Russian culture in the XIV-XVI centuries. Russian culture in the XIV-XVI centuries Russian culture in the XV - early XVI centuries

As a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, severe damage was caused to material and cultural values. A sharp increase in the disunity of Russian lands from the mid-13th century made itself felt, which negatively affected the development of Russian culture. Immediately after the establishment of Horde rule in Rus', the construction of stone buildings temporarily ceased.

THE ART OF A WHOLE NUMBER OF ARTISTIC CRAFTS WAS LOST.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, local centers of chronicle writing, as well as literary art schools, were formed. During the Mongol-Tatar yoke, some of these traditions were preserved, which created the basis for a future cultural upsurge by the end of the 14th century. In addition, the struggle for state integrity and independence brought together the cultures of different lands, as well as the culture of the elite and the people. Despite the fact that many cultural works perished, many appeared.

Having joined the system of world trade relations through the Golden Horde, Rus' adopted a number of cultural achievements of the countries of the East, the technology of manufacturing various objects, architectural and general cultural achievements.

On the other hand, the Mongol-Tatar invasion influenced the rise of Moscow as the center of the unification of Rus'. And gradually the all-Russian culture began to form on the basis of the culture of Vladimir Rus.

CHRONICLES

Starting from the second half of the 13th century, chronicle writing was gradually restored in the Russian lands. Its main centers remained the Galicia-Volyn principality, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, Ryazan, and from about 1250 Vladimir. New centers are also appearing: Moscow and Tver.

Since the second half of the 14th century, the compilation of chronicles and manuscript books has experienced a significant rise. The leading place is gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicle tradition with its ideas of unifying lands around Moscow. The Moscow chronicle tradition has come to us as part of the Trinity Chronicle from the beginning of the 15th century and, unlike local chronicles, is the first code of an all-Russian character since the times of Ancient Rus'; the right of the princes of Moscow to be the head of Rus' is substantiated here.

> In the middle of the 15th century, a brief world history appeared - the chronograph.

ORAL FOLK ART OF Rus'

At the same time, the most important genre of literature in the 13th century, which received dynamic development, became oral folk art: epics, songs, tales, military stories. They reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and the world around them.

First cycle of epics is a revision and reworking of the old cycle of epics about the Kyiv state.

Second cycle of epics- Novgorod. It glorifies the wealth, power, love of freedom of the free city, as well as the courage of the townspeople in defending the city from enemies.

> The main characters are Sadko and Vasily Buslaevich.

Other genres appear in the 14th century and are devoted to understanding the Mongol conquest. Stories-legends: about the battle on the Kalka River, about the blossoming of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, and also about the defender of Smolensk - the young Smolyanin Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Mother of God from the Mongol armies. Some of the works of this cycle were included in chronicles.

LITERATURE OF Rus'

In the tradition of lament it is written “The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land”(only the first part has survived). The ideas of national liberation and patriotism are also reflected in works dedicated to the northwestern borders of the Russian land: "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky". A whole series of hagiographies are dedicated to princes who died in the horde. This Life of Mikhail Chernigovsky. The princes are presented in these works as defenders of the Orthodox faith and Rus'.

Military story Zadonshchina, believed to have been compiled by Saphonius of Ryazan, modeled after a word about Igor's campaign.

> From here images, literary style, individual phrases, and expressions were borrowed. It does not report on a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings about what happened. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo.

This victory is considered here as retribution for the defeat on the Kalka River. The work expresses pride in victory and glorifies Moscow as the state center of Rus'. Zadonshchina has been preserved in the original. Characterized by good literary language.

In the genre of secular literature written Sailing across three seas Afanasy Nikitina. This is one of the few secular works preserved in Rus'. It retells impressions from travel to India and many eastern countries. This is a travel diary.

THE BEGINNING OF BOOK PRINTING IN Rus'

The end of the 15th century is associated with the completion of the formation of the Great Russian nation.

> A language has emerged that differs from Church Slavonic. The Moscow dialect became dominant.

With the formation of a centralized state, the need for literate, educated people increased.

> In 1563, the state printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov. His assistant was Fyodor Mstislavovich. First published book - Apostle. The printing house worked mainly for the needs of the church.

IN 1574 THE FIRST RUSSIAN ABC was PUBLISHED IN LVIV.

GENERAL POLITICAL THOUGHT OF Rus' IN THE 16TH CENTURY.

The reforms of the Elected Rada under Ivan the Terrible were aimed at strengthening the centralization of the state. The general political thought of Rus' reflected several trends on issues of the relationship between power and individual segments of the population called upon to support it. Either the royal power had to fight the boyars, or the boyars had to be its main support.

Ivan Peresvetov (Russian) y nobleman) was part of the embassy order. In his petitions, he expressed his program of action. In an allegorical form, he showed that the support of the state is service people. Their position in the service should be determined not by origin, but by personal merit. The main vices that led to the death of the state were the dominance of nobles, their unjust trials and indifference to the affairs of the state. In its allegorical form, the theme associated with the fall of Byzantium actively flashes.

> Ivan Peresvetov called for pushing the boyars out of power and bringing those people who were truly interested in military service closer to the tsar.

A different position was expressed by Prince Kurbsky (one of the leaders of the Elected Rada). He defended the point of view that the best people of Rus' should help her. The period of persecution of the boyars coincided with the period of failures of Rus'. That is why Kurbsky left the country, since the boyars were treated incorrectly here.

IVAN THE TERRIBLE LOVED AND RESPECTED THIS MAN VERY MUCH, SO HE WAS PAINFUL WITH HIS DEPARTURE.

They corresponded for a long time. Ivan the Terrible wrote to Kurbsky that boyar rule was negative, since he himself experienced this as a child. The king also wrote that in his actions he obeys the divine will.

> Ivan 4 equated Kurbsky's departure to high treason (for the first time).

“The Tsar’s Silence” (Ivan the Terrible), artist Pavel Ryzhenko

DOMOSTROY

Due to the fact that it was necessary to raise the prestige of the new state, official literature was created, which regulated the spiritual, legal and everyday life of people. The largest work of that century was written by Metropolitan Macarius - Great Menaion of Cheti

> The Great Menaion of the Metropolitan of All Rus' Macarius (1481/82-31.XII. 1563) is a book collection of 12 handwritten books, constituting an annual “reading circle” for almost every day, each of the 12 Menaion contains material for one of the months (starting from September). According to the plan of the initiator, organizer of correspondence and editor of this book collection, Macarius, 12 folios of enormous volume and size were to contain “all the holy books of the Chetya”, revered and read in Rus', thanks to which the Great Menaion of the Chetya became a kind of encyclopedia of Russian book literature of the 16th century.

Domostroy- a monument of Russian literature of the 16th century, which is a collection of rules, advice and instructions on all areas of human and family life, including social, family, economic and religious issues. It is best known in the mid-16th century version attributed to Archpriest Sylvester.

> Although Domostroy was a collection of advice on housekeeping, it was written in artistic language and became a literary monument of the era.

PAINTING OF Rus'

Despite some decline in the development of the country, Russian painting reached its peak by the 14th - 15th centuries. In modern literature, this period is assessed as the Russian revival. At this time, a series of wonderful painters were working in Rus'.

> At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th century, a person who came from Byzantium worked in Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod painter Feofan the Greek.

He perfectly combined the Byzantine tradition and the already formed Russian one. Sometimes he worked in violation of the canons. His images are psychological, his icons convey spiritual tension. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyen Street in Novgorod, together with Semyon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399).

> The great Russian artist who worked during this period is Andrey Rublev.

He is a master of laconic but very expressive composition. An amazing picturesque color is visible in his works. And in his icons and frescoes one can feel the ideal of moral perfection. At the same time, he was able to convey the subtle emotional experiences of the characters. He participated in the painting of the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405) together with Theophan the Greek and the prokhor from Gorodets, and painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420).

HIS BRUSH BELONGED A MASTERPIECE OF WORLD PAINTING—THE ICON OF THE TRINITY.

"Trinity". 1411 or 1425-27, State Tretyakov Gallery

The image reflects the biblical story, when the forefather Abraham received at home three travelers sent by God, who brought him news of the impending birth of his son. The first images of three angels at a table appeared in Byzantium in the 14th century, and were called Philoxenia (Greek - “hospitality”) of Abraham.

One of the first who breathed a new Eucharistic meaning into this icon was the Russian icon painter, Saint Andrei Rublev. He depicted the Three Angels as three hypostases of God. The middle Angel symbolizes the Son of God - Jesus Christ, the left - God the Father, the right Angel - God - the Holy Spirit (the basis for this interpretation of the icon is in the clothing and arrangement of the Angels), however, the identical appearance of the Faces shows that the Holy Trinity is a single and indivisible Whole. Before the Angels stands a cup - a symbol of Christ’s sacrifice for our sins.

> At the end of the 15th century, a huge contribution to the development of Russian painting was made by the outstanding icon painter Dionysius. He was an excellent calorist and a very complex master. Together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir as well as other students, he created frescoes by Uspensky Kremlin Cathedral.

Among his creations was the famous icon of the Savior in strength.

At the same time, the Novgorod Icon Painting School is also functioning. It is distinguished by its bright colors and dynamic composition.

ARCHITECTURE OF Rus'

In the 14th-16th centuries, due to the centralization of the state, Moscow was decorated (under Ivan Kalita, stone construction developed).

UNDER DMITRY DONSKY, A WHITE STONE KREMLIN WAS CONSTRUCTED FOR THE FIRST TIME.

During the yoke, a series of old Russian churches are being restored. Thanks to additions and reconstructions, there is a tendency towards the crystallization of the Russian national architectural style based on the synthesis of the traditions of the Kyiv and Vladimir-Suzdal lands, which in the future became a model for subsequent construction in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

On the advice of Sophia Paleolog (grandmother of Ivan IV the Terrible), masters from Italy were invited. The purpose of this is to display the power and glory of the Russian state. The Italian Aristotle Floravanti traveled to Vladimir and examined the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals. He successfully managed to combine the traditions of Russian and Italian architecture. In 1479, he successfully completed the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Following this, a granite chamber was built to receive foreign embassies.

> The appeal to national origins was especially clearly expressed in the stone architecture of the traditional Russian tent style, so characteristic of the wooden architecture of Rus'.

Masterpieces of the tent style were the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Kremlin Square in Moscow. That is, its own architectural style appears.

Culture of Rus' XIV–XVI centuries.

The development of Russian culture during this period was influenced by many factors. This is also the development of previous traditions, especially those related to Christian values and church interests. New factors influencing culture also appeared: the gathering of Russian lands around the Moscow Principality and the creation of a single centralized state, the establishment of national identity in the fight against the Golden Horde yoke. From century to century, the role of Moscow and the Moscow Grand Dukes becomes more and more noticeable. Muscovite Rus' turned into a center not only of unification processes, but also of cultural development.

Literature . In Russian literature, the theme of the fight against the Horde yoke occupied a large place. The works of the Kulikovo cycle (“Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of Mamaev’s Massacre”) stand out especially. They are imbued with a sense of patriotism and admiration for the exploits of Russian soldiers.

In the second half of the 15th century. The old genre of walks (descriptions of travel) is experiencing a new birth. Especially popular was reading about the adventures of the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, who reached India. “Walking Beyond Three Seas” is a description of an eight-year dramatic journey that ends with a return to his native land.

Chronicle traditions were preserved and multiplied. In the 14th century An all-Russian chronicle was created in Moscow, and the Chronograph, compiled in 1442, includes a description of world history.

An important cultural event was the advent of printing. It is associated with the names of Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets, who created the first printed book “Apostle” (1564). This book was produced at a high printing level for that time. Due to persecution and accusations of heresy, Ivan Fedorov moved to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and continued his educational activities there. The first Russian primer with grammar was published in Lvov. Despite the difficulties, book printing continued to develop in the Moscow state - printing houses were appearing here again. The church's reaction to printing was so negative that even in the 17th century. The printed book could not supplant the handwritten one.

Socio-political thought. Among Russian written sources of the 15th–16th centuries. There are many works in which the authors reflect on the fate of Russia. The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir emphasized the idea of succession of power of Moscow rulers from the Byzantine emperors. The Pskov monk Philotheus, in a letter to Vasily III, argued that Moscow is the “Third Rome”. “Two Romes have fallen, but the third stands, and the fourth will not exist,” he argued.

Certificate secularization culture are the journalistic works of Fyodor Karpov and Ivan Peresvetov. Both talked about the nature of a strong, fair state, about power.

A notable monument of spiritual culture of the 16th century. – “Domostroy”, one of the editors of which was Ivan IV’s close associate – Sylvester. In this work, which has become a model of the organization of life and behavior of Russian people over the centuries, we find instructions of a different nature: on the performance of religious rituals, advice on raising children, on the relationship between husband and wife, how to store supplies and dry clothes, when to buy goods at the market and how to receive guests.

The correspondence between Tsar Ivan the Terrible and Prince Andrei Kurbsky is interesting from the point of view of the development of the Russian language, as well as in content. It was a dispute between two ardent opponents about ways to centralize power, about the relationship between the sovereign and his subjects. The tsar defended the idea of servility of all subjects in relation to autocratic power. He formulated the basic principle of despotism this way: “I am free to reward my slaves, but I am also free to execute them.” Kurbsky imagined royal power differently - the king is responsible for his actions not only before God, but also before people, he cannot violate the rights of his subjects, he must listen to wise advisers.

Architecture . Moscow becomes the capital of a huge power, the accumulation of wealth in the hands of the Moscow prince makes it possible to begin stone construction on an unprecedented scale. Dmitry Donskoy in 1366–1367 began construction of the new Moscow Kremlin. On the site of the wooden fortifications built under Ivan Kalita, a new white-stone Kremlin arose. Moscow became an impregnable fortress at that time.

The flourishing of architecture at the end of the 15th century. associated with intensive construction in Moscow. Ivan III invites Italian architects to work, among whom Aristotle Fioravanti stands out. Under his leadership, a new Assumption Cathedral was built in the Kremlin - the cathedral church of the metropolitans. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir was taken as a model. Fioravanti drew up a project for the construction of new walls and towers. The Kremlin and walls were built of red brick (they still exist today). True, the Kremlin towers did not yet have tents - they were erected later, in the 17th century. The internal layout of the Kremlin was finally formed. The Faceted Chamber for ceremonial receptions, the Archangel Cathedral (the burial vault of Moscow princes and tsars), the house church for sovereigns - the Annunciation Cathedral and other buildings were built here. One of the most remarkable buildings in the Kremlin is the Ivan the Great Bell Tower. It was erected on the site of the ancient church of Ivan the Climacus, and therefore received the name Ivanovskaya. It was called Great for its extraordinary height - more than 80 m. The bell tower was for a long time the tallest building in Rus'. It was founded at the beginning of the 16th century. simultaneously with the Archangel Cathedral, and was completed only in 1600, under Boris Godunov.

The construction of Moscow fortifications continued throughout the 16th century. A semi-ring of Kitay-Gorod fortifications was added to the Kremlin, and at the end of the century, “city master” Fyodor Kon erected the “White City” about 9.5 km long. F. Kon also built the walls of the Kremlin in Smolensk.

In the second half of the 16th century. From the traditions of wooden architecture, but already in stone, the tent style emerges. A remarkable example of it is the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye. Tent-roofed church architecture did not spread widely, since it contradicted church canons and was prohibited by church authorities. In 1551–1561 masters Postnik Yakovlev and Barma built the Intercession Cathedral (better known as St. Basil's Cathedral) on Red Square. This building was dedicated to the capture of Kazan.

Painting . In the second half of the 14th - first half of the 15th century. two great Russian artists worked - Feofan the Greek and Andrei Rublev. Theophanes, a native of Byzantium, lived in Novgorod and then in Moscow. His frescoes and icons are characterized by a special emotionality. A. Rublev's painting is unique in its composition and its unique coloring. These features were most clearly manifested in his famous Trinity icon. The traditions of Andrei Rublev were continued after his death. The fresco paintings of Dionysius are especially notable (they are best preserved in the Ferapontov Monastery in the Belozersky region). The decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral influenced not only architecture, but also painting. Painters were obliged to strictly adhere to Greek models and A. Rublev’s icon painting. This led to the fact that only technical writing techniques were improved.

Craft. In the XIV–XVI centuries. The development of the craft continued. The main centers of handicraft production were cities, monasteries, and some large estates. At the end of the 15th century. The Cannon Yard is being created in Moscow. The first cannons appeared in Rus' in the last third of the 14th century. In subsequent centuries, a whole school of cannon masters emerged. One of its representatives was Andrei Chokhov, creator of the famous Tsar Cannon. Its production took about 2.5 pounds of non-ferrous metals, its caliber is 89 cm, and the barrel length is almost 5.5 m.

This text is an introductory fragment.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the invasion of German knights brought the country to the brink of destruction.

Literature of the 13th century characterized by tragic pathos and the rise of national-patriotic sentiments. Chronicle stories about the battle on the river tell about fierce battles with invaders and the terrible devastation of the Russian land. Kalke “The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land”, “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”. The memory of the invasion of Rus' was preserved in the works of later times “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu” (XIV century), “The Legend of Kitezh”. The last historical and cultural monument is a cycle of legends about the legendary city of Kitezh, which plunged into Lake Svetloyar and thus escaped destruction by the Mongol-Tatars. The cycle took shape over many centuries and finally took shape in the Old Believer “Book, verb chronicler” (late 18th century).

From the 2nd half of the 14th century. The rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over foreign invaders in the Battle of Kulikovo. After this historical event, old cities and centers of economic life and culture are being revived and new ones are developing.

Moscow is leading the fight for the unification of Russian lands, and its influence as one of the cultural centers is growing.

The most outstanding work of this time, “Zadonshchina” (beyond the Don), is dedicated to the victory on the Kulikovo Field. This work was written in the genre of a historical story by the Ryazan resident Sophony in the 80s. XIV century The author compares the events of contemporary life with the events described in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Victory on the Kulikovo field is like revenge for the defeat of Igor Svyatoslavovich’s troops. This victory restored the glory and power of the Russian land.

Architecture developed widely, primarily in Novgorod and Pskov - cities that were politically less dependent on the Mongol khans. In the XIV–XV centuries. Novgorod was one of the largest centers of development of art, economic and political life.

Russian architects continued the traditions of architecture of the pre-Mongol period (continuity of cultures). They used masonry made from rough-hewn limestone slabs, boulders and partly brick. Such masonry created the impression of strength and power (and this corresponds to the Russian character). This feature of Novgorod art was noted by academician I. E. Grabar: “The ideal of a Novgorodian is strength, and his beauty is the beauty of strength.”

The result of new searches for the traditions of old architecture is the Church of the Savior on Kovalevo (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field (1352). Examples of the new style are the Church of Fyodor Stratelates (1361) and the Church of the Transfiguration (1374). This style is characterized by elegant external decoration of churches, decoration of facades with decorative niches, sculptural crosses, and niches with frescoes. The Church of the Transfiguration, built in Novgorod, is a typical cross-domed church with four powerful pillars and one dome.

Simultaneously with the temple construction, civil construction was also carried out. The Chamber of Facets was built in Novgorod (1433). Novgorod boyars built themselves stone chambers. In 1302, a stone Kremlin was founded in Novgorod.

Another major economic and cultural center at that time was Pskov. The city resembled a fortress. The architecture of the buildings is harsh and laconic, almost completely devoid of decorative ornaments. The length of the walls of the large stone Kremlin was nine kilometers. Pskov craftsmen gained great fame in Rus' and had a great influence on Moscow construction.

In Moscow, stone construction began in the 2nd quarter of the 14th century. (construction of the white stone fortress of the Moscow Kremlin). The Kremlin was constantly being built and expanded.

Construction was also carried out in other cities. The largest building of that time was the Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna - on a high basement, with a gallery.

A new direction in Moscow architecture was the desire to overcome “cubicity” and create a new, upward-facing composition of the building due to the stepped arrangement of vaults.

History of Russian painting of the XIV–XV centuries. just like architecture, it became a natural continuation of the history of painting of the pre-Mongol period.

Icon painting is developing in Novgorod and Pskov. Novgorod icons of this period are characterized by a laconic composition, clear drawing, purity of colors, and impeccable technique.

Wall painting in Rus' of this time is attributed to the Golden Age. Along with icon painting, fresco - painting on wet plaster with paints diluted in water - became widespread. In the XIV century. fresco painting is designed compositionally, landscape is introduced, and the psychologism of the image is enhanced.

A special place among artists of the 14th–15th centuries. occupied by the brilliant Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340 - after 1405). The works of Theophanes the Greek - frescoes, icons - are distinguished by their monumentality, strength and dramatic expressiveness of images, bold and free painting style. He embodied in his works the spirituality of man, his inner strength. Together with Andrei Rublev, they painted the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405).

Another famous master of this time is the great Russian artist Andrei Rublev (c. 1360/70 - c. 1430). His work marked the rise of Russian culture during the creation of a centralized Russian state and the rise of Moscow. Under him, the Moscow school of painting flourished. The works of Andrei Rublev are distinguished by deep humanity, spirituality of images, the idea of concord and harmony, and the perfection of artistic form.

His most famous work is the Trinity icon. In this masterpiece we see the expression of a deep humanistic idea of consent and philanthropy, harmony.

Culture of Russia at the end of the 15th–16th centuries.

For the historical and cultural development of Russian lands, the period of the late XV–XVI centuries. was a turning point. The formation of a unified Russian state continued, the country was finally freed from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the formation of the Russian nationality was completed. All this had a significant impact on the formation of cultural processes.

Secular and democratic elements are strengthening in Russian culture.

Works appearing in the literature supporting the new government policy. The theory of the origin of the Russian state found its expression in “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir.” It stated that Russian sovereigns trace their origins to the Roman Emperor Augustus. This idea was supported by the church, which also connected it with the concept of “Moscow – the Third Rome”. The economic and political achievements of Russia at this time had a noticeable impact on increasing the level of literacy and education. Literacy was taught in private schools mainly by priests and sextons. In schools they studied the Psalter, and in some - elementary grammar and arithmetic.

The appearance of book printing. Its first attempts date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553. 1563 was built first printing house in Moscow. Book printing became a state monopoly. The printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. In 1564, the first Russian printed book was published “ Apostle».

Among the literary monuments of that time is a huge 10-volume collection of church literature “Monthly Readings”. These are the biographies of Russian saints written by Metropolitan Macarius, compiled by month in accordance with the days of honoring each saint.

Generalizing chronicle works are being created, for example, the Litsevoy Chronicle - a kind of world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century. A monument of Russian historical literature is also the “Degree Book,” compiled by Ivan IV’s confessor Andrei. It outlines Russian history from Vladimir I to Ivan IV.

The set of everyday rules and instructions contains “ Domostroy" He defended the patriarchal way of life in the family. The book gave advice on how to be frugal, etc.

Architecture of the period XV – XVI centuries. reflected the increasing international role of the Russian state. A new stage is beginning in both temple and civil architecture.

The creation of a Russian centralized state was marked by the construction of a new Kremlin on the site of the old one, the ensemble of which was finally formed at the end of the 15th – beginning of the 16th centuries. At this time, bricks began to be used in construction. Brick masonry replaced traditional white stone masonry. In 1485 - 1495 The white stone walls of the Kremlin were replaced with brick ones.

In 1475 - 1479 a new Assumption Cathedral was built, which became a classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century.

In 1484 - 1489 The Annunciation Cathedral, the home church of the Grand Dukes, was built.

In 1505 - 1508 The Archangel Cathedral was built, the appearance of which clearly expressed the secular style of architecture. The Archangel Cathedral was a tomb temple where all the great princes were transferred, starting with Ivan Kalita, and then the tsars (until Peter I).

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin, for example the Chamber of Facets, which was intended for ceremonial receptions.

The highest achievement of Russian architecture of the 16th century. was the construction of the temple tent type, in which the national originality of Russian traditions was most clearly expressed. An example of a tented church was the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral). The cathedral was built in 1555 – 1560. Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan.

In the 16th century “Fortress construction” gained enormous scope.

A line of fortifications was erected in Moscow (Kitai-Gorod, then White City). These works were supervised by the famous master Fyodor Kon; he also built the Smolensk Kremlin.

Painting of the period of the late XV – XVI centuries. presented by the works of the talented Russian artist Dionysius. He painted the Assumption Cathedral.

The range of painting themes is gradually expanding, and interest in non-church subjects, especially historical ones, is growing. The genre of historical portrait is developing.

Painting of this period is characterized by a growing interest in real historical figures and events.

According to Academician D.S. Likhachev, “of all periods in the history of Russian culture, it was the XV – XVI centuries. are especially important. It is then that the interrupted process of creating a unified state and the revival of culture take place..."

RUSSIAN CULTURE IN THE 14th-16th CENTURIES
INFLUENCE OF THE TATAR-MONGOL ISIS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN CULTURE

The art of a number of artistic crafts was lost.

CHRONICLES

In the middle of the 15th century, a brief world history appeared - the chronograph.

ORAL FOLK ART OF Rus'

First cycle of epics is a revision and reworking of the old cycle of epics about the Kyiv state.

Second cycle of epics- Novgorod. It glorifies the wealth, power, love of freedom of the free city, as well as the courage of the townspeople in defending the city from enemies.

The main characters are Sadko and Vasily Buslaevich.

Other genres appear in the 14th century and are devoted to understanding the Mongol conquest. Stories-legends: about the battle on the Kalka River, about the devastation of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, as well as about the defender of Smolensk - the young Smolyanin Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Mother of God from the Mongol armies. Some of the works of this cycle were included in chronicles.

LITERATURE OF Rus'

From here images, literary style, individual phrases, and expressions were borrowed. It does not report on a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings about what happened. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo.

THE BEGINNING OF BOOK PRINTING IN Rus'

The end of the 15th century is associated with the completion of the formation of the Great Russian nation.

A language has emerged that differs from Church Slavonic. The Moscow dialect became dominant.

With the formation of a centralized state, the need for literate, educated people increased.

In 1563, the state printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov. His assistant was Fyodor Mstislavovich. . The printing house worked mainly for the needs of the church.

In 1574, the first Russian alphabet was published in Lvov.

GENERAL POLITICAL THOUGHT OF Rus' IN THE 16TH CENTURY.

The Great Menaion of the Metropolitan of All Rus' Macarius (1481/82-31.XII. 1563) is a book collection of 12 handwritten books, constituting an annual “reading circle” for almost every day, each of the 12 Menaion contains material for one of the months (starting from September). According to the plan of the initiator, organizer of correspondence and editor of this book collection, Macarius, 12 folios of enormous volume and size were to contain “all the holy books of the Chetya”, revered and read in Rus', thanks to which the Great Menaion of the Chetya became a kind of encyclopedia of Russian book literature of the 16th century.

Although Domostroy was a collection of advice on housekeeping, it was written in artistic language and became a literary monument of the era.

PAINTING OF Rus'

At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th century, a person who came from Byzantium worked in Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod painter Feofan the Greek.

He perfectly combined the Byzantine tradition and the already formed Russian one. Sometimes he worked in violation of the canons. His images are psychological, his icons convey spiritual tension. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyen Street in Novgorod, together with Semyon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399).

The great Russian artist who worked during this period is Andrey Rublev.

He is a master of laconic but very expressive composition. An amazing picturesque coloring is visible in his works. And in his icons and frescoes one can feel the ideal of moral perfection. At the same time, he was able to convey the subtle emotional experiences of the characters. He participated in the painting of the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405) together with Theophan the Greek and the prokhor from Gorodets, and painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420).

"Trinity". 1411 or 1425-27, State Tretyakov Gallery

At the end of the 15th century, a huge contribution to the development of Russian painting was made by the outstanding icon painter Dionysius. He was an excellent calorist and a very complex master. Together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir as well as other students, he created frescoes by Uspensky Kremlin Cathedral.

Among his creations was the famous icon of the Savior in strength.

At the same time, the Novgorod Icon Painting School is also functioning. It is distinguished by its bright colors and dynamic composition.

ARCHITECTURE OF Rus'

In the 14th-16th centuries, due to the centralization of the state, Moscow was decorated (under Ivan Kalita, stone construction developed).

Under Dmitry Donskoy, the white stone Kremlin was built for the first time.

On the advice of Sophia Paleolog (grandmother of Ivan IV the Terrible), masters from Italy were invited. The purpose of this is to display the power and glory of the Russian state. The Italian Aristotle Fioravanti traveled to Vladimir and examined the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals. He successfully managed to combine the traditions of Russian and Italian architecture. In 1479, he successfully completed the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Following this, a faceted chamber was built to receive foreign embassies.

The appeal to national origins was especially clearly expressed in the stone architecture of the traditional Russian tent style, so characteristic of the wooden architecture of Rus'.

Intercession Cathedral

Answer from Slesareva Anastasia[guru]
The development of Russian culture during this period was influenced by many factors. This is also the development of previous traditions, especially those related to Christian values and church interests. New factors influencing culture also appeared: the gathering of Russian lands around the Moscow Principality and the creation of a single centralized state, the establishment of national identity in the fight against the Golden Horde yoke. From century to century, the role of Moscow and the Moscow Grand Dukes becomes more and more noticeable. Muscovite Rus' turned into a center not only of unification processes, but also of cultural development.
Literature. In Russian literature, the theme of the fight against the Horde yoke occupied a large place. The works of the Kulikovo cycle (“Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev”) stand out especially. They are imbued with a sense of patriotism and admiration for the exploits of Russian soldiers.

In the second half of the 15th century. the old genre of walks (descriptions of travel) is experiencing a new birth.

Chronicle traditions were preserved and multiplied. In the XIV century. An all-Russian chronicle was created in Moscow, and the Chronograph, compiled in 1442, includes a description of world history.

In the first half of the 16th century. A group of educated people formed around Metropolitan Macarius who created the famous “Great Chetya Menaion”. This is a collection of the most widely read books in Rus': hagiographic literature, teachings, legends, etc. - as a rule, not of a liturgical nature, but directly related to the Orthodox tradition.
An important cultural event was the advent of printing. It is associated with the names of Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets, who created the first printed book “Apostle” (1564). The first Russian primer with grammar was published in Lvov. The church's reaction to printing was so negative that even in the 17th century. The printed book could not supplant the handwritten one.
Socio-political thought. Among Russian written sources of the XV-XVI centuries. There are many works in which the authors reflect on the fate of Russia.
Architecture. Moscow becomes the capital of a huge power, the accumulation of wealth in the hands of the Moscow prince makes it possible to begin stone construction on an unprecedented scale. Dmitry Donskoy in 1366-1367 began construction of the new Moscow Kremlin. On the site of the wooden fortifications built under Ivan Kalita, a new white-stone Kremlin arose.
The construction of Moscow fortifications continued throughout the 16th century. A semi-ring of Kitay-Gorod fortifications was added to the Kremlin, and at the end of the century, “city master” Fyodor Kon erected the “White City” about 9.5 km long. F. Kon also built the walls of the Kremlin in Smolensk.

In the second half of the 16th century. From the traditions of wooden architecture, but already in stone, the tent style emerges. Tent-roofed church architecture did not spread widely, since it contradicted church canons and was prohibited by church authorities. Painting. Theophanes, a native of Byzantium, lived in Novgorod and then in Moscow. His frescoes and icons are characterized by a special emotionality. The decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral influenced not only architecture, but also painting. This led to the fact that only technical writing techniques were improved. Craft. In the XIV-XVI centuries. The development of the craft continued. The main centers of handicraft production were cities, monasteries, and some large estates. At the end of the 15th century. The Cannon Yard is being created in Moscow. The first cannons appeared in Rus' in the last third of the 14th century. In subsequent centuries, a whole school of cannon masters emerged. One of its representatives was Andrei Chokhov, creator of the famous Tsar Cannon.