Epic works of the peoples of Eurasia

Epic works of antiquity

INTERFLIVE

"The Epic of Gilgamesh"

ANCIENT GREECE
"Iliad"

"Odyssey"

« The Iliad is the oldest monument of ancient Greek literature. The Iliad describes the events of the Trojan War. According to Homer, the most outstanding heroes of Greece took part in it - Achilles, Ajax, Odysseus, Hector and others, who were helped by the immortal gods - Athena, Apollo, Ares, Aphrodite, Poseidon.

Achilles the spearman. Drawing on a red-figure vase.

Mid-5th century BC

From the collection of the Vatican Museums.

ANCIENT ROME

"Aeneid"

INDIA

"Ramayana"

An ancient Indian epic that tells the story of the great hero Rama and his fight against the evil demon King Ravana.

"The battle of Rama and Hanuman with Ravana."

India. 1820

From the collection of the British Museum.

Epic works of the Middle Ages

FRANCE

"The Song of Roland"

"Song of the Campaign against the Albigensians"»

Roland is a French margrave, the hero of one of the most famous works of world literature, a poem from the Old French heroic cycle dedicated to King Charlemagne.

"Roland takes a vow of fidelity

Charlemagne."Medieval manuscript.

France. Around 1400

SPAIN

"Poem about my Sid"

A monument of Spanish literature, a heroic epic created at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries. The main character of the poem is the valiant Sid, a fighter against the Moors, a defender of his people. The main goal of Sid's life is the liberation of his native land. The historical prototype of Sid was a Castilian military leader, a nobleman.

Banner of Baez. Spain, XIII century.

The banner that brought victory to Spanish arms is revered as a relic.

The embroidery depicts an early Spanish saint, the Visigothic bishop Isidore of Seville, more famous for his learning than for his military prowess.

ANCIENT Rus'

Epics

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"

Bylinas are Russian folk epic songs about the exploits of heroes.

Still from the feature film

cartoon studio"Mill"

"Dobrynya Nikitich and Zmey Gorynych"

ENGLAND

"Beowulf»

"The Stealing of the Kualnge Bull"

Beowulf is an epic poem of the Anglo-Saxons. Its action takes place in Scandinavia before the migration of the English to Britain. The poem tells about the victory of the military leader Beowulf over the monster Grendel and the dragon that devastated the country.

"Beowulf's Duel with the Dragon."

Illustration for the book by H.-E. Marshall

"The Stories of Beowulf."

New York, 1908

GERMANY

"The Song of the Nibelungs"»

"Kudruna"

“The Song of the Nibelungs” is a medieval Germanic epic poem created by an unknown author in the late 12th - early 13th centuries. The legend of the Nibelungs, which forms the plot of the poem, took shape during the era of migration of peoples. The basis for the legend was the ancient German heroic saga (myth) about Siegfried - the slayer of the dragon and the liberator of the things of the maiden Brünnhilde, his fight against evil and tragic death, as well as the historical saga about the death of the Burgundian royal house in 437 in the battle with the Huns of Attila.

"Siegfried's fight with the dragon."

Wood carving on the portal of a Norwegian church. End XII century

SCANDINAVIA

"Elder Edda"»

"Kalevala"

Kalevala is the name of the country in which the heroes of the Karelian-Finnish folk epic live and act.

“Day of the Folk Epic Kalevala” is a national holiday celebrated on February 28. On this day, the Kalevala Carnival takes place every year in Finland and Karelia.

Gallen-Kallela A. “Väinämöinen defends Sampo from the witch Louhi.” 1896

From the collection of the Turku Art Museum.

LATVIA

"Lachplesis"

ESTONIA

"Kalevipoeg"

ARMENIA

"David of Sassoun"

Medieval epic (8th-10th centuries), telling about the struggle of heroes from Sasun (a region in historical Armenia, this hour - on Turkish territory) against the Arab invaders. The epic was first recorded in 1873 by the famous researcher Garegin Srvantdztyants from the lips of a simple Armenian peasant named Krpo.

Kochar E.S. Monument to David of Sasun in Yerevan. 1959

AZERBAIJAN

"Kor-ogly"

KYRGYZSTAN

"Manas"

The hero of the epic is the hero who united the Kirghiz. The epic "Manas" is included in the Guinness Book of Records as the longest epic in the world.

Sadykov T. Monument to the hero of the epic “Manas” in Bishkek. 1981

Epic of the peoples of Russia

BASHKIRS

"Geseriada"

PEOPLES OF ALTAI

"Ural-batyr"

PEOPLES OF THE CAUCASUS

Nart epic

The basis of the epic consists of tales about the exploits of heroes (“narts”). Variants of the Nart epic are found among the Abkhazians, Circassians, Ingush Balkars, Karachais, Ossetians, Chechens and other peoples of the Caucasus.

Tuganov M.S. (1881-1952).

Illustration for the Nart epic.

"The Magic Pipe of Atsamaz."

TATARS

"Idigey"

"Alpamysh"

The epic “Idigei” is based on real historical events that took place during the collapse of the Golden Horde. His heroes are real historical characters, for example, the temnik of the Golden Horde, Edigei, who became the founder of the dynasty that ruled the Nogai Horde. His direct descendants in the male line were the princes Yusupov and Urusov.

Family coat of arms of the Yusupov family. In the second part

coat of arms in a golden field, the Tatar holds a hammer in his right hand.

MBOU "Secondary School No. 1 (with in-depth study of individual subjects)

"Artistic traditions of the peoples of the world"

Completed by: Filippova E.Yu.

a history teacher

Lesson topic:

“The heroic epic of the peoples of the world. The concept of the heroic epic"

The concept of a heroic epic

"Epic" - (from Greek) word, narrative, one of three types of literature telling about various events of the past.

Heroic epic peoples of the world is sometimes the most important and only evidence of past eras. It goes back to ancient myths and reflects human ideas about nature and the world.

Initially it was formed in oral form, then, acquiring new plots and images, it was consolidated in written form.

The heroic epic is the result of collective folk art. But this does not at all diminish the role of individual storytellers. The famous "Iliad" and "Odyssey", as we know, were written down by a single author - Homer.

"The Tale of Gilgamesh" Sumerian epic 1800 BC

The Epic of Gilgamesh is set out on 12

clay tablets.

As the plot of the epic develops, the image of Gilgamesh changes. The fairy-tale hero-hero, boasting of his strength, turns into a man who has learned the tragic brevity of life. The powerful spirit of Gilgamesh rebels against the recognition of the inevitability of death; only at the end of his wanderings does the hero begin to understand that immortality can bring him eternal glory to his name.

GILGAMESH (Sumerian. Bilgames - this name can be interpreted as “hero ancestor”), semi-legendary ruler Uruk, hero of the epic tradition of Sumer and Akkad.

Gilgamesh with the lion from the palace

Sargon II at Dur-Sharrukin

8th century BC e.

"Mahabharata" Indian epic mid-1st millennium AD

“The Great Tale of the Descendants of Bharata” or “The Tale of the Great Battle of the Bharatas.” The Mahabharata is a heroic poem consisting of 18 books, or parvas. As an appendix, it has another 19th book - Harivanshu, i.e. “Genealogy of Hari”. In its current edition, the Mahabharata contains over one hundred thousand slokas, or couplets, and is eight times larger in volume than Homer's Iliad and Odyssey taken together.

Indian literary tradition considers the Mahabharata to be a single work, and its authorship is attributed to the legendary sage Krishna-Dvaipayana Vyasa.

Summary

The main tale of the epic is dedicated to the history of irreconcilable enmity between the Kauravas and Pandavas - the sons of two brothers Dhritarashtra and Pandu. According to the legend, numerous peoples and tribes of India, northern and southern, are gradually being drawn into this enmity and the struggle it causes. It ends in a terrible, bloody battle, in which almost all participants on both sides die. Those who won the victory at such a high cost unite the country under their rule. Thus, the main idea of ​​the main story is the unity of India.

Medieval epic

"Song of the Nibelungs" is a medieval Germanic epic poem written by an unknown author in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. Belongs to one of the most famous epic works of mankind. Its content boils down to 39 parts (songs), which are called “adventures”.

The song tells about the marriage of the dragon slayer Sieckfried to the Burgundian princess Kriemhild, his death due to Kriemhild's conflict with Brünnhilde, the wife of her brother Gunther, and then about Kriemhild's revenge for the death of her husband.

There is reason to believe that the epic was composed around 1200, and that its place of origin should be sought on the Danube, in the area between Passau and Vienna.

In science, various assumptions have been made regarding the identity of the author. Some scholars considered him a shpilman, a wandering singer, others were inclined to think that he was a clergyman (perhaps in the service of the Bishop of Passau), and others that he was an educated knight of low birth.

“The Song of the Nibelungs” combines two initially independent plots: the tale of the death of Siegfried and the tale of the end of the House of Burgundy. They form, as it were, two parts of an epic. Both of these parts are not entirely consistent, and certain contradictions can be noticed between them. Thus, in the first part, the Burgundians receive a generally negative assessment and look rather gloomy in comparison with the bright hero Siegfried, whom they killed, whose services and help they so widely used, while in the second part they appear as valiant knights courageously meeting their tragic fate . The name “Nibelungs” is used differently in the first and second parts of the epic: in the first they are fairy-tale creatures, northern treasure keepers and heroes in the service of Siegfried, in the second they are the Burgundians.

Quarrel of Kings

Competitions at Brünnhilde's court

The epic reflects primarily the knightly worldview of the Staufen era ( The Staufens (or Hohenstaufens) were an imperial dynasty that ruled Germany and Italy in the 12th – first half of the 13th centuries. The Staufens, especially Frederick I Barbarossa (1152–1190), attempted extensive external expansion, which ultimately accelerated the weakening of central power and contributed to the strengthening of the princes. At the same time, the Staufen era was characterized by a significant, but short-lived cultural upsurge ).

Death of Sieckfried

Sieckfried

Sieckfried's funeral

Halen throws gold into the Rhine

Kriemhild shows Helena

Gunther's head

Epic in works of art of different genres

Music:

• A. Borodin. Bogatyr Symphony;
• N. Rimsky-Korsakov. Operas “Sadko”, “The Tale of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevronia”, “Woman of Pskov”;
• M. Mussorgsky. “Pictures at an Exhibition”, play “Bogatyr Gate”, opera “Khovanshchina”;

Painting:

• V. Vasnetsov. "Bogatyrs".

Kalevala

• Kalevala - Karelo - Finnish poetic epic. Consists of 50 runes (songs). It is based on Karelian folk epic songs. The arrangement of “Kalevala” belongs to Elias Lönnrot (1802-1884), who connected individual folk epic songs, making a certain selection of versions of these songs and smoothing out some of the irregularities.
• The name "Kalevala", given to the poem by Lönnrot, is the epic name of the country in which Finnish folk heroes live and act. Suffix lla means place of residence, so Kalevalla - this is the place of residence of Kalev, the mythological ancestor of the heroes Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen, Lemminkäinen, sometimes called his sons.
• In Kalevala there is no main plot that would connect all the songs.

Väinämöinen protects the sampo from

Witches of Louhi.

Väinämöinen

Despite the fact that the heroic epic of peoples was composed in different historical settings, it has many common features and similar features. First of all, this concerns the repetition of themes and plots, as well as the common characteristics of the main characters. For example:

1. An epic often includes a plot creation of the world , how the gods create the harmony of the world from the original chaos.

2.Plot the miraculous birth of the hero and his first youthful exploits .

3.Plot the hero's matchmaking and his trials before the wedding .

4. Description of the battle , in which the hero shows miracles of courage, resourcefulness and courage.

5. Celebrating loyalty in friendship, generosity and honor .

6.Heroes not only defend their homeland, but also highly value their own freedom and independence .

• Homework:

Epic (from the Greek “word, narrative”) reflects the historical past, people's life.

In the epic, man and society collide. An epic includes: a fairy tale, a fable, a story, an essay, a poem, a story, a novel, an epic.

The common feature is an objective-narrative character.

A distinctive feature is that life appears from different sides, at different moments. The hero of an epic work is a generalized image. As a rule, the hero had a prototype - a specific person. The epic is the most important and only witness of a distant era that has preserved people's memory. It goes back to ancient myths and reflects a person’s mythological idea of ​​the surrounding reality. It arose in oral form in the generation of storytellers, acquired images, plots, and then was consolidated in book form. Each translator brought these works to us in his own way. Those. the epic is the result of collective creativity, therefore there is no authorship, except for the “Illiad” and “Odyssey” of Homer. In the genres of small epic form (fable, fairy tale, story, essay) - one episode from the life of the hero is shown.

In medium form genres (story) - a whole series of episodes are presented, i.e. period of life. Large epic form (novel, epic, poem) - reveals the life path and character of the hero.

The main theme of the Ancient epic is the life of the family, the key moments of its history. The modern epic is individual creativity. But even now the hero fulfills his patriotic duty. Heroic songs and tales gave rise to the genre of poems. Outstanding monuments of the heroic epic:

I. Sumerian - “The Tale of Gilgamesh” 1800. BC.

II. Indian – “Mahabharata” 1000 BC. - a battle between two clans for dominance in the kingdom in the upper part of the Ganges River.

III. Knight's epic

Beowulf - England

“The Tale of the Nibelungs” – Germany

“The Song of My Cid” – Spain

Elder Edda - Iceland

“The Song of Roland” – France

"Kalevala" - Karelian-Finnish epic

Epics of Vladimir-Kyiv and Novogorod

"Olonkho" - legends of the Yakut people.

Nart epic of the Caucasian peoples (valiant tribe)

“David of Sassoun” – Armenian

"Manas" is Kyrgyz.

The folk epic inspires poets, artists, directors, and musicians to create new works. The American poet Logfellow wrote “The Song of Hiawatha” based on the Indian epic.

Georgian poet Shota Rustaveli “The Knight in the Skin of a Tiger.”

Unknown Russian storyteller "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".

M. Lermontov "Song about the merchant Kalashnikov."

Composers did not ignore the epic either. The epic symphonic genre has developed in music. For example, Borodin’s “Heroic Symphony”; M. Mussorgsky's epic opera “Khovanshchina”, “Sorochinskaya Fair”, “Prince Igor” by Borodin, epic operas and fairy tale operas by Rimsky-Korsakov “Sadko”, “Pskovite Woman”, “The Legend of the Invisible City of Kityazh”.

The epic theme left a huge mark in the visual arts. Everyone knows Vasnetsov’s paintings: “Three Heroes”, “After the Battle”, “The Knight at the Crossroads”, “Ivan Tsarevich” and others.

20. Features of Orthodox worship. Three circles of time. Ticket17.1

Christian worship absorbs the 2000 experience of the Orthodox and Catholic churches. A church service is akin to a theatrical performance and combines many arts. An important role is played by the interior decoration of the temple (icons, frescoes, utensils), vocal and choral music, bell ringing, and the Word of prayer.

Everything is designed to serve not only aesthetic pleasure, but also the spiritual transformation of a person. National traditions also influence church services. In central Africa, the service is accompanied by the sounds of tom-tom, in Ethiopia it is accompanied by the dance of priests, in India the ceremony of bringing flowers as a gift is included in the service.

In Orthodox worship, three circles of time are distinguished: daily (daily), weekly, and annual. The church day begins in the evening, when the first star rises in the sky, illuminating the birth of the Savior (Bethlehem). Therefore, the first service of the day is called Vespers. It consists of reading psalms and hymns thanking God for the past day. The fragrance of incense symbolizes prayer that rises to heaven. In ancient times, the supper was combined with other prayers and continued until the morning. Hence its name - all-night vigil.

Matins is performed in the morning hours. In the temple, the lights are turned off and 6 psalms are read, in which they praise God.

The basis of daily worship is the liturgy. Bread and wine are prepared for her, and people are communed with her name to eternal life. During the liturgy, they ask God for the salvation of the soul, the world, the weather, and the fertility of the earth.

The weekly circle is dedicated to holy or sacred events. For example, Friday is dedicated to the Cross and the events of Golgotha, Saturday to the Virgin Mary.

The Orthodox church year is marked by many holidays. The main ones are 12, the so-called twelve: Nativity of the Virgin Mary - September 21, Nativity of Christ - January 7, baptism - January 19, Resurrection of Christ - Easter, Ascension - 40 days after Easter, Trinity, Transfiguration of the Lord, Dormition of the Blessed Virgin Mary.

21.Christian holidays. Ticket 4.1

Religious holidays are celebrated throughout the year by representatives of all world religions. The Orthodox church year is also marked by many religious holidays, but the main ones are twelve, the so-called “twelfths”.

Among them: Nativity of the Virgin Mary (September 21); Exaltation of the Holy Cross (September 27); Entry into the Temple of the Blessed Virgin Mary (December 4); Christmas (January 7); Epiphany or Epiphany (January 19); Presentation of the Lord (February 15); Annunciation (April 7); Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem (a week before Easter); Resurrection of Christ - Easter; Ascension (40 days after Easter); Trinity (50 days after Easter) Transfiguration (August 19) Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (August 28).

There are also memorial days of saints in the Christian calendar.

One of the main holidays of Christianity is Easter. This is the memory of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ, his death on the cross and Resurrection. By His death, by His voluntary sacrifice, Christ atoned for the sins of people and gave them the immortality of the soul, eternal life. Easter is celebrated according to the lunar calendar, so the day of the holiday falls between April 4 and May 7.

At Easter it is customary to bake Easter cakes and paint eggs. According to legend, Saint Mary Magdalene gave the Roman emperor a painted egg for Easter with the words: “Christ is risen!” Since then, it has become a custom to paint eggs and exchange them, that is, to christen: congratulate each other and hug three times.

Easter celebrations begin with a religious procession.

A religious procession is a solemn procession from one temple to another.

The Resurrection of Christ is celebrated at home with a festive breakfast with Easter cake.

The holiday is accompanied by the ringing of bells for a whole week.

The image of the holiday was repeatedly used in the fine arts of Russia and Western art. The most interesting is I. Repin’s painting “The Procession for Easter.”

22.Muslim ritual of Hajj. Ticket 18.1

Birthplace of Islam city Mecca in Saudi Arabia. Islam arose in the seventh century AD. e. The Prophet of Islam is Muhammad. The word "Islam" translates as "submission to God." Islam now has 400 million adherents. The city of Mecca became the center of Islam. It is located on the Arabian Peninsula in a valley. On the square near the Great Mosque (house of prayer) is the main shrine of Islam, the Kaaba, a cube-shaped building made of gray stone, covered with black brocade with embroidered sayings from the Koran. Inside the Kaaba is the shrine of Islam - a black stone that symbolizes the key to the Heavenly Temple. It was brought to earth by Adam, expelled from paradise. But at first it was white. The sins of man made him black.

It is believed that a person who sees heaven through this stone will definitely go there after death. Therefore, every Muslim strives, at least once in his life, to go to Mecca.

70 days after fasting, in the holy month of Ramadan, Muslims make the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca. There are no rich or poor here. The pilgrims are united by God Allah.

The Hajj begins with a ritual of purity - people dress in white clothes. It reminds us of humility before God and the shroud in which a person will appear before Allah after death. The ritual involves pilgrims crossing the Mina Valley to Mount Arafat. Here they listen to the sermon, pray and run to the brightly lit mosque.

The next day after morning prayer, pilgrims again go to the valley and throw 7 stones at the pillar, which symbolizes Satan.

This is followed by the ritual of animal sacrifice, in memory of Abraham’s (Ibrahim) willingness to sacrifice his son to God. After this, they must generously feed the poor and everyone who wants it. Many Muslims bring a monetary contribution to the mosque instead of making a sacrifice. Then they return to the Kaaba, walk around it almost at a run 3 times and slowly around it 4 times. This symbolizes the search for water among the hills.

About 2 million people perform the ritual at the same time. Now Saudi Arabia is forced to introduce restrictions on the entry of pilgrims, since people died in a stampede during the Hajj several years ago. A Muslim who has performed the Hajj receives the right to wear a white turban and the honorific prefix to his name - Haji.

23.History and traditions of carnival holidays. Ticket17.2

Carnival is a favorite holiday of many peoples of the world. Many believe that this word comes from the Latin “carus navales”, which means “amusing chariot”, that is, the ship of festive processions. Other scientists believe that it comes from the word “carne valle” - goodbye to meat and is associated with the time of the upcoming fast in Western Europe. Even in ancient times, our ancestors dressed in animal skins, put on masks and danced to say goodbye to winter and welcome spring.

Carnivals became especially popular during the Renaissance. During this celebration, the business life of the city ceased.

Italy is considered the birthplace of carnivals. The main character is the “king,” sitting decorously on a cart. He is surrounded by the heroes of the Italian comedy of masks dell'arte: the rogue Harlequin, the coward Captain, the simple-minded Lovers, the flirtatious Columbina, Pulcinella and others.

The Venetian carnivals became especially famous. Now real miracles are happening there. At the end of February all the tourists come here. Hundreds of people in indescribable outfits and mysterious masks walk along the Venice embankment.

The Brazilian carnival in Rio de Janeiro is no less popular and famous. He is 350 years old. 16 national samba schools prepare songs, dances, sew costumes, and create scenery.

The festive procession lasts 4 days. During these days, the jury evaluates the scenery, costumes, and the skills of the samba or lambada performers.

Dancers' hats reach 10–13 kg. And they cannot be removed until the end of the carnival procession. The Brazilian carnival has absorbed Indian, Portuguese and Negro traditions. Currently, the carnival has moved from the streets to special stadiums - “sambadromes”. Participants sing and dance until exhaustion. They are not allowed to break the rhythm, sit down or stop singing. The heat at this time of year can reach 30 degrees Celsius.

Original carnival processions take place in Las Vegas. They involve blond beauties, copies of Marilyn Monroe, mechanical giants, Kin Kongs, actors, and circus performers.

Switzerland also loves carnivals. Here in February they burn an effigy of Winter and organize a “parade of witches”, and in March you will be greeted by the sounds of flutes and white ghosts.

In Spain, you can see a parade of faliance dolls that act out scenes from ancient Greek mythology and the lives of modern politicians.

In Belgium, in the city of Bruges, “cat carnivals” are held. In the Middle Ages, cats were thrown from high towers here, considering them the embodiment of evil spirits, and now, city residents ask them for forgiveness. During the carnival, residents dress up in cat costumes and generously treat their pets.

In Russia, carnivals were introduced by Peter I. Now carnival processions have resumed on the New Year and Christmas holidays.

24 .Features of Christian temple architecture.19.2

Each religion is represented by its own temple, which represents one or another model of the world. Not a single civilization in the world could do without a temple of cult significance. Even in primitive society, stone structures were erected next to people’s homes, serving as places of worship for the forces of nature.

Christian churches did not arise immediately. The beginning of Christianity is associated with persecution and persecution, so believers performed divine services deep underground, in the catacombs. Only with the adoption of Christianity as the official faith will the widespread construction of temples begin.

The basis of the Catholic church was the basilica (from the Greek - royal house) - an elongated building divided into parts by rows of columns, i.e. naves. Temples are built from west to east, since, according to them, the center of the Earth is located there - Jerusalem. The semicircular apse also faces the East. It contains the altar, the sacred part of the building. The altar separates the earthly and heavenly parts of the temple. The external appearance of the basilica is simple and austere, but the interior decoration is distinguished by pomp and solemnity. The walls are decorated with frescoes (painted on wet plaster), mosaics (patterns assembled from multi-colored stones or colored smalt glass), sculptures, and luxurious items for church services.

Orthodox Christianity uses the cross-domed type of church, which has the shape of a cross with a dome in the center. There is not a single little thing in Christian churches that is devoid of religious meaning. The building itself resembles a ship that carries believers through everyday hardships into eternity. The number of domes is very important. It is deeply symbolic: one dome means the One God, 3 - the Holy Trinity, 5 - Christ and the four Evangelists, 7 - the sacred sacraments of the church (Baptism, Communion, etc.), 13 - Christ and 12 apostles, 33 - earthly years life of Christ. The shape of the dome also matters. The ancient one is helmet-shaped, reminiscent of the valiant past, of the defenders of the Fatherland. Bulbous - symbolizes the flame of a candle.

The color of the domes also matters. Gold ones are dedicated to Jesus and the main church holidays, a symbol of heavenly glory. The blue ones with stars are dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary. Green is dedicated to the Trinity and symbolizes the Holy Spirit. Temples dedicated to saints are topped with green or silver domes.

Since the 17th century, tented churches began to be erected in Rus'. For example, the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye near Moscow. Then they will be banned.

A bell tower or belfry is being built next to the temple. Let's get acquainted with the temple itself.

Climbing the stairs, we will enter the narthex. There used to be Christians here who were excommunicated from the church for their sins. The main part is the altar. On the right side is the sacristy, where the sacred vestments are kept. The altar is separated from the rest of the temple by an iconostasis - a partition with icons. Sometimes in one temple there are several altars-altars, which are consecrated in honor of memorable events. The temple is the house of God, believers come to it to communicate with him.

The literature of the Western Early Middle Ages was created by new peoples inhabiting the western part of Europe: the Celts (Brits, Gauls, Belgians, Helvetians) and the ancient Germans living between the Danube and the Rhine, near the North Sea and in the south of Scandinavia (Sevi, Goths, Burgundians, Cherusci, Angles, Saxons, etc.).

These peoples first worshiped pagan tribal gods and later adopted Christianity and became believers, but eventually the Germanic tribes conquered the Celts and occupied what is now France, England and Scandinavia. The literature of these peoples is represented by the following works:

• 1. Stories about the lives of saints - hagiographies. "Lives of Saints", visions and spells;
• 2. Encyclopedic, scientific and historiographical works.

Isidore of Seville (c.560-636) - “etymology, or beginnings”; Bede the Venerable (c.637-735) - “about the nature of things” and “ecclesiastical history of the English people”, Jordan - “about the origin of the acts of the Goths”; Alcuin (c.732-804) - treatises on rhetoric, grammar, dialectics; Einhard (c.770-840) “Biographies of Charlemagne”;

3. Mythology and heroic-epic poems, sagas and songs of Celtic and Germanic tribes. Icelandic sagas, Irish epic, "Elder Edda", Younger Edda", "Beowulf", Karelian-Finnish epic "Kalevala".

The heroic epic is one of the most characteristic and popular genres of the European Middle Ages. In France it existed in the form of poems called gestures, i.e. songs about deeds and exploits. The thematic basis of the gesture is made up of real historical events, most of which date back to the 8th - 10th centuries. Probably, immediately after these events, traditions and legends about them arose. It is also possible that these legends originally existed in the form of short episodic songs or prose stories that developed in the pre-knight milieu. However, very early on, episodic tales went beyond this environment, spread among the masses and became the property of the entire society: not only the military class, but also the clergy, merchants, artisans, and peasants listened to them with equal enthusiasm.

The heroic epic as a holistic picture of people's life was the most significant legacy of literature of the early Middle Ages and occupied an important place in the artistic culture of Western Europe. According to Tacitus, songs about gods and heroes replaced history for the barbarians. The oldest is the Irish epic. It is formed from the 3rd to the 8th centuries. Created by the people back in the pagan period, epic poems about warrior heroes first existed in oral form and were passed on from mouth to mouth. They were sung and recited by folk storytellers. Later, in the 7th and 8th centuries, after Christianization, they were revised and written down by scholar-poets, whose names remained unchanged. Epic works are characterized by glorification of the exploits of heroes; interweaving historical background and fiction; glorification of the heroic strength and exploits of the main characters; idealization of the feudal state.

Features of the heroic epic:

• 1. The epic was created in the conditions of the development of feudal relations;
• 2. The epic picture of the world reproduces feudal relations, idealizes a strong feudal state and reflects Christian beliefs, art. ideals;
• 3. In relation to history, the historical basis is clearly visible, but at the same time it is idealized and hyperbolized;
• 4. Bogatyrs are defenders of the state, the king, the independence of the country and the Christian faith. All this is interpreted in the epic as a national affair;
• 5. The epic is associated with a folk tale, with historical chronicles, sometimes with a chivalric romance;
• 6. The epic has been preserved in the countries of continental Europe (Germany, France).

The heroic epic was greatly influenced by Celtic and German-Scandinavian mythology. Often epics and myths are so connected and intertwined that it is quite difficult to draw a line between them. This connection is reflected in a special form of epic tales - sagas - Old Icelandic prose narratives (the Icelandic word "saga" comes from the verb "to say"). Scandinavian poets composed sagas from the 9th to the 12th centuries. - skalds. The Old Icelandic sagas are very diverse: sagas about kings, saga about Icelanders, sagas about ancient times (“Välsunga Saga”).

The collection of these sagas has come to us in the form of two Eddas: the “Elder Edda” and the “Younger Edda”. The Younger Edda is a prose retelling of ancient Germanic myths and tales written by the Icelandic historian and poet Snorri Sjurluson in 1222-1223. The Elder Edda is a collection of twelve poetic songs about gods and heroes. The compressed and dynamic songs of the Elder Edda, dating back to the 5th century and apparently written down in the 10th-11th centuries, are divided into two groups: tales of gods and tales of heroes. The main god is the one-eyed Odin, who was originally the god of war. Second in importance after Odin is the god of thunder and fertility, Thor. The third is the malevolent god Loki. And the most significant hero is the hero Sigurd. The heroic songs of the Elder Edda are based on the pan-German epic tales about the gold of the Nibelungs, on which lies a curse and which brings misfortune to everyone.

Sagas also became widespread in Ireland, the largest center of Celtic culture in the Middle Ages. This was the only country in Western Europe where no Roman legionnaire had set foot. Irish legends were created and passed on to descendants by druids (priests), bards (singer-poets) and felides (soothsayers). The clear and concise Irish epic was written not in verse, but in prose. It can be divided into heroic sagas and fantastic sagas. The main hero of the heroic sagas was the noble, fair and brave Cu Chulainn. His mother is the king's sister, and his father is the god of light. Cuchulainn had three shortcomings: he was too young, too brave and too beautiful. In the image of Cuchulainn, ancient Ireland embodied its ideal of valor and moral perfection.

Epic works often intertwine real historical events and fairy-tale fiction. Thus, “The Song of Hildenbrand” was created on a historical basis - the struggle of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric with Odoacer. This ancient Germanic epic of the era of migration of peoples originated in the pagan era and was found in a manuscript of the 9th century. This is the only monument of the German epic that has come down to us in song form.

In the poem "Beowulf" - the heroic epic of the Anglo-Saxons, which came down to us in a manuscript of the early 10th century, the fantastic adventures of the heroes also take place against the backdrop of historical events. The world of Beowulf is a world of kings and warriors, a world of feasts, battles and duels. The hero of the poem is a brave and generous warrior from the Gaut people, Beowulf, who performs great feats and is always ready to help people. Beowulf is generous, merciful, loyal to the leader and greedy for glory and rewards, he performed many feats, opposed the monster and destroyed him; defeated another monster in an underwater dwelling - Grendel's mother; entered into battle with a fire-breathing dragon, who was enraged by the attempt on the ancient treasure he protected and was devastating the country. At the cost of his own life, Beowulf managed to defeat the dragon. The song ends with a scene of the solemn burning of the hero's body on a funeral pyre and the construction of a mound over his ashes. Thus the familiar theme of gold bringing misfortune appears in the poem. This theme will be used later in knightly literature.

An immortal monument of folk art is “Kalevala” - a Karelian-Finnish epic about the exploits and adventures of the heroes of the fairy-tale country of Kalev. “Kalevala” is composed of folk songs (runes) collected and recorded by Elias Lönnrot, a native of a Finnish peasant family, and published in 1835 and 1849. runes are letters of the alphabet carved on wood or stone, used by Scandinavian and other Germanic peoples for religious and memorial inscriptions. The entire “Kalevala” is a tireless praise of human labor; there is not even a hint of “court” poetry in it.

The French epic poem “The Song of Roland,” which came down to us in a 12th-century manuscript, tells the story of the Spanish campaign of Charlemagne in 778, and the main character of the poem, Roland, has his own historical prototype. True, the campaign against the Basques turned in the poem into a seven-year war with the “infidels,” and Charles himself turned from a 36-year-old man into a gray-haired old man. The central episode of the poem, the Battle of Roncesvalles, glorifies the courage of people faithful to duty and “dear France.”

The ideological concept of the legend is clarified by comparing the “Song of Roland” with the historical facts that underlie this legend. In 778, Charlemagne intervened in the internal strife of the Spanish Moors, agreeing to help one of the Muslim kings against the other. Having crossed the Pyrenees, Charles took several cities and besieged Zaragoza, but, having stood under its walls for several weeks, he had to return to France with nothing. When he was returning back through the Pyrenees, the Basques, irritated by the passage of foreign troops through their fields and villages, set up an ambush in the Roncesvalles Gorge and, attacking the French rearguard, killed many of them. A short and fruitless expedition to northern Spain, which had nothing to do with the religious struggle and ended in a not particularly significant, but still annoying military failure, was turned by singer-storytellers into a picture of a seven-year war that ended with the conquest of all of Spain, then a terrible catastrophe during the retreat of the French army, and here the enemies were not the Basque Christians, but the same Moors, and, finally, a picture of revenge on the part of Charles in the form of a grandiose, truly “world” battle of the French with the connecting forces of the entire Muslim world.

In addition to the hyperbolization typical of all folk epics, which is reflected not only in the scale of the events depicted, but also in the pictures of superhuman strength and dexterity of individual characters, as well as in the idealization of the main characters (Roland, Karl, Turpin), the entire story is characterized by the saturation of the idea of ​​​​the religious struggle against Islam and the special mission of France in this struggle. This idea found its vivid expression in numerous prayers, heavenly signs, religious calls that fill the poem, in the denigration of the “pagans” - the Moors, in the repeated emphasizing of the special protection provided to Charles by God, in the portrayal of Roland as a knight-vassal of Charles and a vassal of the Lord to whom he before his death, he extends his glove as if to an overlord, finally, in the image of Archbishop Turpin, who with one hand blesses the French knights for battle and absolves the sins of the dying, and with the other he himself defeats the enemies, personifying the unity of the sword and the cross in the fight against the “infidels.”

However, “The Song of Roland” is far from being limited to its national-religious idea. It reflected with enormous force the socio-political contradictions characteristic of the intensively developing in the 10th - 11th centuries. feudalism. This problem is introduced into the poem by the episode of Ganelon's betrayal. The reason for including this episode in the legend could be the desire of the singers-storytellers to explain the defeat of the “invincible” army of Charlemagne as an external fatal cause. But Ganelon is not just a traitor, but an expression of some evil principle, hostile to every national cause, the personification of feudal, anarchic egoism. This beginning in the poem is shown in all its strength, with great artistic objectivity. Ganelon is not depicted as some kind of physical and moral monster. This is a majestic and brave fighter. In “The Song of Roland,” the blackness of an individual traitor, Ganelon, is not so much revealed as the disastrousness for the native country of that feudal, anarchic egoism, of which Ganelon is a brilliant representative, is exposed.

Along with this contrast between Roland and Ganelon, another contrast runs through the entire poem, less acute, but just as fundamental - Roland and his beloved friend, his betrothed brother Olivier. Here, not two hostile forces collide, but two versions of the same positive principle.

Roland in the poem is a powerful and brilliant knight, impeccable in the performance of his vassal duty. He is an example of knightly valor and nobility. But the deep connection of the poem with folk songwriting and the popular understanding of heroism is reflected in the fact that all the knightly traits of Roland are given by the poet in a humanized form, freed from class limitations. Roland is alien to heroism, cruelty, greed, and the anarchic willfulness of feudal lords. One can feel in him an excess of youthful strength, a joyful belief in the rightness of his cause and in his luck, a passionate thirst for selfless achievement. Full of proud self-awareness, but at the same time alien to any arrogance or self-interest, he devotes himself entirely to serving the king, people, and homeland. Heavily wounded, having lost all his comrades in battle, Roland climbs a high hill, lies down on the ground, puts his trusty sword and Olifan’s horn next to him and turns his face towards Spain so that the emperor knows that he “died, but won the battle.” For Roland there is no more tender and sacred word than “dear France”; with the thought of her he dies. All this made Roland, despite his knightly appearance, a genuine folk hero, understandable and close to everyone.

Olivier is a friend and brother, Roland’s “dashing brother,” a valiant knight who prefers death to the dishonor of retreat. In the poem, Olivier is characterized by the epithet “reasonable.” Three times Olivier tries to convince Roland to blow Oliphan's horn to call for help from Charlemagne's army, but Roland three times refuses to do so. Olivier dies with his friend, praying before his death “for his dear native land.”

Emperor Charlemagne is Roland's uncle. His image in the poem is a somewhat exaggerated image of the old wise leader. In the poem, Charles is 200 years old, although in fact at the time of the real events in Spain he was no more than 36. The power of his empire is also greatly exaggerated in the poem. The author includes in it both countries that actually belonged to it, and those that were not included in it. The emperor can only be compared to God: in order to punish the Saracens before sunset, he is able to stop the sun. On the eve of the death of Roland and his army, Charlemagne has a prophetic dream, but he can no longer prevent betrayal, but only sheds “streams of tears.” The image of Charlemagne resembles the image of Jesus Christ - his twelve peers (cf. the 12 apostles) and the traitor Ganelon appear before the reader.

Ganelon is a vassal of Charlemagne, the stepfather of the main character of the poem Roland. The Emperor, on the advice of Roland, sends Ganelon to negotiate with the Saracen King Marsilius. This is a very dangerous mission, and Ganelon decides to take revenge on his stepson. He enters into a treacherous conspiracy with Marsilius and, returning to the emperor, convinces him to leave Spain. At the instigation of Ganelon, in the Roncesvalles gorge in the Pyrenees, the rearguard of Charlemagne's troops led by Roland is attacked by outnumbered Saracens. Roland, his friends and all his troops die without retreating a single step from Roncesval. Ganelon personifies in the poem feudal egoism and arrogance, bordering on betrayal and dishonor. Outwardly, Ganelon is handsome and valiant (“he is fresh-faced, bold and proud in appearance. He was a daredevil, be honest”). Disregarding military honor and following only the desire to take revenge on Roland, Ganelon becomes a traitor. Because of him, the best warriors of France die, so the ending of the poem - the scene of the trial and execution of Ganelon - is logical. Archbishop Turpin is a warrior-priest who bravely fights the “infidels” and blesses the Franks for battle. The idea of ​​a special mission of France in the national-religious struggle against the Saracens is connected with his image. Turpin is proud of his people, who in their fearlessness are incomparable to any other.

The Spanish heroic epic “The Song of Cid” reflected the events of the Reconquista - the conquest of their country by the Spaniards from the Arabs. The main character of the poem is the famous figure of the reconquista Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar (1040 - 1099), whom the Arabs called Cid (lord).

Sid's story served as material for many stories and chronicles.

The main poetic tales about Sid that have come down to us are:

• 1) a cycle of poems about King Sancho 2nd and the siege of Samara in the 13th - 14th centuries, according to the historian of Spanish literature F. Kelin, “serving as a kind of prologue to the “Song of My Side”;
• 2) the “Song of My Sid” itself, created around 1140, probably by one of Sid’s warriors, and preserved in a single copy of the 14th century with severe losses;
• 3) and the poem, or rhymed chronicle, “Rodrigo” in 1125 verses and the adjacent romances about the Cid.

In the German epic “Song of the Nibelungs,” which was finally formed from individual songs into an epic tale in the 12th-13th centuries, there is both a historical basis and a fairy tale-fiction. The epic reflects the events of the Great Migration of Peoples of the 4th-5th centuries. there is also a real historical figure - the formidable leader Attila, who turned into the kind, weak-willed Etzel. The poem consists of 39 songs - “adventures”. The action of the poem takes us into the world of court festivities, knightly tournaments and beautiful ladies. The main character of the poem is the Dutch prince Siegfried, a young knight who performed many wonderful feats. He is bold and courageous, young and handsome, daring and arrogant. But the fate of Siegfried and his future wife Kriemhild was tragic, for whom the treasure of Nibelungen gold became fatal.

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1 The concept of the heroic epic. “Epic” is (from Greek) a word, a narrative, one of three types of literature telling about various events of the past. The heroic epic of the peoples of the world is sometimes the most important and only evidence of past eras. It dates back to ancient myths and reflects human ideas about nature and the world. Initially, it was formed in oral form, then, acquiring new plots and images, it was consolidated in written form. The heroic epic is the result of collective folk art. But this does not at all diminish the role of individual storytellers. The famous “Iliad” and “Odyssey”, as we know, were written down by a single author - Homer.

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"The Tale of Gilgamesh" Sumerian epic 1800 BC. The Epic of Gilgamesh is written on 12 clay tablets. As the plot of the epic develops, the image of Gilgamesh changes. The fairy-tale hero-hero, boasting of his strength, turns into a man who has learned the tragic brevity of life. The powerful spirit of Gilgamesh rebels against the recognition of the inevitability of death; only at the end of his wanderings does the hero begin to understand that immortality can bring him eternal glory to his name.

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Summary Table I tells about the king of Uruk, Gilgamesh, whose unbridled prowess caused a lot of grief to the inhabitants of the city. Having decided to create a worthy rival and friend for him, the gods molded Enkidu from clay and settled him among wild animals. Table II is devoted to the martial arts of the heroes and their decision to use their powers for good, cutting down a precious cedar in the mountains. Tables III, IV and V are devoted to their preparations for the road, travel and victory over Humbaba. Table VI is close in content to the Sumerian text about Gilgamesh and the celestial bull. Gilgamesh rejects Inanna's love and reproaches her for her treachery. Insulted, Inanna asks the gods to create a monstrous bull to destroy Uruk. Gilgamesh and Enkidu kill a bull; Unable to take revenge on Gilgamesh, Inanna transfers her anger to Enkidu, who weakens and dies. The story of his farewell to life (VII table) and Gilgamesh’s lament for Enkidu (VIII table) become the turning point of the epic tale. Shocked by the death of his friend, the hero sets out in search of immortality. His wanderings are described in Tables IX and X. Gilgamesh wanders in the desert and reaches the Mashu Mountains, where scorpion men guard the passage through which the sun rises and sets. “Mistress of the Gods” Siduri helps Gilgamesh find the shipbuilder Urshanabi, who ferried him across the “waters of death” that are fatal to humans. On the opposite shore of the sea, Gilgamesh meets Utnapishtim and his wife, to whom in time immemorial the gods gave eternal life. Table XI contains the famous story about the Flood and the construction of the ark, on which Utnapishtim saved the human race from extermination. Utnapishtim proves to Gilgamesh that his search for immortality is futile, since man is unable to defeat even the semblance of death - sleep. In parting, he reveals to the hero the secret of the “grass of immortality” growing at the bottom of the sea. Gilgamesh obtains the herb and decides to bring it to Uruk to give immortality to all people. On the way back, the hero falls asleep at the source; a snake rising from its depths eats the grass, sheds its skin and, as it were, receives a second life. The text of the XI table known to us ends with a description of how Gilgamesh shows Urshanabi the walls of Uruk he erected, hoping that his deeds will be preserved in the memory of his descendants.

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GILGAMESH (Sumerian. Bilga-mes - this name can be interpreted as “ancestor-hero”), semi-legendary ruler of Uruk, hero of the epic tradition of Sumer and Akkad. Epic texts consider Gilgamesh to be the son of the hero Lugalbanda and the goddess Ninsun, and date the reign of Gilgamesh to the era of the First Dynasty of Uruk (27–26 centuries BC). Gilgamesh is the fifth king of this dynasty. Gilgamesh is also attributed divine origin: "Bilgames, whose father was the demon-lila, en (i.e., "high priest") of Kulaba." The duration of Gilgamesh's reign is determined to be 126 years. The Sumerian tradition places Gilgamesh as if on the border between the legendary heroic time and the more recent historical past.

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"Mahabharata" Indian epic of the 5th century AD. “The Great Tale of the Descendants of Bharata” or “The Tale of the Great Battle of the Bharatas.” The Mahabharata is a heroic poem consisting of 18 books, or parvas. As an appendix, it has another 19th book - Harivanshu, i.e. “Genealogy of Hari”. In its current edition, the Mahabharata contains over one hundred thousand slokas, or couplets, and is eight times larger in volume than Homer's Iliad and Odyssey taken together. Indian literary tradition considers the Mahabharata to be a single work, and its authorship is attributed to the legendary sage Krishna-Dvaipayana Vyasa.

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Summary The main tale of the epic is dedicated to the history of irreconcilable enmity between the Kauravas and the Pandavas - the sons of two brothers Dhritarashtra and Pandu. According to the legend, numerous peoples and tribes of India, northern and southern, are gradually being drawn into this enmity and the struggle it causes. It ends in a terrible, bloody battle, in which almost all participants on both sides die. Those who won the victory at such a high cost unite the country under their rule. Thus, the main idea of ​​the main story is the unity of India.

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Medieval European epic The Song of the Nibelungs is a medieval Germanic epic poem written by an unknown author in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. Belongs to one of the most famous epic works of mankind. Its content boils down to 39 parts (songs), which are called “adventures”.

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The song tells about the marriage of the dragon slayer Sieckfried to the Burgundian princess Kriemhild, his death due to Kriemhild's conflict with Brünnhilde, the wife of her brother Gunther, and then about Kriemhild's revenge for the death of her husband. There is reason to believe that the epic was composed around 1200, and that its place of origin should be sought on the Danube, in the area between Passau and Vienna. In science, various assumptions have been made regarding the identity of the author. Some scholars considered him a shpilman, a wandering singer, others were inclined to think that he was a clergyman (perhaps in the service of the Bishop of Passau), and others that he was an educated knight of low birth. “The Song of the Nibelungs” combines two initially independent plots: the tale of the death of Siegfried and the tale of the end of the House of Burgundy. They form, as it were, two parts of an epic. Both of these parts are not entirely consistent, and certain contradictions can be noticed between them. Thus, in the first part, the Burgundians receive a generally negative assessment and look rather gloomy in comparison with the bright hero Siegfried, whom they killed, whose services and help they so widely used, while in the second part they appear as valiant knights courageously meeting their tragic fate . The name “Nibelungs” is used differently in the first and second parts of the epic: in the first they are fairy-tale creatures, northern treasure keepers and heroes in the service of Siegfried, in the second they are the Burgundians.

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The epic reflects, first of all, the knightly worldview of the Staufen era (the Staufens (or Hohenstaufens) were the imperial dynasty that ruled Germany and Italy in the 12th - first half of the 13th centuries. The Staufens, especially Frederick I Barbarossa (1152–1190), tried to carry out a wide external expansion, which ultimately accelerated the weakening of central power and contributed to the strengthening of the princes. At the same time, the Staufen era was characterized by a significant, but short-lived cultural upsurge.).

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Kalevala Kalevala - Karelo - Finnish poetic epic. Consists of 50 runes (songs). It is based on Karelian folk epic songs. The arrangement of “Kalevala” belongs to Elias Lönnrot (1802-1884), who connected individual folk epic songs, making a certain selection of variants of these songs and smoothing out some irregularities. The name “Kalevala” given to the poem by Lönnrot is the epic name of the country in which they live and Finnish folk heroes act. The suffix lla means place of residence, so Kalevalla is the place of residence of Kalev, the mythological ancestor of the heroes Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen, Lemminkäinen, sometimes called his sons. In Kalevala there is no main plot that would connect all the songs.

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It opens with a legend about the creation of the earth, sky, stars and the birth of the Finnish protagonist, Väinämöinen, by the daughter of air, who arranges the earth and sows barley. The following tells about the various adventures of the hero, who meets, among other things, the beautiful maiden of the North: she agrees to become his bride if he miraculously creates a boat from the fragments of her spindle. Having started work, the hero wounds himself with an ax, cannot stop the bleeding and goes to an old healer, to whom he tells a legend about the origin of iron. Returning home, Väinämöinen raises the wind with spells and transports the blacksmith Ilmarinen to the country of the North, Pohjola, where he, according to the promise made by Väinämöinen, binds for the mistress of the North a mysterious object that gives wealth and happiness - the Sampo mill (runes I-XI). The following runes (XI-XV) contain an episode about the adventures of the hero Lemminkäinen, a warlike sorcerer and seducer of women. The story then returns to Väinämöinen; his descent into the underworld is described, his stay in the womb of the giant Viipunen, his acquisition from the latter of the three words necessary to create a wonderful boat, the hero’s sailing to Pohjola in order to receive the hand of the northern maiden; however, the latter preferred the blacksmith Ilmarinen to him, whom she marries, and the wedding is described in detail and wedding songs are given, outlining the duties of the wife and husband (XVI-XXV).

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Further runes (XXVI-XXXI) are again occupied by the adventures of Lemminkäinen in Pohjola. The episode about the sad fate of the hero Kullervo, who out of ignorance seduced his own sister, as a result of which both brother and sister commit suicide (runes XXXI-XXXVI), belongs in the depth of feeling, sometimes reaching true pathos, to the best parts of the entire poem. Further runes contain a lengthy story about the common enterprise of the three Finnish heroes - obtaining the Sampo treasure from Pohjola, about Väinämöinen's making of the kantele, by playing which he enchants all of nature and lulls the population of Pohjola to sleep, about the taking away of the Sampo by the heroes, about their persecution by the sorceress-mistress of the North, about the fall Sampo at sea, about the good deeds rendered by Väinämöinen to his native country through the fragments of Sampo, about his struggle with various disasters and monsters sent by the mistress of Pohjola to Kalevala, about the hero’s marvelous playing on a new kantela, created by him when the first one fell into the sea, and about his return to them the sun and moon, hidden by the mistress of Pohjola (XXXVI-XLIX). The last rune contains a folk apocryphal legend about the birth of a miraculous child by the virgin Maryatta (the birth of the Savior). Väinämöinen gives advice to kill him, since he is destined to surpass the Finnish hero in power, but the two-week-old baby showers Väinämöinen with reproaches of injustice, and the ashamed hero, having sung a wondrous song for the last time, leaves forever in a shuttle from Finland, giving way to the baby of Maryatta, the recognized ruler of Karelia .

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Other peoples of the world have developed their own heroic epics: in England - “Beowulf”, in Spain - “The Song of My Sid”, in Iceland - “The Elder Edda”, in France - “The Song of Roland”, in Yakutia - “Olonkho”, in the Caucasus - the “Nart epic”, in Kyrgyzstan - “Manas”, in Russia - the “epic epic”, etc. Despite the fact that the heroic epic of the peoples was composed in different historical situations, it has many common features and similar features. First of all, this concerns the repetition of themes and plots, as well as the common characteristics of the main characters. For example: 1. The epic often includes the plot of the creation of the world, how the gods create the harmony of the world from the initial chaos. 2. The plot of the miraculous birth of the hero and his first youthful exploits. 3. The plot of the hero’s matchmaking and his trials before the wedding. 4. Description of the battle, in which the hero shows miracles of courage, resourcefulness and courage. 5. Glorification of loyalty in friendship, generosity and honor. 6. Heroes not only defend their homeland, but also highly value their own freedom and independence.