of Roland” or other similar works of Western European feudal epic.

The Lay combines epic and bookish principles. “The epic is full of calls for the defense of the country...” writes D. S. Likhachev. - Its “direction” is characteristic: the call comes as if from the people (hence the folklore origin), but it is addressed to the feudal lords - golden word Svyatoslav, and hence the book beginning.” .

Poetics of the Word.

The poetics of “The Lay” is so unique, its language and style are so colorful and original, that at first glance it may seem that “The Lay” is completely outside the sphere of literary traditions of the Russian Middle Ages.

In general, the style of monumental historicism is manifested in the Lay in a varied and profound way. The action of “The Lay” unfolds over a vast area from Novgorod the Great in the north to Tmutorokan (on the Taman Peninsula) in the south, from the Volga in the east to Galich and the Carpathians in the west. The author of the Lay mentions in his addresses to the princes many geographical points of the Russian land; the glory of Svyatoslav extends far beyond its borders - to the Germans, Czechs and Venetians. The characters in “The Lay” see the Russian land as if with “panoramic vision,” as if from a great height. Such, for example, is the appeal of Yaroslavna from Putivl not only to the sun and wind, but also to the distant Dnieper, which can cherish her beloved husband from Polovtsian captivity. Yaroslav Osmomysl also governs his principality within expressly “spatial” boundaries, propping up the Ugric Mountains, “courts along the Danube.” The battle with the Polovtsians itself takes on worldwide proportions: black clouds, symbolizing the enemies of Rus', come from the sea itself.

We have already spoken about the historicism of the Lay, also a characteristic feature of monumental historicism. And the events, and actions, and the very qualities of the heroes of “The Lay” are assessed against the background of the entire Russian history, against the background of events not only of the 12th, but also of the 11th century.

In a word, the author’s digressions shift (and deliberately and deliberately shift) the actual course of events, because the author’s goal is not so much to tell about them, which are well known to contemporaries, but to express his attitude towards them and reflect on what happened. Having understood these features of the plot structure of the Lay, we will see that it makes no sense to speculate about at what moment and where exactly the solar eclipse found Igor and Vsevolod and how accurately the Lay records this moment, about whether the Polovtsians collected tribute “ white from the courtyard,” or how expedient it was to call for help to Igor Prince Vsevolod the Big Nest, who was already striving to intervene in South Russian affairs. “The Word” is not documentary, it is epic, it does not so much narrate events as reflect on them.

Nature actively participates in the fate of Igor, in the fate of the Russian land: the grass wilts with pity, and, on the contrary, the Donets and the birds living in the coastal groves joyfully help Igor, who is escaping from captivity.

This does not mean that the Lay does not depict nature as such. But it is characteristic that in it, as in other ancient Russian monuments, there is no static landscape: the surrounding world appears to the reader in movement, in phenomena and processes. The “Word” does not say that the night is light or dark - it “fades”, the color of the river water is not described, but it says that “the rivers flow muddy”, the Dvina “flows like a swamp”, the Sula no longer “flows in silver streams” ; the banks of the Donets are not described, but it is said that the Donets spreads green grass for Igor on its silver banks, dresses him with warm mists under the canopy of a green tree, etc.

The time of writing “The Lay” and the question of its author.

the monument could have been created no later than October 1, 1187 - the time when Yaroslav Osmomysl died, since in the Lay he is mentioned as alive.

“The Word” in new Russian literature.

But in modern times, “The Lay” made a huge impression on Russian readers. Russian poets, literally from the very first years after the publication of the Lay, found in it grateful material for imitations and variations on ancient Russian themes, and endless attempts began to find the best poetic equivalent to the great monument of antiquity. Of the translations of the 19th century, of course, the best were those by V. A. Zhukovsky (positively assessed by A. S. Pushkin), M. D. Delarue, A. N. Maykov, L. Mey; at the beginning of our century, poems based on the “Lay” were created by A. A. Blok, and “The Lay” was translated by K. D. Balmont. Excellent translations belong to Soviet translators and poets - S. V. Shervinsky, V. Stelletsky, G. Storm, I. Novikov, N. Zabolotsky and others. “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” is widely known in translations into the languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR; it was translated into Ukrainian by M. Rylsky, into Belarusian by Y. Kupala, and into Georgian by S. Chikovani. There are translations of the “Word” made abroad, the monument has been translated into English, Bulgarian, Hungarian, Spanish, German, Polish, Romanian, Serbo-Croatian, Turkish, Finnish, French, Japanese and other languages.

Stories about the Tatar-Mongol invasion in ancient Russian literature. Their patriotic pathos and poetic forms of its expression.

We rarely think about what has become the living basis of literary creativity. And this was “The Word”. Pronounced, “uttered” in ancient times, it seemed to people as a sign “from above,” a sign of “divine inspiration” that should be kept in memory and passed on to descendants.

Aspirations of this kind were first manifested in the so-called syncretic form - in cult song and dance, reflecting the relationship of man with the forces of nature that he deified. Gradually, in the course of people’s labor activity, their development of certain natural resources, in such “actions” from still disordered ideas about the world around them, a tendency arose for a more harmonious understanding and humanization of its powers - myths were born about gods, although they had supernatural capabilities, but very similar in their aspirations and actions to the unknown creators of these legends themselves. But the less a person’s dependence on the outside world became in the process of development of society, the more often he himself appeared in the epic as an increasingly strong, invincible hero. Usually such a character was the ruler of the earth, the king, because now not only the forces of nature, but also the leaders determined the lives of ordinary people. This is how myths about heroes and heroic epics arose. These myths were first imprinted with the help of drawings on stones, dishes, fabrics, and with the advent of writing - in cuneiform form on clay tablets.

Myth tells about events occurring in space and time. In this narrative, philosophical and religious ideas are expressed in the language of symbols, the inner state of a person is conveyed, and this is the true meaning of the myth. A myth is not a “fiction”, not a “relic” of the past. And a certain primary language of description, in terms of which man, since ancient times, has modeled, classified and interpreted himself, society, and the world.

More on early stages In history, people not only cared about maintaining their existence, but also sought to preserve their tribe, their clan. And everything that contributed to the upbringing of a smart, strong, dexterous person became the content of lullabies, nursery rhymes, riddles, fairy tales... life experience, accumulated knowledge about the world around us, wise conclusions from all this from adults in the form of original teachings were presented to children in simple and forms that are understandable to them. Folklore testifies to this. Myth is the oldest literary monument [Propp 2010: 48-49].

Scientists believe that myths served as a kind of source for the development scientific ideas, the origins of philosophy, literature, painting, sculpture, architecture, music, theatrical art. The most ancient fairy tales reveal a plot connection with primitive myths. It is quite obvious that the myth was the predecessor of a fairy tale about a marriage with an enchanted creature, who then shed her animal shell and took on a human form (the plot of the well-known fairy tale “The Scarlet Flower”), a fairy tale about a wonderful wife who gives her chosen one good luck in business, hunting, etc. .d., but leaves it due to violation of some prohibition (“The Frog Princess”). Popular tales about children in power evil spirit, monsters, sorcerers and those saved thanks to the resourcefulness of one of them (Sister Alyonushka and brother Ivanushka), tales about the murder of a mighty serpent, a dragon (3 snake Gorynych, Koshchei the Immortal) reproduce the motifs of certain rituals of ancient people.

Over time, with development human society children “appropriated” most of these fairy tales, myths, and legends. Perhaps this happened because children's consciousness is somehow closer to those naive and at the same time deeply wise ideas about human nature, about good and evil, which peoples developed during their infancy and in the early stages of their history

In Russian science the term “mythological tales” is often used. It originates from the works of folklorists of the first half of the 19th century c., for example from I.P. Sakharov. He was followed by P. A. Bessonov, O. F. Miller, fairy tale collector E. R. Romanov and others who called fairy tales mythological.

What is mythological in Russian fairy tales? Firstly, miracles that occur in fairy tales at the will of characters with magical powers, or at the will of wonderful animals, or with the help of magical objects; secondly, fantastic characters, such as Baba Yaga, Koschey, the many-headed snake; thirdly, the personification of the forces of nature, for example, in the image of frost, the animation of trees ( talking trees); fourthly, anthropomorphism is the endowment of animals human qualities- mind and speech ( talking horse, Gray wolf).

But all these are only traces of mythological ideas, since “the formation of the classical form of a fairy tale was completed far beyond the historical boundaries of the primitive communal system, in a much more developed society,” writes E.M. Meletinsky in the article “Myth and Fairy Tale” [Chernousova I.P. 2012: 121].

The question of the direct origin of the fairy tale from myth remains controversial. EAT. Meletinsky believes that there was a transformation of myth into fairy tale. Many folklorists hold this point of view. But it still requires sufficient justification. The only correct opinion is that the mythological worldview provided the basis for the poetic form of the fairy tale, and that the poetic mythology of the fairy tale was created. The elements of mythology listed above, included in the fairy tale, acquired artistic functions.

The important point is that the plots of fairy tales and the miracles they talk about have a basis in life. This is, firstly, a reflection of the characteristics of the work and life of people of the tribal system, their relationship to nature, often their powerlessness before it; secondly, a reflection of the features of the feudal system, especially early feudalism (the king is the enemy of the hero, the struggle for inheritance, receiving the kingdom and the hand of the princess for victory over evil forces). It is characteristic that capitalist relations are not reflected in fairy tales. Obviously, its development stopped before the formation of the capitalist formation.

The vital basis of fairy tales was the dream of power over nature, which, according to M. Gorky, is so characteristic of them.

In fairy tales, goblins, water goblins, and kikimoras are sometimes encountered. They replaced the real characters in a wonderful story. So, for example, in one of the versions of the fairy tale “Morozko”, instead of the omnipotent master of the winter elements, Frost, a goblin is presented, who gave his stepdaughter everything that a peasant girl could wish for.

Having endowed the sorcerer and witch with supernatural abilities, people, in an effort to protect themselves from the influence of spells and black witchcraft, furnished their everyday life with a variety of magical rituals. Magic is the same sorcery and the same magic, these are rituals associated with faith in a person’s ability to counteract supernatural forces and find support and protection from them. Magic wanted to subjugate a person to the will of other people, conquer animals, nature, and also act on imaginary masters, spirits and gods. The birth of magical rituals dates back to primitive times. The appearance of ritual in everyday life became possible due to man’s ignorance of true connections and relationships in the real world. Man depended on nature. His constrained consciousness sought means of protection in the fight against the elements of nature and social ills.

Remnants of ritual magic are accurately reproduced in the content of many fairy tales. There is a closeness of the magical fairy-tale action to magical units by indicating the frequent coincidence of objects that formed an integral part of ritual actions with those objects that are endowed with miraculous properties in fairy tales.

The ring in fairy tales is endowed with a wonderful property. The Tale of the Three Kingdoms talks about copper, silver and gold rings, each containing a special kingdom. In the fairy tale about the wonderful shirt, a ring placed on a finger turns the hero into a horse. A wedding ring, thrown from hand to hand, makes twelve young men appear with the words “What do you order?” The hero orders: “Move me from this mountain.” And the good guys carried it through. In all fairy tales, the ax cuts itself. Emelya the Fool says to the ax: “By pike command, and according to my request, come on, an ax, chop the wood, and you, logs, put yourself in the sleigh and get tied up!” And the ax got to work.

The scarf in fairy tales has a wonderful property. It is enough to throw it or simply wave it, and a lake and even a sea will form, spreading widely around. “Ivan Tsarevich heard a noise, looked around - his sister was about to catch up; He waved his brush, and the lake became deep. While the witch swam across the lake, Ivan Tsarevich went far away.”

Water, a frequent accessory of ritual action, works miracle after miracle in fairy tales: it restores sight, gives youth, heals diseases, revives, deprives of strength, and makes the hero stronger than the most terrible monsters. There is also such water that can turn a person into an animal, a bird, but there is also another that returns people to their human form. Speaking about the nature of the miraculous in fairy tales, it is necessary to note the preservation in the later fantastic fiction of fairy tales of some properties coming from magical rituals. These are the wonderful “youthful” apples that in fairy tales return youth, strength and health to a person. It can be assumed that the penetration of this wonderful object into the magical narrative did not occur without the influence of ritual and magical ideas and concepts that lived among the people. Until the very last pre-revolutionary years, a wedding custom was preserved in some Russian villages: the newlyweds ate an apple upon returning from church after the wedding [Rafaeva 2012: 71].

According to the people who performed this ritual, the eaten apple was supposed to ensure fertility and well-being for the new family.

So, historical roots fairy tales disappear into primitive mythology. Many of their motives are associated with magic, with the belief in supernatural connections with animals - totemism. Words and objects have magical powers. There are many transformations of all kinds in fairy tales: after all, in mythological consciousness there was no strict boundary between man and nature.

What is the difference between a myth, as such, and a fairy tale?

It is usually believed that the difference lies in the fact that when we listen to a fairy tale, we are aware that it is talking about something unreal and “fabulous,” while a myth is only a naive form of scientific explanation, taken quite seriously. This characteristic shows the difference between a fairy tale and a myth in their mature period; the different attitude in both cases is rightly highlighted. However, it would be a mistake not to notice the genetic closeness of fairy tales and myths - and this has special meaning in order to gain understanding children's world. Myth and fairy tale grow from the same root, mutually influence each other, and their difference is associated with a more definite awareness of the difference between the world of reality and the world of fantasy.

A fairy tale can be compared not only with individual mythological ideas, but also with rituals. The motives for the marriage of a person with a totemic miraculous animal - a creature that has temporarily shed its animal shell - have a ritual-mythological genesis. A wonderful wife brings good luck to her chosen one, but leaves him due to a violation of a prohibition - a taboo ("The Frog Princess"). The plot about a wonderful husband (“Finist - Clear Falcon”) is of the same origin. Such tales reflect not only a taboo, but also the custom of taking a wife from another family - that is why the hero goes for his wife (the heroine for her husband) to distant lands.

A number of fairy-tale motifs and symbols (a lost shoe, baking a ring into a pie, dressing up a bride in a pork casing, etc.) can be explained by ancient marriage customs and rituals and also have ritual-mythological semantics.

A very important role in archaic society was played by the so-called transitional rites, which connected the individual fate of a person with his social group. The main transitional rite is initiation (dedication): a young man who reached maturity moved into a group of adult men and received the right to marry. Initiation involves symbolic temporary death and rebirth in a new capacity. The ritual symbolism of temporary death in fairy tales is often expressed in the motif of swallowing a newcomer and then spitting him out by a monster, visiting another world and obtaining wonderful objects there. The initiates were taken into the forest, where they lived in a hut and were subjected to all kinds of tests, sometimes cruel. The motif of the initiation of a young man is introduced into all mythical ideas, rites, rituals and techniques of the tribe.

The initiation rite was not only reflected in fairy tales, but also became their compositional core. Fairy tales contain both a forest house and a forest teacher, as well as a complex of mythological ideas associated with temporary death and visiting the kingdom of the dead. In Russian fairy tales it is Far Far Away kingdom with its golden or fiery coloring. The hero must certainly get there. Having demonstrated his magical skills and obtained magical objects, the hero returns to the living in a new capacity: now he has become a mature person.

So, the initial goal of the initiation rite and the fairy tale that goes back to it is to demonstrate the magical-heroic skills of the hero. Gradually the theme is transformed under the influence wedding ceremony: all these skills are needed in order to marry a beautiful princess. Difficult tasks in a fairy tale are almost always presented as wedding trials, the princess bride as a “payment” for a feat (this “payment” is often announced at the very beginning along with difficult task), a happy marriage is a happy ending to a fairy tale. An indispensable condition for the formation of a genre of fairy tales based on fiction is the separation of fairy tales from archaic mythology and ancient rituals. A reliable mythological story had to turn into poetic fiction. This happened gradually, with the disappearance of ancient mythological ideas. As E.M. notes Meletinsky, the transformation of myths themselves into fairy tales was accompanied by a weakening of faith in the truth of mythical events and the development of conscious invention, loss of ethnographic specificity, replacement mythical heroes fictional characters and mythical time in a fabulously uncertain way, shifting attention from space to society.

However, a special impetus was required that would contribute to the transformation of the myth into a fairy tale. Such an impetus was given by the era of the collapse of the clan system. Victims of this process also appeared: socially disadvantaged, innocently persecuted. The fairy tale takes the disadvantaged under protection and makes it its hero: this is an orphaned young man (“Puss in Boots”), a stepdaughter (“Cinderella”, Morozko), orphaned children (“Sister Alyonushka and Brother Ivanushka”) [Afanasyev 2010: 219].

In addition, during the transition from the tribal system to the patriarchal family, he found himself in the position of socially disadvantaged younger brother. The younger brother is impeccable from the point of view of clan morality: he remains in the parents' house as the keeper of the hearth and clan property. He respects elders, honors the cult of ancestors, and protects ancestral principles.

Old mythological stories about magical powers generated by mythological thinking begin to gather around new socially disadvantaged heroes. But now these magical forces come to the defense of the oppressed, help him and establish the dying justice.

Conclusion: Russian folklore could not preserve the ancient stories of this distant time intact. Under the influence of historical circumstances, ritual and magical narratives largely deviated from their original origins. original forms. But folk tales have traditionally preserved plots that, although they have changed, acquired a new meaning, however, owe their original origin to the most ancient eras in the development of folklore.

Bogdanov I.D. 1

Samoilova E.A. 1

1 Municipal autonomous educational institution of the Novolyalinsky urban district "Secondary comprehensive school №4"

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“In fairy tales, both the soul of the Russian people and wisdom are visible.

they are our wealth."

(Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky)

Introduction

Today it is difficult to imagine a person who would not love fairy tales and everything connected with them.

Fairy tales came to us from ancient times, passed down from generation to generation. It was so long ago that now no one can even find out exactly when.

The first creator of fairy tales was the people who put into them their cherished dreams of justice, a happy life, and talked about the beauty, intelligence and hard work of ordinary people. A fairy tale surrounds, fascinates, captivates a person from early childhood until the end of life with its wonderful transformations and magical plots.

The theme of the presence of fairy tales in our lives is relevant, because even today people enjoy reading fairy tales. The main feature of fairy tales is the presence of magical objects that helped and made the lives of the heroes easier. In Russian folk tales there are household items and clothing that make their owner invulnerable and give him the opportunity to do great things. Walking boots, an invisible hat, a self-assembled tablecloth, a flying carpet, Magic wand- these are the main subjects of fairy tales. With the help of magical objects, fairy tale heroes cope with difficulties that cannot be overcome in the usual way. I note that not every fairy tale with a magical object is folk. Many world-famous storytellers happily wrote about useful wonders.

After reading many fairy tales, I realized that magical “helpers” exist in reality. These are human inventions that help and make life easier. modern people. Surprisingly, discoveries and improvements occur every day in the world of technology. The basis for these inventions is given to humanity by the wisdom of the entire people, that is, fairy tales.

Object of study: magical objects from fairy tales.

Subject of research: the connection of magical objects with the inventions of the modern world.

Hypothesis: Magic items are closely related to modern inventions that we now use.

Goal: to find out whether it is possible to create magic in the real world, that is, to find in modern world inventions, the ideas for creating which came to us from fairy tales.

Find magical objects in fairy tales that helped the heroes

Find objects in the modern world whose ancestors are magical objects from fairy tales.

Prove the relationship between magical objects and modern inventions.

Attract the attention of the children from the group to the research.

Analyze the results and draw a conclusion.

Research methods:

comparison;

study and analysis of literature;

generalization;

Duration of the study: February 2018 - September 2018.

“You shouldn’t turn away from old wives’ tales so easily.

They sometimes contain knowledge from the inheritance of the Wise.”

( Gene Ronald Reuel Tolkien. "Lord of the Rings")

After reading and analyzing a large number of fairy tales, I found magical objects that, thanks to the development of science, came to life in real life. I have divided these items into several groups.

1. Fast movement.

People have always dreamed of moving quickly over long distances in a short time, which is why they came up with magical objects that help them fly and run fast. We learn about these magical objects from fairy tales.

So, from the fairy tale “Prophetic Dream” we learn about the flying carpet. The main character, Ivan the merchant's son, took possession of this magical object in a not entirely honest way. " They went outside the city, spread out a flying carpet, sat down and rose above the walking cloud; They flew and flew and landed right next to that dense forest where they left their good horses." But with his help he did good deeds. In the same tale, walking boots are also mentioned.

Or in the fairy tale “The Enchanted Princess,” a retired soldier married the princess, who is in the form of a bear. To overcome obstacles, he also fraudulently takes possession of a flying carpet and an invisible hat.and walking boots.The fairy tale says “a soldier sat on a magic carpet and flew... he wandered for a long, long time, saw many lands and many seas, and finally arrived at the end of the world... there is nowhere else to fly!” I did not use boots when performing fabulous deeds.

I also read Charles Perrault’s fairy tale “Tom Thumb”, in which I also met a magical object with which it is possible to move - seven-league boots. “The cannibal took seven-league boots from the chest and hurried after the brothers. He crossed half the state in a few steps and soon found himself on the road along which the boys were running... He jumped from mountain to mountain, stepped over huge rivers, like small puddles.” Then Thumb Boy stole the Ogre's seven-league boots. The kid got a job in the royal service as a messenger and with their help earned a lot of money and helped the family get out of poverty (the tale was written inXVII V.).

In the fairy tale “Little Muk” by Wilhelm Hauff there are magic shoes that transport the owner to any distance.I read about them: “Coming out of the house, he started running and rushed without looking back until he ran out of the city into a field. Then the dwarf decided to rest a little. And suddenly he felt that he could not stop. His legs ran on their own and dragged him , no matter how hard he tried to stop them. He tried to fall and turn around - nothing helped. Finally he realized that it was all about his new shoes. It was they who pushed him forward and did not allow him to stop. Muk was completely exhausted and did not know What should he do? In despair, he waved his hands and shouted, like cab drivers shout:
- Whoa! Whoa! Stop! And suddenly the shoes immediately stopped, and the poor dwarf fell to the ground with all his might.”Later, Muk used this property of shoes to achieve his goals (the fairy tale was published in 1826).

In A. Volkov’s fairy tale “The Wizard” emerald city“I came across a magical object - silver shoes.” “Silver shoes have many wonderful properties,” said Stella. - But their most amazing property is that in three steps they will take you even to the ends of the world. All you have to do is hit your heel with your heel and name the place...” This magical shoe transported Ellie from magical land to Kansas to visit mom and dad. The work was written only in 1939.

In the Russian folk tale The Flying Ship, I learned about how the tsar decided to give his daughter in marriage to someone who could make the Flying Ship. This happened to be the younger brother in one poor family, who went into the forest and asked for advice from his grandfather - a kind wizard who helped the guy build a ship of unprecedented beauty "... the fool boarded a flying ship, straightened the sails. The sails inflated, the ship soared into the sky, flew faster than a falcon. Flies a little lower than the walking clouds, a little higher than the standing forests..."

And yet, in many Russian folk tales, the most evil heroine - Baba Yaga - moved in a mortar.

Most lazy hero In fairy tales, Emelya rode a sleigh not drawn by horses. This is how the fairy tale says it: “Emelya got down from the stove, put on his shoes, got dressed. He took a rope and an ax, went out into the yard and sat in the sleigh:

Women, open the gates!

His daughters-in-law tell him:

Why did you, fool, get into the sleigh without harnessing the horse?

I don't need a horse.

The daughters-in-law opened the gate, and Emelya said quietly:

At the behest of the pike, at my will, go, sleigh, into the forest... The sleigh itself drove through the gate, but it’s impossible to catch up with a horse so fast.”

Even Emelya, who didn’t want to do anything, went to work on the stove. “Emelya lay still and said:

At the behest of the pike, at my desire - come on, bake, go to the king...

Then the corners of the hut cracked, the roof shook, the wall flew out, and the stove itself went down the street, along the road, straight to the king.

The king looks out the window and wonders: What kind of miracle is this?

The greatest nobleman answers him: And this is Emelya on the stove coming to you."

After reading all these fairy tales, I came to the conclusion that people have always dreamed of moving quickly, so in the modern world they have come up with analogues of fairy-tale magic objects.

Having heard or read about the magic carpet in childhood, scientists began with serious research into the possibility of flight on a device only in the 18th century. After many unsuccessful attempts take off and stay in the air On December 17, 1903, American inventors brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright carried out four controlled flights in the Flyer 1 biplane equipped with an engine. Later
This invention has been improved and now we can fly a modern airplane, helicopter, or rocket.

Having read in childhood about Emelya, who traveled on a stove with a stove bench, Scientists are thinking about creating a convenient and comfortable vehicle.

In 1791, inventor Ivan Kulibin built his “self-running stroller,” which was powered by a flywheel. This stroller already had a brake, bearings and a gearbox. In 1885, German inventors Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz were the first in the world to build cars equipped with gasoline engines.

In subsequent years and decades, the development of technology did not stand still and modern locomotives and cars are significantly more powerful, faster, more beautiful and comfortable than their “ancestors”.

The famous self-propelled stove is also a prototype of a steam locomotive.

Impressed by the fairy tale about Emelya’s comfortable movement on the stove, the Englishman Richard Trevithick introduced the first steam locomotive in 1801. The main drawback was the cast iron rails, which collapsed under the weight of this heavy machine.

Only in 1814, the English mechanical engineer George Stephenson built his own steam locomotive and ensured that cast iron rails were replaced with steel ones.

In 1833-1834 Ural mechanical engineers - father and son Cherepanovs, who worked at Demidov's factories, first created a steam locomotive in Russia, which was simpler in design compared to its foreign counterparts.

IN late XIX century, the locomotive underwent some changes and became like a large and powerful machine that could accelerate to 150 kilometers per hour.

A modern train and modern Emelya looks like this:

After reading the fairy tale “At the Command of the Pike” and learning about the magic sleigh, engineer S.S. In 1903, Nezhdanovsky invented the first snowmobile that moved on snow and ice. They no longer need to be harnessed by horses.

Having learned about Baba Yaga, who easily moved through the air in a mortar, the Montgolfier brothers in 1783year they made their own stupa, attaching it to a balloon. The balloon was filled with hot air, thanks to which it rose upward. Now everyone can rise into the sky.

After reading about the flying ship, every child dreamed of going on a trip on it, and so in September 1852Frenchman Henri-Jacques-Girard took to the skies on the first airship. Subsequentlythis device was improved, but remained similar to a flying ship from a fairy tale.

All the devices that I discussed above can only be activated with the help of adults. And how important it is for a child to feel like a wizard and move quickly without outside help. This is probably why people, who in childhood were told fairy tales about speed boots and other magical shoes, came up with skates, and later roller skates, skis, scooters, and Segways.

2. Finding the right path.

Moving quickly is, of course, good, but you need to know exactly which direction to move. Therefore, in fairy tales there are very important magical objects that help to find the right path.

Such an object in the Russian folk tale “The Frog Princess” is a ball. When Ivan Tsarevich went to look for his wife Vasilisa the Wise, distant lands in the thirtieth kingdom, “he came across an old man who gave him a ball and said: “Here’s a ball for you; Where it goes - follow it boldly." Ivan Tsarevich thanked the old man and followed the ball..." He helped the traveler get to his goal - to Koshchei the Immortal.

In another Russian folk tale, “Go there - I don’t know where“Bring me something - I don’t know what” Marya-Marevnagave her husband Andrei the shooter a ring so that it would help him fulfill the tsar’s service. "Andrey threw the ring - it rolls. Andrey follows him through clean fields, moss-swamps, rivers-lakes, and the tsar's adviser is trailing behind Andrei... Whether close, far, soon, or briefly, they came into a dense, dense forest, descended into a deep ravine, and then the ring stopped." The hero's ring took him to the right place. In the same In the fairy tale, there is also a ball, which also helped the hero get to his intended goal, that is, there - I don’t know where. This is how it was: “I threw the ball in front of me, the ball rolled - it rolls and rolls. Andrey follows him. Andrei passed through many kingdoms and lands. The ball rolls, the thread stretches from it; it became a small ball, about the size of a chicken head; That’s how small he has become, you can’t even see it on the road..."

In the modern world, it is also important to move in the right direction, so scientists, after reading fairy tales in childhood, invented navigators, thanks to which you can find your way to anywhere in the world.

The first personal navigator was made in England in 1920. It was worn on the arm. It contained scrolls of paper maps with instructions that the driver had to scroll through along the way. Modern navigators are mini-computers equipped with special sensors that, using signals from satellites, determine their location on Earth and display it on maps of the area stored in the navigator’s memory, giving its owner voice and visual cues about the direction of movement and other information important to the user. in accordance with the chosen route.

3. Connection with the outside world.

Since ancient times, people have dreamed of objects that will connect them with the world around them, that will help them learn about what is happening on the other side of the earth.

I read the Russian folk tale "Marya Morevna", where Ivan Tsarevich, going to look for his wife Marya, who was taken by Koschey the Immortal, leaves his relatives a silver spoon, fork and snuffbox. When Koschey the Immortal" he chopped Ivan into small pieces and put him in a resin barrel, took this barrel, fastened it with iron hoops and threw it into the blue sea, and took Marya Morevna to him. At that very time, Ivan Tsarevich’s sons-in-law’s silver turned black. “Oh,” they say, “it’s clear that trouble has happened!” It’s good that the relatives knew about the trouble that happened to Ivan Tsarevich and saved him.

In the modern world, it has also become extremely important for people to keep in touch with each other, no matter where they are. Therefore, the idea from the fairy tale became the reason for inventing the telephone. The brilliant scientist Antonio Meucci invented the first telephone in 1866. Currently, technology has developed so much that there is practically nothing left in common with a modern telephone except the principle of operation. In 1957, Russian scientist L. Kupriyanov experimentally created a sample mobile phone. In 1971, Samuel Hearst developed the elograph, a graphics tablet. And in 1972, the Americans introduced the first touchscreen phone.

The fairy tales that scientists read in childhood did not pass by. Therefore, now you can find out about your loved ones and friends by calling them on the phone.

In the Russian folk tale “A Silver Saucer and a Liquid Apple,” a man bought his eldest daughters silk and scarlet velvet, and his youngest daughter, Mashenka, a silver saucer and a liquid apple. The sisters laugh, and “Masha sat down in the corner of the room, rolled a poured apple on a silver saucer, and sang and said:

Roll, roll, pouring apple, on a silver saucer, show me cities and fields, show me forests and seas, show me the heights of the mountains and the beauty of the skies, all of my dear Mother Rus'.

Suddenly a silver ringing sound was heard. The whole upper room was filled with light: an apple rolled on a saucer, poured on a silver one, and on the saucer all the cities are visible, all the meadows are visible, and the shelves in the fields, and the ships on the seas, and the height of the mountains, and the beauty of the sky: the clear sun rolls behind the bright month, the stars gather in a round dance, the swans sing songs in the creeks.”

Everyone has such a juicy apple on a silver platter. modern house- this is TV. Scientists different countries under the influence of fairy tales, they worked for a long time so that people could see the world at a glance. And they succeeded. Nowadays, by turning on the TV button, we learn about what is happening not only in Russia, but throughout the world.

In the Russian folk tale "Elena the Wise" main character looks into a magic book that knows about everything in the world. Here's how it's written: " Elena the Wise took the magic book, looked - and it was as if she saw everything in the palm of her hand."

The magic book is mentioned in many Russian folk tales: “Go there - I don’t know where, bring that - I don’t know what”, “The Enchanted Princess” and others.

Great storytellers also wrote about this amazing subject.

So, I came across a magic book in A. Volkov’s fairy tale “The Wizard of the Emerald City”. Ellie definitely needed to find out how to return home from a magical land. She asked the sorceress Villina about this. And this is what happened next...

" “Oh yes,” Villina realized, “I completely forgot that my magic book was with me.” You need to look into it: maybe I’ll read something useful for you there...

Villina took out from the folds of her clothes a tiny book the size of a thimble. The sorceress blew on her and, before the eyes of the surprised and slightly frightened Ellie, the book began to grow, grow and turned into a huge volume. It was so heavy that the old lady put it on big Stone. Villina looked at the pages of the book and they themselves turned over under her gaze.

Found it, found it! - the sorceress suddenly exclaimed and began to slowly read: “Bambara, chufara, skoriki, moriki, turabo, furabo, loriki, eriki... The great wizard Goodwin will return home the little girl brought to his country by a hurricane if she helps three creatures achieve the fulfillment of their most cherished desires, pickapoo, tripapoo, botalo, motalo..."

Probably, modern scientists were so impressed by these fairy tales about magic books that they invented a computer, and then a laptop, which helps people learn about everything in the world.

4. Magical helpers

4.1. Domestic helpers

After reading many fairy tales, I noted that Russian folk tales were written by ordinary people about themselves. Great storytellers also wrote fairy tales about ordinary people. But ordinary people worked very hard and had nothing to eat, so in fairy tales you often find helpers in everyday life.

So, a self-assembled tablecloth can feed anyone if you say the right words.

Here is an excerpt from the Russian folk tale "Tablecloth Samobranka", in which Midnighter thanked the old man for good deed: "He took out a package from his bosom and handed it to the old man:

Here's a self-assembled tablecloth for you - you'll be full at any time. Just unfold the tablecloth and say: “Drink, eat!” - and eat, drink, whatever your heart desires... The old man thanked his sworn brother for the treat and for the gift, said goodbye and set off on the way back... He went to the inn.He sat down at the table, took out a tablecloth from his bosom, unfolded it and... holy lights, where did this come from: various dishes were served, fragrant honey, sweet wines, appetizers, snacks of all kinds - the table was bursting! Drink, eat - the soul is the measure! "

In the XIX - XX centuries. to help housewives, various household appliances were invented and improved to help cook ( microwaves, bread makers, electric kettles, mixers...) and put away dishes (dishwashers).

The great storytellers Brothers Grimm wrote the fairy tale “A Pot of Porridge,” in which the old woman thanked the girl for the berries and gave her the pot. This is how it is described in the fairy tale: " The old woman ate some berries and said:

You gave me berries, and I’ll give you something too. Here's a pot for you. All you have to do is say:

“One, two, three, pot, cook!” and he will begin to cook delicious, sweet porridge.

And you tell him: “One, two, three, don’t cook any more!” - and he will stop cooking.

“Thank you, grandma,” the girl said, took the pot and went home to her mother.

The mother was delighted with this pot. And how can you not be happy? Without labor or hassle, delicious, sweet porridge is always ready for lunch.”

Modern scientists remember this fairy tale too. And in 1956 Yoshitada Minami invented a device similar in operation to a multicooker. Later it was improved and it became a real assistant women in the kitchen. While the porridge itself is cooked in a slow cooker, women can go about their business. The porridge will definitely not escape from the multicooker.

In the Russian folk tale "Tserevna the Frog" - the wives of the king's sons had to sew a shirt in one night, then bake a loaf. The Frog Princess coped with these tasks with the help of magic.

In those distant times, women could only dream of such assistants as those invented in the modern world. These include vacuum cleaners, washing machines, irons and many, many other household helper items.

In the Russian folk tale “Vasilisa the Wise,” Vasilisa is helped by a magical doll, which, if you feed her and tell her your troubles, will do everything herself. " The doll eats, then gives advice, and consoles in grief, and the next morning she does all the work for Vasilisa, she just rests in the cold and picks flowers, and her beds are already weeded, and the cabbage is watered, and the water is applied, and the stove is heated. It was good for her to live with the doll."

Over the past 10 years, instead of a wish-granting doll, robotic household assistants have been invented that can do household chores. They know how to put things in order in the house: load the washing machine, water flowers, cook food, and also make people’s lives more interesting and comfortable..

In the Russian folk tale “The Firebird and Vasilisa the Princess,” a very ordinary object, it would seem, is shown for a fairy tale - the feather of the firebird. This is how it is said in the fairy tale: “In a certain kingdom, far away, in the thirtieth state, there lived a strong, mighty king. And that king had a great archer, and the good archer had a heroic horse. Once a Sagittarius rode on his heroic horse into the forest to hunt. He was driving along a wide road, and he ran into the golden feather of a firebird: the feather glows like fire!..."

But how did this “ordinary” fairy-tale object haunt scientists in many countries? And so in the 19th century. appeared n The first light bulb. It is difficult who exactly was the inventor, but such names asP.N. Yablochkov, A.N. Lodygin, Joseph Swan, Thomas Edison. Such a seemingly insignificant discovery by brilliant scientists changed the world radically and gave a big impetus to technological development humanity.

What necessary and important inventions have been made for humans thanks to fairy tales. Without them, living in the modern world would be very difficult.

4.2. Magic helpers in construction

In the Russian folk tale "The Magic Ring", Martynka, who was about to marry the Tsar's daughter, had to build a palace and a crystal bridge in one night. The young man completed this task with the help of a magic ring. And it was like that. “Exactly at midnight, Martyn got out of bed, went out into the wide courtyard, threw the ring from hand to hand - and immediately twelve young men appeared before him, all with the same face, hair to hair, voice to voice.

What do you need, Martyn, widow's son?

Here's what: make me a rich palace in this very place, and so that from my palace to the royal palace there will be a crystal bridge, on both sides of the bridge there will be trees with golden and silver apples, on those trees there will be different birds singing, and even build a five-domed cathedral: there would be a place to receive the crown, there would be a place to celebrate the wedding.

Twelve fellows answered:

Everything will be ready by tomorrow!

They rushed to different places, rounded up craftsmen and carpenters from all sides and got to work: everything was going well for them, the job was done quickly. The next morning Martynka woke up not in a simple hut, but in noble, luxurious chambers; He went out onto the high porch and looked - everything was ready: the palace, the cathedral, the crystal bridge, and the trees with golden and silver apples."

It would seem that this cannot happen in the real world. But it’s not just that scientists read fairy tales in childhood. They have a whole life ahead of them to invent magical objects. And it worked! Quite recently, a giant 3D printer was created in the world, with the help of which they have already “printed” a small house in China in just one day. In Russia, construction of such a building is also underway in the city of Yaroslavl. In the near future, 3D printers will be able to build houses and bridges as beautiful and large as in a fairy tale.

4.3. Magic helpers at work

People of different professions constantly think about how nice it would be to have magical objects in their work to help people and to do their jobs better. Where can I get such helpers? Of course, from fairy tales that we read in childhood. Scientists do just that - they remember the magic and invent some very necessary item.

So in the fairy tale by A.S. Pushkin's "The Tale of dead princess and the seven heroes" is written about a mirror that always spoke the truth.

I joked with him kindly

And, showing off, she said:

“My light, mirror! Tell

Tell me the whole truth...

A very necessary thing in the modern world. I think it was this fairy tale that inspiredin 1921, a medical student at the University of California and an employee of the Berkeley Police Department, California, John Augustus Larsoncome up with a device that would always tell the truth, or rather determine whether a person is telling the truth - this is a polygraph or a lie detector. It is necessary for the police to determine whether the criminal is telling the truth or not. Well, why not a mirror of the human brain?

In many Russian folk tales, people wanted to revive or cure loved one. Rejuvenating apples, living and dead water helped them in this. So in the fairy tale “About rejuvenating apples and living water” it is said that “ Far distant lands, in the thirtieth kingdom there is a garden with rejuvenating apples and a well of living water. If you eat this apple for an old man, he will become younger, and if you wash the eyes of a blind man with this water, he will see.”

In the fairy tale “Marya Morevna”, in order to save Ivan Tsarevich, who was chopped into pieces by Koshchei, “all three flew to one place, broke the barrel, took out the pieces of Ivan Tsarevich, washed them and put them together as needed. The raven splashed dead water - the body grew together, united; the falcon splashed with living water - Ivan Tsarevich shuddered..."

In the modern world, the dream of every doctor is to cure all the sick and revive the dead. Therefore, medicine has been continually “growing rejuvenating apples” for many centuries and establishing the composition of living and dead water, that is, inventing more and more new creams, pills, potions, even stem cells, thereby unraveling the secrets of rejuvenating the body.

In Wilhelm Hauff's fairy tale "Little Muk" I noticed one interesting thing, which the main character took from the old woman along with the shoes - this is a cane. Later in a dream he saw a small dog. She told him: "... And the cane will help you look for treasures. Where the gold is buried, it will knock on the ground three times, and where the silver is buried, it will knock twice.” Modern scientists have managed to use knowledge from the fairy tale and invent a metal detector - a device that allows you to find metal objects, regardless of their location.location. The first metal detector was born in 1881 (several decades after the publication of the fairy tale “Little Mook”) by Scottish physicist Alexander Graham Bell. Today, metal detectors are used by police to find the crime weapon or evidence that criminals have hidden. Metal detectors are also used for security purposes during mining, archaeological excavations and even in medicine.

In Russian folk tales “The Prophetic Dream”, “The Enchanted Princess” and many others, another amazing item is mentioned - the invisible cap. Modern scientists are still puzzling over how to make their childhood dream - to become invisible - come true.

But in our time there are magicians who also read fairy tales in childhood, and have learned, with the help of cunning tricks, to create the illusion that objects and even people disappear.

Survey of children from the class

During the research, I decided to conduct a small survey among the children in my class and their parents, because I was interested in what other children thought about the connection between fairy tales and modern inventions? They were asked to answer the following questions:

1. List the Russian folk tales that you know.

2. Which fairy tale is your favorite or did you like the most?

3. Were there any magical objects in the fairy tale that helped the hero in difficult times? List them.

4. Are magical fairy tale objects related to modern inventions?

Create your own magic item.

After processing the profiles of the guys from the class, I got the following results:

1. Children remember the following fairy tales:

Morozko;

Kolobok;

Swan geese;

Little Red Riding Hood;

By magic;

Teremok.

2. Magic objects from fairy tales are named as follows:

Emelya stove;

A ball showing the way;

Magic wand;

Carpet plane;

Invisible hat;

Walking boots.

3. 76% of the children who participated in the survey found a connection between fairy-tale magical objects and modern inventions. Some guys drew their own magic objects.

After analyzing all the results, I established the following pattern: the more fairy tales the children read, the more magical objects they named and the more magical objects they were able to correlate with modern inventions. Those children who read the largest number of fairy tales were able to come up with their own magical objects.

Thus, I can conclude that children who read fairy tales develop imagination and creative thinking. And when they grow up, they will be able to invent useful objects that they learned about from fairy tales or that they came up with themselves.

Conclusion

After analyzing my research, I was convinced that the possibility of creating magic in the real world exists - there are inventions around us, the ideas for creating them came to us from fairy tales.

People read fairy tales as children, think about magical objects, imagine them in their games, and when they grow up, they make some outstanding discovery. Thus, as a result of the work carried out, my hypothesis about the “family” connection between fairy-tale objects and modern technology was confirmed.

After interviewing the guys from the class, I can confidently say that fairy tales develop imagination and creative thinking, which in the future will make it possible to realize the most unrealizable dreams, because there is still a lot of magic left in fairy tales.

I received great pleasure from doing the work. I will continue to read fairy tales and maybe in the near future I will be able to unravel the secrets of magical objects and thereby make people's lives easier and happier.

Bibliography

A.S. Pushkin, Fairy Tales, Ekaterinburg: Litur-opt LLC, 2011, - 120 p.

The Big Book of Russian Fairy Tales / processed by O. Lashchevskaya. - St. Petersburg: Lenizdat, “Leningrad”, 2007. - 576 p.

V. Gauf, Little Muk, Moscow: ROSMEN, 2015. - 28 p.

Volkov A.M., Wizard of the Emerald City, Belgorod: Club LLC family leisure", 2013. - 128 p.

Published Sat, 04/01/2014 - 10:32 by iadmin2

1. What kinds of fairy tales are there?

2. Name folk fairy tales. Who are their heroes? What miracles happen in fairy tales? Find the answers in a textbook or educational reader

Russian folk tale "Khavroshechka". Main characters: Khavroshechka, stepmother, three daughters, old man, cow.

The miracles in the fairy tale are that the girl spoke to the cow, climbed into her ear and came out of the other, the mistress had daughters with one eye and three eyes, an apple tree grew from the seeds of the cow.

Tatar folk tale "Three Sisters". Main characters: mother, three sisters, squirrel.

The squirrel turned the eldest daughter into a turtle, the middle one into a spider, and the youngest into a bee.

3. Name a fairy tale by A. Pushkin. Thanks to whom do magical transformations occur in fairy tales? Find the answer in the textbook and read it.

A fairy tale by A.S. Pushkin "The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish". In this fairy tale, the magic object is a goldfish.

4. What fairy tales foreign writers You know? Name it.

Charles Perrault "Puss in Boots"; Brothers Grimm "Musicians of Bremen".

5. What fairy tales are these excerpts from? Name them, find the fairy tales in the textbook. Read or tell about the characters of a fairy tale that you like.

1st excerpt: Russian fairy tale “Khavroshechka”.

2nd excerpt: Charles Perrault “Puss in Boots”.

3rd) excerpt: A.s. Pushkin “The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish.”

6. Name your favorite fairy tale and favorite fairy-tale character. Tell about him.

My favorite fairy tale is “Two Frogs” by L. Panteleev. She teaches that in any situation, even the most difficult one, you should not lose your presence of mind, but rather try to find a way out of the situation. Any activity is better than inaction.

7. What fairy tales by H.-K. Did we study Andersen? Find them in the textbook and reader. Which one do you like? Why?

Fairy tale by H.-K. Andersen "Five from One Pod". In this fairy tale, a green pea sprout helped a little girl who had been sick for a very long time to recover.

8. Remember the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm. Which fairy tale by these authors did you like the most? Tell it to your friends.

Fairy tales by the Brothers Grimm "Little Men", "Puss in Boots", "Seven Brave Men". I liked the fairy tale “Little Men” because in this fairy tale the little men helped the shoemaker’s family get out of poverty, and the shoemaker and his wife repaid these little men with kindness.

9. Look at the illustration. Name a fairy tale. Find and read the passage that matches this illustration.

Fairy tale by C. Perrault “Puss in Boots”.

Excerpt: “Stretched out on the grass and pretending to be dead... the simpleton rabbit immediately jumped into his bag.”

10. Compose a fairy tale with one of the fairy-tale characters.

In autumn there are a lot of mushrooms in the forest. People walk, collect, but everything is different. He who is attentive will not step on the mushroom, he will look under every leaf. Those who are lazy will knock off the caps of all the fly agarics. And fly agarics are a medicine for moose.

People don’t know that the wood fungus lives in the forest. He keeps order in the forest, protects mushrooms from bad people. He has magic staff. With this staff, he points out mushroom places to neat mushroom pickers, and substitutes mushrooms as pointers. Based on these mushrooms, a person goes to a mushroom place. And the bad ones are the opposite: they hide mushroom families with a staff. This mushroom picker walks and walks through the forest and returns home with an empty box.

So think about it, what kind of mushroom pickers are you?