Testing as a method of psychological research. Diagnostic research methods in social work

Theoretical and practical psychology is a science of incredible depth, allowing us to understand the secrets of human consciousness. This science never stops and improves every day, delving deeper and deeper into the study of the human personality and its behavior.

Tests in psychology are one of the methods for studying the human mind. To date, the types of testing are difficult to accurately calculate. A wide variety of questionnaires allows anyone to understand themselves and learn many secrets of their personality without directly contacting a specialist.

It is important to note that there are psychological tests for women and men separately, but we will consider the general method of tests in psychology, which is not divided by gender. Let's figure out the secrets of our consciousness together.

Where is psychological testing used?

Psychological tests with answers are used in the following cases:

To establish the characteristics of human personality.
Psychology tests for students help determine the future specialization of the younger generation.
As a method to help determine the specifics of a child’s development.
If necessary, confirm the professional suitability of the subject.
To confirm mental health.

In fact, testing in psychology is a huge area, and they are used in different areas. But we will focus on the first task - personality traits - and will try to study the personal characteristics of each person as accurately as possible.

Eysenck test

Personality psychology tests occupy a large area in this science. The first questionnaire that you should take in order to better understand yourself is the Eysenck test, or, in other words, a study of human temperament. There are 4 main types of temperament: phlegmatic and melancholic. How to pass psychological tests? To determine which type you belong to, you should answer the following 57 questions. You only need to answer “yes” or “no”.

Do you like to be in the epicenter of activity and bustle?
Do you tend to feel anxious because you don't know what you want?
Are you one of the people who won't go out of their way to say anything?
Are you prone to unreasonable mood swings?
Do you try to avoid noisy parties and holidays, and if you attend them, do you try to be as far away from the center of attention as possible?
Do you always do what is asked of you?
Do you often find yourself in a bad mood?
In quarrels, is your main principle silence?
Does your mood change easily?
Do you like to be around people?
Does it ever happen that you can't sleep because of anxious thoughts?
Can you be considered stubborn?
Are you considered dishonest?
Do they say about you that you are a slow-witted person?
Is the best job done alone?
Is a bad mood a frequent and unreasonable guest?
Do you consider yourself an active person in the very epicenter of life?
Can they make you laugh?
Do you ever experience a situation where you are completely fed up with something?
Do you feel confident only in familiar and comfortable clothes?
Do you find it difficult to concentrate?
Do you have problems expressing your thoughts in words?
Do you often get lost in personal thoughts?
Are you a person who rejects prejudice?
Do you consider yourself a fan of practical jokes?
Are your thoughts mostly about work?
Is it important for you to eat tasty food?
When you want to talk, is it important that your interlocutor is in a good mood?
Don't like to borrow?
Do you tend to brag?
Do you consider yourself sensitive to anything?
Do you prefer a home gathering alone than a noisy holiday?
Do you have severe anxiety?
Are you making plans much earlier than necessary?
Do you experience dizziness?
Do you respond to messages immediately?
Do things work better when you do them on your own than with a group?
Do you experience shortness of breath even without exercise?
Do you consider yourself a person who can calmly deviate from generally accepted rules (within the norm)?
Worried about the state of your nervous system?
Do you like to make plans?
Is it better to put off until tomorrow what can be done today?
Are you afraid of confined spaces?
Are you proactive when you first meet a person?
Do you get severe headaches?
Are you a believer that many problems can be solved on their own?
Do you suffer from insomnia?
Tendencies to lie?
Does it ever happen that you say the first thing that comes to mind?
When you find yourself in a stupid situation, do you often remember it and worry about it?
Are you closed?
Do you often find yourself in unpleasant situations?
Are you an avid storyteller?
The main thing is not victory, but participation - isn't that about you?
Are you uncomfortable in a society where people are higher than you in social status?
When everything goes against you, do you continue to act?
Are you very nervous before an important task?

Now let's check the key.

Key to the test

We will determine it based on several factors: extraversion - introversion, the level of neuroticism and the lie scale. For each match with the answer, 1 point is awarded.

Extraversion - introversion

Answers "yes": 1, 3, 8, 10, 13, 17, 22, 25, 27, 39, 44, 46, 49, 53, 56.

Answers “no”: 5, 15, 20, 29, 32, 34, 37, 41, 51.

As you noticed, some question numbers are missing. This is not a mistake, this is how it should be. Let's check the key to this point. Take a look at the circle (see picture below) - the horizontal line indicates the extraversion - introversion scale. The higher the score on this trait, the more prone you are to extraversion and vice versa. The number 12 is the average.

Neuroticism scale

The neuroticism scale on the same circle has the designation stability-instability. Only “yes” answers need to be verified here.

Yes answers: 2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 14, 16, 19, 21, 23, 26, 28, 31, 33, 35, 38, 40, 43, 45, 47, 50, 52, 55 , 57.

The Neuroticism Scale helps determine the resilience of your nervous system. It is located vertically and must be worked with in the same way as in the previous paragraph.

Lie

The lie scale is not displayed on the circle, but several questions are specifically highlighted to determine it.

Answers “yes”: 6, 24, 36.

Answers “no”: 12, 18, 30, 42, 48.

It is worth noting that when answering such psychological tests with answers, you must first of all be extremely honest with yourself. The key to this scale is as simple as possible: if you score more than 4 on this item, it means that you have been insincere in some areas. A mark of 4 and below indicates the norm in the answers.

In some interpretations, there is a division between psychological tests for women and men, since the fair half of humanity is more prone to emotionality, which may have a minor impact on the test results.

Explanations for the Eysenck circle

The tests end with determining our temperament type. Look at the circle again and find the intersection point of your two previous marks. The new (third) point will be located in the quarter, symbolizing the type of your temperament.

Sanguinistic

People of this temperament are considered cheerful. They are often the leaders of the group and lead people with them, exuding activity and movement. The mood of these people is always positive, it is easy for them to make new acquaintances, they feel comfortable among a new circle of people.

Sanguine people need constant change and novelty. This is a real need, because if you force a sanguine person to do a tedious task for a long time, his cheerfulness will fade, the person will become lethargic and inactive. That’s why such people easily move from place to place and make new acquaintances.

Phlegmatic

Phlegmatic people are calm people. It is difficult to piss them off and force them to show their emotions. Phlegmatic people control all their actions, they rarely lose sight of something and think about their every step.

It is not so easy to influence the change of mood of a phlegmatic person due to their composure. But people of this temperament need to try to be more active and avoid being overly immersed in their thoughts, which can lead to a bad mood.

Choleric

Cholerics live in bursts. Their emotions can change at the drop of a hat, as can ups and downs in activity. Such people take on any task, but sometimes cannot complete it due to lack of energy.

Cholerics are emotional and hot-tempered, so they can easily quarrel with anyone. Such individuals need more control over themselves.

Melancholic

The mental processes of melancholic people proceed extremely slowly. It is almost impossible to bring these people out of their state of mental balance. Such a person feels uncomfortable in a large company; in a group their performance decreases. A melancholic person is more comfortable working alone.

Such a person is frightened by something new. Melancholic people rarely share their experiences and keep everything to themselves.

This type of temperament can end there. Your first step into self-knowledge has been completed. Let's look at interesting psychology tests further.

Luscher test

Psychological tests based on colors are widely used by specialists not only with children. They are no less informative for assessing adult personalities. This test in psychology is a way to understand your current state of mind. The Luscher questionnaire is based on 8 colors. There are many interpretations of this study, as well as variations of the most interesting test in psychology. But we will focus on a short, but no less accurate version:

Prepare a sheet of paper and a pen.
Take a look at the picture (above). Before you are 8 colors. You need to choose the most preferred and pleasant color for you at the moment. Please note that you do not need to correlate the color you choose with your favorite color in clothing, surroundings, fashion trends, etc. Your choice should be as impartial as possible and independent of your personal preferences. You make a choice only based on your current desires.
Next, you need to continue your choice according to the same principle: you choose the most pleasant color from the remaining ones. Write down the order of choosing colors on paper.

This completes the first stage. But we don’t stop there and move on to the second stage:

Let's use a new piece of paper and pen again.
It may surprise you, but we are repeating the same procedure again. There are again 8 colors in front of you, and you begin to choose the most pleasant color one by one. You should not try to correlate your previous and current choices - mark the pictures as if you were seeing them for the first time.

We have now completed the psychological testing. Why was it necessary to carry out the same procedure twice? The answer is simple: your first choice (quite often this test is used to assess personality in psychology) is what you want. The second stage reflects reality, which may differ from your desires. Let's move on to interpretation.

Let's define what each position means:

The first value you choose determines the means by which you achieve your goal. It doesn’t matter whether you have any specific intentions at the moment, because we are studying what is embedded in your subconscious right now.
The second position characterizes the very goal that we are achieving.
Next we consider pairs of positions. Numbers 3 and 4 characterize your feeling about the current situation.
The 5th and 6th positions are a reflection of your neutral attitude towards these colors. In certain situations, these positions can carry considerable significance, since they reflect an action or need that you deliberately put on the back burner until better times;
Numbers 7 and 8 are what you have a strong antipathy towards.

Once you understand what each number means, you can move on to specific definitions.

Meaning of colors

First of all, we can divide all the colors used into two groups - main and additional. The main group includes blue, blue-green, orange-red and light yellow. In a normal state of consciousness of a person and his peace of mind, the absence of internal conflicts, these colors occupy the first 5 positions.

Additional shades - purple, black, brown, gray. These colors belong to the negative group, which reflects hidden or obvious fears, anxiety, and dissatisfaction with the situation.

Blue is a symbol of calm and contentment. Finding it in first place at the initial stage of our test indicates a person’s need for a state of peace and absence of tension. In the second option, symbolizing reality, choosing blue is the most favorable outcome. It reflects that at the moment you are mentally peaceful.

Blue-green. The color represents confidence and stubbornness. The position of this color indicates that you, to one degree or another, need confidence in yourself and in your environment. If this color is located in the last positions in the second test, this indicates a weak personality and the need for human support.

Orange-red is the color of action, excitement and sometimes aggression. Depending on the location, it speaks of a state of readiness for active action and combating problems.

Light yellow is the color of fun and sociability. In a duet with blue it gives the most successful combination.

Psychological color tests will help you create an accurate picture of your current state of mind.

Optimist, pessimist, realist

Let's consider the last, but no less interesting test in general psychology. It will finally allow you to determine who you are - a cheerful optimist, a saddened pessimist or a wise realist. You must answer only “yes” or “no” questions:

Are you interested in the opportunity to travel?
Do you love learning something new?
Do you have problems sleeping?
Are you a hospitable person?
Do you tend to predict problems in the future?
Have your friends achieved more in life than you?
Do you like to play sports?
Does fate often give you surprises?
Are you worried about the current state of the environment?
Has scientific progress caused too many problems for the planet?
Is your profession chosen well?
How often do you use insurance?
Are you a mobile person? Is it easy for you to move to another place if you are offered a job you like?
Do you think you're cute?
Are you worried about the condition of your body?
Doesn't it bother you to be in an unfamiliar group?
Do you like to be in the center of events?
Is there friendship without mutual benefit?
Do you have your own personal signs?
Does everyone build their own destiny?

Having answered 20 fairly simple questions, let's move on to the key.

For each match to the key we give ourselves 1 point.

Answers “yes”: 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 13-20.

Answers “no”: 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12.

0-5 points. You are definitely a pessimist. Moreover, you are clearly exaggerating your hardships and problems, because life is full of black stripes, but not without white ones, but you see everything in black. Look at life differently - the world is not as gloomy as you think.

6-10 points. You are upset about what is happening. Everything around you is going wrong, although you continue to struggle. Life keeps bringing new surprises, and your friends cope with them better than you. Yes, you are pessimistic about life, but you have reasons for this. However, you shouldn’t be so upset about minor losses and life’s troubles - you are coping well and going in the right direction.

11-15 points. Your outlook on life is obvious and real. You do not exaggerate your sorrows, but you also do not get drunk with the joy of victories. Your attitude in life can be envied, because you are a realist and look at life with confidence. Keep up the good work and don't give up!

16-18 points. You are an optimist, you see your advantages in any problem and try to turn any situation to your advantage. Adversity does not pass you by, but you know how to treat it correctly, your life shines with colors.

19-20. We need to look for an optimist like you. You don’t see any problems, the whole world is a complete rainbow for you. But maybe it’s worth looking at life without rose-colored glasses? After all, sometimes frivolity leads to sad consequences.

Thus, we have completed tests on personality psychology. Of course, three questionnaires are not enough to understand the deep world of a person, but you have already embarked on the path of self-knowledge and have learned a lot about your character traits and state of mind.

But do not forget that a test in psychology is not a simple magic wand that everyone can use. Only a psychologist can provide accurate information. Interesting psychology tests are just an additional method of personality research. They provide only a current snapshot of the quality being studied. And many psychological tests and questionnaires stored on the Internet do not reflect reality at all.

1. The concept of social diagnostics. General requirements for diagnostics.

2. Stages and principles of diagnosis.

3. The concept of social, individual and subject norm.

4. Testing as a research method in social work.

Basic concepts: diagnostics, social diagnostics, test, testing, model, standardization, reliability, validity, reliability of the test, intellectual tests, projective tests, drawing tests.

There are many definitions of diagnostics in science and technology:

Medical diagnostics - study and determination of signs of diseases;

Technical diagnostics - establishment and study of signs characterizing the state of technical systems;

Physical diagnostics is a set of methods for studying physical processes and measuring their characteristics, etc.

What is common to all types of diagnostics is that during them a search is made for specific faults, deviations from the norm in the system under consideration and methods for their correction.

Currently, social work also uses normative diagnostics. This means that the diagnosis and assessment of the client’s behavior is made by comparing his data with some established norms. Thus, officially approved standards (criteria) for assessments are used to diagnose and assess students’ knowledge and skills in various subjects. There are also certain normative guidelines for the diagnosis and assessment of behavior. The normative principle also underlies psychodiagnostics using various tests of mental (intellectual) development.

The modern social situation has posed the task of finding out not whether data about an individual/person corresponds to norms or some average level, but to identify the course and reasons for the personal development of each person. An assessment of a personality (its development and activity) should be carried out (carried out) in relation not to any norm, but to the previous level, i.e. indicate whether there is progress in personal development, how great it is and what its direction is.

The assessment of this advancement should be given from the point of view of the capabilities of this particular individual/person, and not some abstract average person.

This will reveal not only the current level of mental development and the development of other areas of the personality in comparison with the previously achieved level, but also the reasons for this development, as well as the potential capabilities of the individual.

Diagnostic research methods can be divided into two main groups:

Methods of conducting diagnostic research - allow you to obtain the most reliable information about the phenomenon (object) of the study. These include: collection of primary information, familiarization with documentary and statistical materials, diagnostic conversation, observation, interviews, questionnaires, testing, etc.;

Methods for analyzing diagnostic information and determining the priority of problems. These include: classification method, correlation method, comparative problem analysis method, content analysis method, expert methods of paired and multiple comparisons, ranking of alternatives, differentiation method, etc.

It is clear that the use of diagnostic methods in social work should not be the main goal. It should be only a means of solving assigned tasks, subordinate to the functions that are solved by a social work specialist.

The essence of diagnostics is the study of the effectiveness of the activities of a social work specialist based on changes in the personal development of clients (mentees).

Diagnostic activities- a process during which (with or without the use of diagnostic tools), observing the necessary scientific quality criteria, the researcher observes subjects (respondents, wards) and conducts questionnaires, processes observation and survey data and reports the results obtained in order to describe behavior, explain his motives or predict future behavior.

General requirements for diagnostics (A.I. Kochetov):

1. Focus - a clear identification of objects that need to be studied.

2. The unity of studying personality/person and interaction with it; the interaction itself is organized as a study of personality.

3. Study of the group surrounding the person/person and the person/person itself in their unity.

4. Continuity of diagnosis, study of individuals and groups is a constant process.

5. Compliance of diagnostics with the level of development of science.

6. Complex nature of diagnostics.

Diagnostics is carried out in several stages: comparison, analysis, forecasting, interpretation, bringing to the attention of clients the results of diagnostic activities, monitoring the impact of various diagnostic methods on those diagnosed.

Comparison is the starting point of the diagnostic process. In life, we constantly compare something with something, someone with someone else. When observing a person's behavior, we compare his behavior with his own previous behavior, or with the behavior of other individuals now or in the past, or with a description of the behavior of some person unknown to us. In essence, these are those aspects of comparison that are called in diagnostics an individual, social or objective correlative norm. If we select incomparable objects for comparison, this leads to errors.

Analysis. Here we establish why the behavior of a particular individual differs from his previous behavior, from the behavior of other individuals, or deviates from the norm. We want to analyze the reasons, identify strengths and weaknesses and address them. And we draw the appropriate conclusions.

Forecasting. Today this is the responsibility of every teacher, psychologist, and social work specialist. The social work specialist is constantly forced to extrapolate data obtained as a result of comparisons and analysis to behavior in other situations or in the future. Forecasting is the most important activity of a modern social work specialist.

Interpretation is a process during which all received information, depending on its importance, is combined into a single whole. The social work specialist is obliged to constantly make an assessment, which, along with his own point of view and expectations, also includes information accumulated over a period of time. This information must be systematized, critically evaluated, subjected to an indexing process, and summarized in the form of a concept containing an assessment. This information can come from a variety of sources.

The process of interpretation reveals significant differences depending on whether only the researcher's personal observations are interpreted or whether the observations of others and data obtained through objective methods are added to them.

Bringing the results of diagnostic activities to the attention of those diagnosed (clients) and monitoring the impact of information on them is necessary in order to achieve interaction.

In order to better compare the actions of a person/groups of people and thereby interpret them more objectively, methods for measuring action are provided with a certain scale or rating.

A norm is a prescription in accordance with which certain actions must be performed to achieve a particular goal.

Testing is a research method, the creation and use of which is based on certain rules.

The test, to a greater extent than other diagnostic methods, meets the quality criteria for sociological measurements.

Testing is a diagnostic method with the help of which a sample of behavior representing the prerequisites or results of the client’s actions must maximally comply with the principles of comparability, objectivity, reliability and validity of measurements, must be processed and interpreted and be ready for use in teaching practice (K. Ingekamp).

Testing- a diagnostic method that uses standardized questions and tasks (tests) with a certain scale of values.

Used for standardized measurement of individual differences.

There are 3 main testing areas:

1) education - due to the increase in the duration of education and the complication of educational programs;

2) professional training and selection - in connection with the increase in the pace, growth and complexity of production;

3) psychological counseling - in connection with the acceleration of sociodynamic processes.

Testing allows, with a known probability, to determine the individual’s current level of development of the necessary skills, knowledge, personal characteristics, etc.

The testing process can be divided into 3 stages:

Stage 1 - test selection - is determined by the purpose of testing and the degree of validity and reliability of the test;

Stage 2 - its implementation - is determined by the instructions for the test;

Stage 3 - interpretation of results - is determined by a system of theoretical assumptions regarding the subject of testing.

Test competence is a set of requirements for a specialist performing a diagnostic examination using tests.

These are the requirements:

1. Comprehensiveness of the assessment. Following the testing and related to its results, the collection of information about the life path of the subject and the integration of the information obtained with the test indicators. This ensures the accuracy of the interpretation of the latter.

2. Correct use of the test. Recognizing responsibility for the competent use of the test, regularly applying appropriate quality control procedures for all aspects of test use.

3. Psychometric knowledge. Knowledge and correct use of basic statistical principles (e.g. measurement error, reliability, validity, etc.)

4. Maintaining the principle of integrity of test results. Correct application of psychometric principles to adequately evaluate test results, understanding the limitations of test indicators.

5. Estimation accuracy. Ensuring the correct implementation of all procedures for assessing test results (accurate recording, working with “keys”, correct reading of tables, etc.).

6. Appropriate use of standards. Understanding and correct use of different types of norms, especially when solving problems of career guidance and personnel selection.

7. Feedback from respondents at the stage of data interpretation. Providing them with the correct interpretation of test indicators.

The test is intended to establish certain, including psychological and pedagogical, characteristics of a person. The test is characterized by short duration, relative simplicity of the procedure and availability of equipment, direct recording of results. The tests are standard and strictly formulated, so that the correct answers to questions and tasks do not allow for variability.

They can be used as a research tool for both individuals and entire groups at the same time. The results obtained are amenable to statistical processing.

Depending on the purpose (area of study), the following types of tests are distinguished:

1. Achievement Tests:

Development tests.

Intelligence tests.

General performance tests.

School achievement tests.

Special tests that determine professional suitability and functionality.

2. Psychometric personality tests:

Personality structural tests.

Tests for interests and attitudes.

Clinical tests.

3. By type of personality traits (Sociological Dictionary):

Achievement tests: intelligence tests, school performance tests, creativity tests, knowledge tests, aptitude tests, sensory tests, motor tests;

Personality tests: attitude tests, interest tests, temperament tests, characterological tests, motivational tests.

But not all tests can be sorted according to this criterion:

By type of instructions and method of application: individual, group;

Level tests (no time limits), speed tests;

The emergence of researcher subjectivity: objective: (most achievement tests, psychophysiological tests) and subjective (projective tests);

Whether the subjects know or do not know the meaning and purpose of testing: direct, indirect, projective tests (the subject does not know about the actual purpose of the study);

Depending on the presentation of the speech component in the test: verbal (for example, a vocabulary test), non-verbal (requires certain actions as a response);

According to the formal structure: tests are simple (i.e., elementary, the result of which can be one answer), tests are complex (consist of separate subtests, for each of which a score must be given).

Questions for self-control:

1. What methods are classified as diagnostic research methods?

2. What is social diagnostics? What are the requirements for it?

3. What are the features of using diagnostics within social work research?

4. What are the stages and principles of diagnosis?

5. What is a social, individual and subject norm?

6. What is the role of testing as a research method in social work? What should be understood by test reliability and validity?

7. What are the requirements for the testing procedure?

8. In what situations can the testing method be used effectively?

Testing is increasingly used in psychological and educational research. Researchers are increasingly paying attention to the objectivity of the results obtained, and tests are an objective research method. Currently, tests for assessing educational achievements are being created especially actively. However, they do not always meet the necessary requirements. This paragraph details the stages of developing an academic achievement test.

There are different points of view on the definition of a test.

Test is a tool consisting of a qualimetrically verified system of test tasks, a standardized procedure for conducting and a pre-designed technology for analyzing the results for measuring the qualities and properties of a person, educational achievements, the change of which is possible in the process of systematic training.

A- knowledge of concepts, definitions, terms;

IN- knowledge of laws and formulas;

C - ability to apply laws and formulas to solve problems;

D- ability to interpret results on graphs and diagrams;

E- ability to make value judgments.

Each test must be accompanied by a specification, i.e. its description, which indicates the purposes of testing, for whom this test is intended, the content of the test, the percentage of tasks in various sections and types of activities, the forms of tasks used, the recommended completion time. The test specification is developed taking into account regulatory documents and educational standards that are used when planning the content of the test.

	Knowledge and skills planned for testing					Total number for each point
	Knowledge and skills planned for testing					Total number for each point

	IN (20%)


	E (10%)

At the same stage, the length of the test is planned, which is set depending on the purposes of testing, the volume of content being tested and the age of the test takers. The initial length of the final test is 60-80 tasks based on the following calculation: the total testing time is 1.5-2 hours with an average of 2 minutes per task.

In order to avoid re-development of test items and mathematical-statistical testing of the test, in the initial version it is advisable to develop 20-25% more items than the final form of the test assumes. During statistical processing, jobs that do not meet the required criteria will be deleted.

Preparation of test tasks. Writing test items is one of the most important stages in the test creation process. One of the leading principles of writing assignments is the principle of congruence, i.e. compliance of the content of tasks with the content area being tested. Developers must be clear about what specific content element or skill each assignment is testing. The task tests one thing. It is wrong to think that it is better to create tasks to test several knowledge. Uncertainty about what is being measured can lead to ambiguity in the wording, which degrades the quality of the test itself and affects the results of the measurement.

Test tasks are divided into types, forms and types, among which the following types can be distinguished:

- closed (forms: alternative answers, multiple choice, restoration of correspondence, restoration of sequence);
- open (with forms: additions and free presentation).

The features of each type of task were discussed in paragraph 3.2 of this textbook. You can also read a detailed description of the types and forms of assignments in the study guide.

When composing test tasks, it is recommended to start with the formulation of the correct answer; this helps to avoid the occurrence of several correct answers to the task. When selecting distractors, one must remember that all distractors must be equally attractive. Selecting distractors is a rather difficult task. Sometimes incorrect answers from the students themselves can be used to create them. To do this, during preliminary testing, subjects are given tasks in an open form for addition. Typical mistakes students make when completing a task will be plausible distractors.

The type and form of test tasks are selected in accordance with the content of the test. However, it is not recommended to include more than three forms of test items in one test (for example, alternative answer, multiple choice, and addition items). It is recommended to group tasks of the same form. This requirement is due to the fact that when switching from tasks of one form to another, subjects spend time getting used to another system of answers and the test completion time increases.

Expert analysis of the content and form of test tasks. Reworking the content and form of assignments based on the results of the examination. Once the initial test form has been developed, it needs to be validated. Most often, such verification is carried out by experts. Teachers, teachers, and other specialists who are well acquainted with the content being tested and the basics of test development can act as experts. For verification it is necessary to involve at least 2-4 experts. Experts should not be involved in the creation of the test. Sometimes the students themselves can act as additional experts, checking the clarity of the wording of the questions and the quality of the distractors.

The experts’ task is to check and evaluate:

- instructions for the test;
- test specifications, in particular, whether the percentage of questions for testing each section corresponds to the volume and level of difficulty of the section;
- test tasks for compliance with the declared level of complexity;
- wording of test items for compliance with the requirements for the preparation of test items;
- answer options for compliance with the requirements for answer options and requirements for distractors.

Experts carefully read the instructions and complete each test task. All their recommendations are recorded in special protocols. Based on the recommendations received, the developer refines the test. When finalizing, it is necessary to take into account that the individual expert’s opinion may be erroneous and not every assessment should be taken into account. But if all the experts expressed the same opinion, then it must be taken into account.

Chelyshkova M. B. Theory and practice of constructing pedagogical tests. M., 2002.

Voronin Yu. A., Trubina L. A., Vasilyeva E. V., Kozlova O. V. Course of lectures “Modern means of assessing learning outcomes”: textbook, manual. Voronezh: Publishing House of Voronezh State Pedagogical University, 2004. 115 p.

Voronin Yu.A., Trubina L.A., Vasilyeva E.V., Kozlova O.V. Course of lectures “Modern means of assessing learning outcomes”: textbook, manual.

Bayborodova L.V., Chernyavskaya A.P., Ansimova N.P. Organization of scientific research. Yaroslavl: YGGTU Publishing House, 2014. 232 p.

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Introduction

knowledge test task

One way to quickly test knowledge is testing. However, at present, in connection with the development of information technology, distance learning and, in particular, adaptive learning systems, testing can be used as a means of identifying the student’s personality to build an individual training sequence, when each student takes training courses in the order and to the extent that most consistent with his level of preparedness. In distance learning technology, in the absence of direct contact between the student and the teacher, testing becomes one of the main means of monitoring knowledge, so the problem of creating high-quality tests that could quickly, objectively and adequately measure the level of knowledge of students is especially acute.

Three types of testing can be distinguished:

· preliminary;

· current;

· final.

Preliminary testing is used before the start of training and is aimed at identifying the student’s preliminary knowledge in a number of disciplines that he will study. This may also include psychological tests to determine the individual characteristics of the student’s personality, which are taken into account during training to tune in to work with a specific student. Based on the results of preliminary testing, a preliminary sequence of study courses is built.

Current testing is control or self-control of knowledge on a separate element of the training course, for example, a section or topic. Based on its results, the sequence of studying topics and sections within the course is built, and a return can be made to topics that have not been studied well enough.

Final testing is a control of knowledge for the course as a whole or for a set of courses. Based on its results, the sequence of study courses is adjusted.

When working with tests, you should always consider the reliability of test results. The reliability of test results is understood as a characteristic showing the accuracy of knowledge measurement by test items. It should be noted that we are not talking about the reliability of the test, but about the reliability of the test results, because it is strongly influenced by the degree of homogeneity of different groups of students, their level of preparedness and a number of other factors related not to the test itself, but to the conditions of the testing process.

1. Classification of tests, testing methods, advantages and disadvantages of testing student knowledge

1.1 Testing as a research method

Testing(English test - test, check) - an experimental method of psychodiagnostics used in empirical sociological research, as well as a method for measuring and assessing various psychological qualities and states of an individual.

The emergence of testological procedures was due to the need for comparison (comparison, differentiation and ranking) of individuals according to the level of development or degree of expression of various psychological qualities.

The wide dissemination, development and improvement of tests has been facilitated by a number of advantages that this method provides. Tests allow you to evaluate an individual in accordance with the stated purpose of the study; provide the possibility of obtaining a quantitative assessment based on the quantification of qualitative personality parameters and the convenience of mathematical processing; are a relatively quick way to assess a large number of unknown persons; contribute to the objectivity of assessments that do not depend on the subjective attitudes of the person conducting the research; ensure comparability of information obtained by different researchers on different subjects.

The following requirements apply to the tests:

Strict formalization of all stages of testing;

Standardization of tasks and conditions for their implementation;

Quantification of the results obtained and their structuring according to a given program;

Interpretation of results based on a previously obtained distribution for the characteristic being studied.

Each test that meets the reliability criteria, in addition to a set of tasks, includes the following components:

1) standard instructions for the subject about the purpose and rules for completing tasks;

2) scaling key - correlation of task items with scales of measured qualities, indicating which task item belongs to which scale;

4) the key for interpreting the resulting index, which represents the norm data with which the obtained result is correlated.

Traditionally, the norm in testing was the average statistical data obtained as a result of preliminary testing on a certain group of people. Here it is necessary to take into account that the interpretation of the results obtained can only be transferred to such groups of subjects that, in their basic sociocultural and demographic characteristics, are similar to the base one.

To overcome the main drawback of most tests, various techniques are used:

1) increasing the base sample in order to increase its representativeness in a larger number of parameters;

2) introduction of correction factors taking into account the characteristics of the sample;

3) introduction into the practice of testing a non-verbal method of presenting material.

The test consists of two parts:

a) stimulating material (task, instruction or question);

b) instructions regarding recording or integration of responses received.

Tests are classified according to different criteria.

Based on the type of personality traits, they are divided into achievement and personality tests. The first include intelligence tests, school performance tests, creativity tests, aptitude tests, sensory and motor tests. The second includes tests for attitudes, interests, temperament, characterological tests, motivational tests. However, not all tests (for example, development tests, graphics tests) can be sorted according to this criterion. Depending on the type of instructions and method of application, individual and group tests differ. In group testing, a group of subjects is examined simultaneously. While there are no time limits in level tests, they are required in speed tests. Depending on the extent to which the researcher’s subjectivity is manifested as a result of testing, a distinction is made between objective and subjective tests.

Objective tests include most achievement tests and psychophysiological tests. Subjective tests include projective tests. This division to a certain extent coincides with the division into direct and indirect tests, which differ depending on whether the subjects know or do not know the meaning and purpose of the test.

According to their formal structure, tests are differentiated into simple ones, i.e. elementary, the result of which can be a single answer, and complex tests, consisting of separate subtests, for each of which a score must be given. In this case, general scores can also be calculated. A set of several single tests is called a test battery, a graphical representation of the results for each subtest is called a test profile. Tests often include questionnaires that satisfy a number of requirements usually applied to a given method of collecting psychological or sociological information.

Recently, criterion-based tests have become increasingly widespread, allowing the test subject to be assessed not in comparison with the average statistical data of the population, but in relation to a predetermined norm. The evaluation criterion in such tests is the degree to which an individual’s test result approaches the so-called “ideal norm”.

Test development consists of four stages.

1) at the first stage, the initial concept is developed with the formulation of the main test points or main questions of a preliminary nature;

2) at the second stage, preliminary test items are selected, followed by selection and reduction to the final form, and at the same time assessment is carried out according to qualitative criteria of reliability and validity;

3) at the third stage, the test is retested on the same population;

4) on the fourth, it is calibrated in relation to age, level of education and other characteristics of the population.

At all stages of test development, it is necessary to consider:

a) a diagnosed personality property (size, position, indicator) or only its observable manifestations (abilities, level of knowledge, temperament, interests, attitudes);

b) associated method validation, i.e. determining how well it measures the required property;

c) the size of the sample from the population on which the method should be evaluated;

d) stimulating material (placards, images, toys, films);

e) the influence of the researcher in the process of instructing, setting tasks, explaining, answering questions;

f) conditions of the situation;

g) such forms of behavior of the subject that indicate the property being measured;

h) scaling relevant forms of behavior;

i) summing up the results for individual measured items into general values (summing up answers like “Yes”);

j) formulation of results in a standardized rating scale.

One of the test options may be a questionnaire, but provided that it meets the requirements for tests.

A questionnaire is a collection of questions that are selected and arranged in relation to each other in accordance with the required content. Questionnaires are used, for example, for psychodiagnostic purposes, when the subject is required to self-assess his behavior, habits, opinions, etc. In this case, the subject, answering questions, expresses his positive and negative preferences. With the help of questionnaires, you can measure the subjects’ assessments of other people. The task usually acts as a direct response to questions that need to be answered by regret or refutation. Opportunities for an answer are in most cases given and require only a mark in the form of a cross, circle, etc. The disadvantage of the questionnaire is that the subject can simulate or dissimulate certain personality traits. The researcher can overcome this shortcoming (although not completely) through control questions, control scales, and “lie” scales. Questionnaires are used primarily for diagnosing character, diagnosing personality (extraversion - introversion, interests, attitudes, motives).

Personality diagnostics is a set of methods that make it possible to recognize its non-intellectual properties, which are of the nature of relatively stable dispositions.

At the present stage, applied sociology most often uses test methods borrowed from social psychology related to the study of personality traits. Tests specially developed by sociologists appear. These tests are often used in sociological questionnaires.

1.2 Advantages and disadvantagestestechnical testing of students' knowledge

In the higher education system, the use of testing students' knowledge has its own prerequisites. Therefore, testing has both advantages and disadvantages, which will be discussed below.

The following can be noted as advantages:

1. Testing is a better and more objective way of assessment. For distance learning under conditions of a maximum limit on the number of classroom hours, testing is often the only way to form a fairly objective assessment of students’ knowledge.

2. Testing is a fairer method; it puts all students on equal terms, both in the control process and in the assessment process, excluding the subjectivity of the teacher.

3. Tests are a more comprehensive tool, since they allow you to establish the student’s level of knowledge on the subject as a whole than when performing a test.

4. Testing significantly saves the teacher’s time allocated to monitoring students’ knowledge, compared to checking and defending test papers by correspondence students. This is due to the fact that a group of students is tested simultaneously.

However, testing also has some disadvantages:

1. Strict time restrictions applied when performing test tasks exclude the possibility of determining the structure and level of preparedness of those test takers who, due to their psychophysiological characteristics, think and do everything slowly, but at the same time efficiently.

2. The data obtained by the teacher as a result of testing, although it includes information about knowledge gaps in specific sections, does not allow us to judge the reasons for these gaps.

3. Ensuring the objectivity and fairness of the test requires taking special measures to ensure the confidentiality of test tasks. When reusing the test, it is advisable to make changes to the tasks.

4. There is an element of chance and intuition in testing. The reason for this may be that the student is guessing the answer, so when developing the test it is necessary to anticipate this situation.

2 . Test Models

Let's look at the main testing models.

Classic model. This model is the very first and simplest. There are n tasks for a specific area of knowledge, for several areas of knowledge or part of a knowledge area (section, topic, etc.). From this set of tasks, k tasks are randomly selected (k

Dignity:

Ease of implementation.

Flaws:

Due to the randomness of the sample, it is impossible to determine in advance which tasks in terms of complexity will be assigned to the student. As a result, one student may get k easy tasks, and the other - k difficult ones;

The score depends only on the number of correct answers and does not take into account the complexity of the tasks.

The classic model, due to its shortcomings, has the lowest reliability, because Lack of consideration of task parameters often does not allow an objective assessment of the student’s knowledge.

Currently, there is a shift away from the use of this model towards more advanced and effective models, for example, adaptive testing.

Classic model taking into account the complexity of tasks. This testing is carried out similarly to the previous one, however, each task has a certain level of complexity Ti, i= and when calculating the test result, the complexity of the questions to which the student gave the correct answer is taken into account. The higher the complexity of the question, the higher the test result will be. For questions answered incorrectly, the difficulty is not taken into account.

Disadvantage: due to the randomness of the sample, it is impossible to determine in advance which tasks in terms of complexity will be assigned to the student. As a result, one student may be given k easy tasks, and another – k difficult ones.

Models that take into account the complexity of tasks allow a more adequate approach to assessing knowledge. But the randomness of the choice of tasks does not allow us to achieve parallel tests in terms of complexity, i.e. the sameness of the total characteristics of the complexity of tasks, which reduces the reliability of testing.

Model with increasing complexity. There are m difficulty levels. The test must contain tasks of all difficulty levels. From this set of tasks, k tasks are randomly selected (k

The test result is determined similarly to the model taking into account complexity.

This model ensures parallelism of tests in terms of complexity, i.e. The reliability of test results is even higher than in previous models.

Model with division of tasks according to levels of mastery.

There are five levels of mastering educational material.

Zero level (Understanding) is the level at which the learner is able to understand, i.e. meaningfully perceive new information. In fact, we are talking about the previous training of the student.

The first level (Recognition) is the recognition of studied objects upon repeated perception of previously acquired information about them or actions with them, for example, identifying the studied object from a number of presented objects.

The second level (Reproduction) is the reproduction of previously acquired knowledge from a literal copy to application in typical situations. Examples: reproducing information from memory, solving typical problems using a model.

The third level (Application) is a level of information assimilation at which the student is able to independently reproduce and transform the acquired information to discuss known objects and apply it in atypical situations. At the same time, the learner is able to generate new information about the objects being studied. Examples: solving atypical problems, choosing a suitable algorithm from a set of previously studied algorithms to solve a specific problem.

The fourth level (Creative activity) is a level of mastery of the educational material of the topic at which the student is able to create new information previously unknown to anyone. Example: developing a new algorithm for solving a problem.

The presentation level is designated a and can range from 0 to 4.

Tasks are compiled for each of the five levels. First, testing is carried out using tasks at level 0, then at levels 1, 2, etc. Before moving from level to level, the degree of mastery of educational material at a given level is calculated and the possibility of moving to the next level is determined.

To measure the degree of mastery of educational material at each level, the following coefficient is used:

where P 1 is the number of correctly performed significant operations during the testing process;

P 2 - the total number of significant operations in the test.

Essential operations are those operations that are performed at the auditable level a. Operations belonging to lower levels are not included in the number of significant ones.

Based on this: 0 ? K b? 1.

Thus, the level of mastery of educational material can be used to assess the quality of the student’s knowledge and assign a grade. The following scoring criteria are recommended:

K b< 0,7 Неудовлетворительно

0.7? K b<0,8Удовлетворительно

0.8? K b<0,9Хорошо

K b? 0.9 Excellent

At K b< 0,7 следует продолжать процесс обучения на том же уровне.

Model taking into account task response time. In this model, when determining the test result, the response time for each task is taken into account. This is done in order to take into account the possibility of a non-independent answer to tasks: a student can search for an answer for a long time in a textbook or other sources, but in the end his grade will still be low, even if he answered all the questions correctly. On the other hand, if he did not use the hints, but thought about the answers for a long time, this means that he did not study the theory well enough, and as a result, even with correct answers, the grade will be reduced.

Response time can be calculated, for example, using formulas.

The result of the answer to the i-th test task:

knowledge test task

If R i > 1, then R i =1.

If R i< 0, то R i =0.

where: tresponse - task response time,

t max is the time during which the rating does not decrease.

t max is set so that the student has the opportunity to read the question and answer options, comprehend them and choose the correct answer, in his opinion. The t max parameter can be specified as a constant for all test tasks or calculated for each individual task depending on its complexity, i.e. t 2 max =f(T i), because It is logical to assume that it takes more time to answer a complex task than a simple task. Another possible dependence of the t max parameter is on the individual abilities of the student, which must be determined earlier.

Test result:

Models that take into account item response times can also improve the reliability of test results, especially when combined with a model that takes into account item difficulty.

Model with time limit for testing. To evaluate test results, only those tasks that the student managed to answer during a given time are taken.

Currently, this model is used quite widely.

In some works, it is recommended to necessarily sort tasks in increasing complexity and set a testing time such that not a single student, even the strongest student, can answer all the test tasks. This approach is proposed to be used when testing on forms, when students see all the tasks in front of them at once. Its essence is that when the student answers all the tasks, and he still has time left, he can begin to check his answers, doubt, and in the end he can correct the correct answers to the incorrect ones. Therefore, it is recommended to either limit the time for the test or pick up the form immediately after answering all test questions.

Adaptive model. This model is a continuation of the classical model, taking into account the complexity of tasks.

An adaptive test is a test in which the difficulty of the tasks varies depending on the correctness of the test taker’s answers. If the student answers test tasks correctly, the difficulty of subsequent tasks increases; if incorrectly, it decreases. It is also possible to ask additional questions on topics that the student does not know very well in order to more accurately determine the level of knowledge in these areas. Thus, we can say that the adaptive model is reminiscent of a teacher taking an exam - if the student answers the questions asked confidently and correctly, the teacher quickly gives him a positive grade. If the student begins to “float”, then the teacher asks him additional or guiding questions of the same level of complexity or on the same topic. And finally, if the student answers poorly from the very beginning, the teacher also gives a grade quickly enough, but negative.

This model is used for testing students using a computer, because It is impossible to place as many questions in advance on a paper form and in the order in which they should be presented to the student.

Testing usually begins with tasks of medium complexity, but you can also start with easy tasks, i.e. follow the principle of increasing complexity.

Testing ends when the student reaches a certain constant level of difficulty, for example, answers a certain critical number of questions of the same difficulty level in a row.

Advantages:

1) allows you to more flexibly and accurately measure the knowledge of students;

2) allows you to measure knowledge with fewer tasks than in the classical model;

3) identifies topics that the student knows poorly and allows him to ask a number of additional questions about them.

Flaws:

1) it is not known in advance how many questions need to be asked to the student in order to determine his level of knowledge. If the questions included in the testing system are not enough, you can interrupt the testing and evaluate the result based on the number of questions answered by the student;

2) can only be used on a computer.

The reliability of testing results in this case is the highest, because adaptation is made to the level of knowledge of a particular student, which ensures higher accuracy of measurements.

Possible algorithm for an adaptive testing model. This algorithm is quite simple and allows you to vary only the level of difficulty, without taking into account the statistics of answers to previous questions. At each testing step, for each level of complexity, the student is given two tasks, and based on the results of the answers to them, the level of complexity for the following tasks is determined. This number of tasks (two) allows a more adequate assessment of the level of knowledge than one task, for which the student can guess or accidentally forget the answer, and at the same time does not provide a large number of combinations of answer options, as in the case of three or even more tasks .

Let there be m levels of difficulty. The coefficient k r =100/m is entered.

Let us denote t - the current level of knowledge of the student, t n - the lower level of knowledge, t in - the upper level of knowledge. We will measure all levels of knowledge from 0 to 100 (0 - no knowledge, 100 - absolute knowledge).

1. Set t = 50; tn = 0; t in = 100.

2. Calculate the current difficulty level T=t/k r .

3. Give two tasks of complexity T. Let k pr - the number of correct answers, k pr?.

4. Recalculation of knowledge level:

· if k pr = 2, then t n = t; t in = t in + 0.5t. If t in > 100, then t in = 100;

· if k pr = 1, then t n = t n / 4; t in = t in + 0.1t. If t in > 100, then t in = 100;

· if k pr = 0, then t n = t n / 2; t in = t.

5. If |t-t 1 |<е, то уровень знаний равен t 1 , выход.

6. Go to step (2).

It is established based on the required accuracy of knowledge assessment. However, as e decreases, the number of questions required to be included in the test increases.

Scenario testing model. This model is also a continuation of the classic model. This model is implemented in the Distance Asynchronous Learning system being developed at the Tatar Institute for Business Promotion (TISBI).

A significant disadvantage of the classical model is the non-parallelism of tests for different students, since it is impossible to determine in advance what tasks in terms of complexity and on what topics the student will get. Therefore, during scenario testing, the teacher creates a testing scenario before testing, where he can indicate:

· the number of tasks on each topic that must be included in the test;

· the number of tasks of each difficulty level that should be included in the test;

· the number of tasks of each form that must be included in the test”;

· test time

· and other parameters.

A script can be created for any amount of educational material: section, subject, specialty, etc.

There are four forms of test items:

1. Tasks with choice, which are divided into 3 subgroups: tasks with the choice of one correct answer or single-choice tasks, tasks with the choice of several correct answers or multi-choice tasks, tasks with the choice of the most correct answer.

2. Open tasks.

3. Tasks to establish compliance.

4. Tasks to establish the correct sequence.

Directly during testing, a selection of tasks of each level of complexity, for each topic, each form, etc. is produced randomly from a common base of assignments, so each student receives his own assignments. The resulting tests for all students are parallel, i.e. have the same number of tasks and the same total complexity. But unlike the model with increasing complexity, which also ensures parallelism, here the test developer decides for himself how many and what tasks should be presented for each topic, therefore, absolutely identical testing conditions are provided for all students.

Compared to the adaptive model, this model is less effective, because It is not customized to the individual characteristics of each student, but it has a psychological advantage: when testing using an adaptive model, students answer a different number of questions and seem to be in different conditions. In the case of scenario testing, all students receive the same number of questions on each topic and at each difficulty level.

The reliability of the test results is comparable to the reliability obtained by testing with increasing complexity.

Model based on fuzzy mathematics. The purpose of introducing fuzzy mathematics is an attempt to mathematically formalize fuzzy, qualitative phenomena and objects with blurred boundaries found in the real world. Fuzzy control is particularly useful when the processes being described are too complex to be analyzed using conventional quantitative methods or when available sources of information are interpreted qualitatively, imprecisely, or vaguely. It has been experimentally shown that fuzzy control gives better results compared to those obtained with generally accepted control algorithms. Fuzzy logic, on which fuzzy control is based, is closer in spirit to human thinking and natural languages than traditional logic systems. Fuzzy logic basically provides an efficient means of representing the uncertainties and imprecisions of the real world. The presence of mathematical means of reflecting the vagueness of the initial information allows us to build a model that is adequate to reality.

This testing model is a development of any previous model, in which instead of clear characteristics of test items and answers, their fuzzy analogues are used. Examples include:

Difficulty of the task (“easy”, “average”, “above average”, “difficult”, etc.);

Correctness of the answer (“correct”, “partially correct”, “most likely incorrect”, “incorrect”, etc.);

Response time (“small”, “medium”, “large”, “very long”, etc.);

Percentage of correct answers (“small”, “medium”, “large”, “very large”, etc.);

Final grade;

Introducing fuzzy characteristics can help teachers design tests. For example, a teacher can quickly determine whether a task is difficult or not. But it will be quite difficult for him to say exactly how difficult it is, for example, on a 100-point scale, or to accurately assess the difference in the difficulties of two tasks. From the student’s point of view, there is a fuzzy assessment of his knowledge in the form of “good”, “excellent”, “not very good”, etc. more understandable to him than the clear number of points he scored as a result of testing.

Models can be combined, for example:

A classical model taking into account the complexity of tasks and a model taking into account the response time to a task;

A model with increasing complexity and a model taking into account task response time;

A model with increasing complexity and a model with a time limit for the test;

Model taking into account task response time and adaptive model;

A model taking into account the response time to a task and a model based on fuzzy mathematics;

A model with division of tasks by levels of mastery and a model taking into account the complexity of tasks;

3 . Development of test tasks

3.1 Creation of computer testing

A computer test is a tool designed to measure a student’s learning, consisting of a system of test tasks in electronic form, a certain procedure for conducting, processing and analyzing the results. The computer test is generated programmatically from an electronic bank of test items in accordance with the specification (plan, test passport).

Systematic testing of the knowledge of a large number of people being tested leads to the need to automate knowledge testing, use computer technology and appropriate knowledge testing programs.

Computer testing as an effective way to test knowledge is increasingly used in education. One of its advantages is the minimum time spent on obtaining reliable control results, and obtaining results almost immediately upon completion of the control test. Tests differ from traditional assessments and knowledge control by the objectivity of measuring learning outcomes, since they are guided not by the subjective opinion of teachers, but by objective criteria.

The main requirements for a computer control system are that:

Test questions and answer options must be clear and understandable in content;

The computer test should be easy to use;

There should be so many test questions that the totality of these questions covers all the material that the student must learn;

Questions should be presented to the subject in random order to exclude the possibility of mechanical memorization of their sequence;

Possible answer options should also follow in random order;

It is necessary to keep track of the time spent answering and limit this time.

A test was created to test the knowledge of students of the Faculty of Physics in the specialization discipline “Tolerances, fits and technical measurements.” The survey in the form of testing is carried out for 15 minutes and includes 15 questions that are sequentially presented to the student in an automated manner. During testing, only one test task is displayed on the monitor screen.

Each student is allowed to take the test only once. After 15 minutes, the computer program automatically completes the testing procedure and displays the final result on the monitor screen.

During testing, negotiations between students are not permitted. Questions not related to the content of the educational material should be addressed to the teacher or administrator of the computer class, raising your hand first so as not to distract other test takers during testing.

The presence of training and reference materials during the testing session is not permitted. You are not allowed to leave the computer lab during the testing session.

For computer testing, the “Crab 2” program was used, in which 15 are randomly selected from 50 questions and offered to the student. Each question has 4 possible answers. There can be from one to three correct answers.

Figure 1 - Example of a question with one correct answer

Figure 2 - Example of a question with multiple correct answers

When testing, you are allowed to skip a question, return to a previous question, and complete the test on time. The test result is displayed on the screen when the test is completed. The number of correct, incorrect and missing answers is indicated. Upon completion of the test, you can see all the tasks to which the student gave the wrong answer.

Figure 3 - Test result

3.2 Test tasks

1. Product quality should be considered:

a.throughout the entire “life cycle”;

b. at the manufacturing stage;

c. at the operational stage;

d. there is no right answer

2. A term conventionally used to designate the external elements of parts, including non-cylindrical elements:

a. hole;

b.shaft;

d. hinge.

3. Item size set by measurement:

a. smallest size limit;

b. nominal;

c. limit size;

d.actual size.

What diagram is shown in the picture below?

b. tolerance fields of main holes and main shafts of different relative accuracy with main deviations;

d.tolerance fields with the same basic deviations and different levels of relative accuracy.

4. Which diagram is shown in the picture presented:

planting patterns in the main hole systems;

b.tolerance fields with different main deviations and levels of relative accuracy;

5. Which diagram is shown in the presented figure:

a. planting patterns in the main hole systems;

b.tolerance fields of main holes and main shafts of different relative accuracy with main deviations;

c. tolerance fields with different main deviations and levels of relative accuracy;

d. tolerance fields with the same basic deviations and different levels of relative accuracy.

6. Which diagram is shown in the presented figure:

planting patterns in the main hole systems;

a. tolerance fields of main holes and main shafts of different relative accuracy with main deviations;

b. tolerance fields with different main deviations and levels of relative accuracy;

c. tolerance fields with the same basic deviations and different levels of relative accuracy.

7. Which calibers provide control over the highest and lowest limit values of parameters:

a.limit;

b. workers;

c. control;

d. normal.

8. Gauges designed to control parts during their manufacturing process:

a. limit;

b.workers;

c. control;

d. normal.

9. Calibers designed to control working calipers:

a. limit;

b. workers;

c.control;

d. normal.

10. Form tolerance is:

a.regulatory restrictions on shape deviation by designated tolerance fields;

b. characteristics of any real surface;

c. straightness of the axes of the surface of rotation;

d. straightness of the cylinder and cone.

11. What types of interchangeability are distinguished:

a.functional;

b. algebraic;

c.geometric;

d. complete.

12. Total deviations of shape and location include:

a.end runout;

b. specified runout;

c.radial runout;

d. normal beat.

13. The plane tolerance symbol looks like:

a.;

14. Symbol for tolerance of the shape of a given surface:

c.;

15. For what accuracy classes are general dimensional tolerances established:

a. last, middle;

b. normal, accurate;

c.accurate, average;

d. rude, very rude.

16. What is the designation of a radial ball bearing:

a.0;

17. What is the designation of a radial spherical ball bearing:

b.1;

18. What is the designation of a radial roller bearing with twisted rollers:

d.5.

19. What is the designation of an angular contact ball bearing:

c.6;

20. The main advantages of threaded connections are:

a. complication of design;

b.easy assembly;

c. high level of product interchangeability;

d. increasing complexity of technology.

21. The main disadvantages of threaded connections are:

a.complication of design;

b. easy assembly;

c. high level of product interchangeability;

d.increasing complexity of technology.

22. For metric threads the following are standardized:

a.thread profile;

b. nominal diameters and pitches;

c. accuracy standards;

d. there is no right answer.

23. Depending on what operating characteristics threaded connections are distinguished:

a.motionless;

b. movable;

c. standard;

d. non-standard.

24. Quality of measurements, reflecting the proximity to zero of systematic errors and their result:

a.correctness of measurements;

b. convergence of measurements;

d. normality of measurements.

25. Quality of measurements, reflecting the closeness to each other of measurement results performed under the same conditions:

a. correctness of measurements;

b.convergence of measurements;

c. reproducibility of measurements;

d. normality of measurements.

26. Quality of measurements, reflecting the closeness to each other of the results of measurements performed under different conditions:

a. correctness of measurements;

b. convergence of measurements;

c.reproducibility of measurements;

d. normality of measurements.

27. What kind of interchangeability does complete interchangeability presuppose the presence of:

a. full;

b.incomplete;

c. initial;

d. final.

28. The maximum size is:

a.two maximum permissible sizes of elements, between which the actual size must lie;

29. The actual size is:

b. the largest allowable element size;

c.element size established by measurement;

d. the size relative to which deviations are determined.

30. Nominal size is:

a. two maximum permissible sizes of elements, between which the actual size must lie;

b. the largest allowable element size;

c. element size established by measurement;

d.the size relative to which deviations are determined.

31. The largest limit size is:

a. two maximum permissible sizes of elements, between which the actual size must lie;

b.the largest allowable element size;

c. element size established by measurement;

d. the size relative to which deviations are determined.

32. The actual deviation is:

a.algebraic difference between real and corresponding nominal sizes;

33. The maximum deviation is:

b.algebraic difference between the limit and the corresponding nominal sizes;

c. algebraic difference between the largest limit and the corresponding nominal size;

d. algebraic difference between the smallest limit and the corresponding nominal sizes.

34. The upper deviation is:

a. algebraic difference between real and corresponding nominal sizes;

b. algebraic difference between the limit and the corresponding nominal sizes;

c.algebraic difference between the largest limit and the corresponding nominal size;

d. algebraic difference between the smallest limit and the corresponding nominal sizes.

35. The lower deviation is:

a. algebraic difference between real and corresponding nominal sizes;

b. algebraic difference between the limit and the corresponding nominal sizes;

c. algebraic difference between the largest limit and the corresponding nominal size;

d.algebraic difference between the smallest limit and the corresponding nominal sizes.

36. The main deviation is:

a.one of two maximum deviations that determines the position of the tolerance field relative to the zero line;

b. algebraic difference between the limit and the corresponding nominal sizes;

c. algebraic difference between the largest limit and the corresponding nominal size;

d. algebraic difference between the smallest limit and the corresponding nominal sizes.

37. Quality is:

c. a set of tolerances considered to correspond to the same level of accuracy for all nominal sizes;

38. Admission is:

a. a field limited by the largest and smallest limit sizes and determined by the tolerance value and its position relative to the nominal size;

b. the difference between the largest and smallest limit sizes or the algebraic difference between the upper and lower deviations;

d. a hole whose lower deviation is zero.

39. The tolerance field is:

a. a field limited by the largest and smallest limit sizes and determined by the tolerance value and its position relative to the nominal size;

b. the difference between the largest and smallest limit sizes or the algebraic difference between the upper and lower deviations;

c. a set of tolerances considered to correspond to the same level of accuracy for all nominal sizes;

d. a hole whose lower deviation is zero.

40. The main hole is:

a. a field limited by the largest and smallest limit sizes and determined by the tolerance value and its position relative to the nominal size;

b. the difference between the largest and smallest limit sizes or the algebraic difference between the upper and lower deviations;

c. a set of tolerances considered to correspond to the same level of accuracy for all nominal sizes;

d.a hole whose lower deviation is zero.

41. The nature of the connection of two parts, determined by the difference in their sizes before assembly:

a. admission;

b.landing;

42. The difference between the dimensions of the hole and the shaft before assembly, if the hole size is larger than the shaft size:

a. admission;

b. landing;

c.gap;

43. The difference between the dimensions of the shaft and the hole before assembly, if the shaft size is larger than the hole size:

a. admission;

b. landing;

d.preload

44. The difference between the largest and smallest limit sizes or the algebraic difference between the upper and lower deviations:

a.admission;

b. landing;

45. The smallest gap is:

a. the difference between the smallest maximum hole size and the largest maximum shaft size in a clearance fit;

46. The largest gap is:

b. the difference between the largest maximum hole size and the smallest maximum shaft size in a clearance fit or in a transition fit;

c. the largest limit size of the hole is less than or equal to the smallest limit size of the shaft;

47. An interference fit is:

a. the difference between the smallest maximum hole size and the largest maximum shaft size in a clearance fit;

b. the difference between the largest maximum hole size and the smallest maximum shaft size in a clearance fit or in a transition fit;

c.the largest limit size of the hole is less than or equal to the smallest limit size of the shaft;

d. the difference between the largest limit size of the shaft and the smallest limit size of the hole before assembly in an interference fit or transition fit.

48. The smallest interference is:

a. the difference between the smallest maximum hole size and the largest maximum shaft size in a clearance fit;

b. the difference between the largest maximum hole size and the smallest maximum shaft size in a clearance fit or in a transition fit;

c. the smallest limit size of the hole is less than or equal to the smallest limit size of the shaft;

d. the difference between the smallest limit size of the shaft and the largest limit size of the hole before assembly in an interference fit.

49. The greatest interference is:

a. the difference between the largest limit size of the shaft and the smallest limit size of the hole before assembly in an interference fit or in a transition fit;

b. the largest limit size of the hole is less than or equal to the smallest limit size of the shaft;

c. the difference between the largest maximum hole size and the smallest maximum shaft size in a clearance fit or in a transition fit;

d. the difference between the smallest limit size of the shaft and the largest limit size of the hole before assembly in an interference fit.

Conclusion

Testing is one of the main types of knowledge testing, both during the admissions committee to a higher education institution and during the learning process. This method of testing knowledge allows you to give an assessment impartially, systematically, objectively and quickly enough, excluding the subjective characteristics of the examiner.

The course work examined the main models of test tasks (classical, adaptive, time-based, complexity-based), their advantages and disadvantages. Computer testing was also developed to test the knowledge of students of the Faculty of Physics on the topics: “Tolerances, fits and technical measurements.”

Test tasks are educational for students, they contribute to the development of interest in the subject and improve the quality of knowledge. Students with different levels of training feel psychologically comfortable when taking the test. Test tasks contribute to the development of thinking, teach students to compare and contrast, analyze and draw conclusions, and plan future activities.

Based on the material in this course work, we can say that the use of tests to test students’ knowledge is a reliable and promising method and can be widely used in the future.

List of sources used

knowledge test task

1. Sociological reference book / ed. IN AND. Volovich. - Kyiv, 1990. - 379 p.

2. Sociological dictionary / compilation: A.N. Elsukov, K.V. Shulga. - Mn., 1991. - 528 p.

3. Foundation of time and events in the social sphere / ed. V.D. Patrusheva. - M.: Nauka, 1989. - 176 p.

4. Bespalko, V.P. Systematic and methodological support of the educational process of training specialists / V.P. Bespalko, Yu.G. Tatur - M.: “Higher School”, 1989. - 144 p.

6. Glova, V.I. Soft computing and their applications / V.I. Glova, I.V. Anikin, M.A. Ajeli. - Kazan: 2000. - 98 p.

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Tutorial

Good day!

I want to collect all the most necessary theory on testing, which is asked at interviews with trainees, juniors and a little middle ones. Actually, I have already collected quite a bit. The purpose of this post is to collectively add what was missed and correct/paraphrase/add/do Something Else with what is already there, so that it becomes good and you can take it all and repeat it before the next interview, just in case. In general, colleagues, I ask under the cut who should learn something new, who should systematize the old, and who should contribute.

The result should be a comprehensive cheat sheet that you need to re-read on the way to the interview.

Everything listed below was not invented by me personally, but was taken from various sources, where I personally liked the wording and definition more. At the end is a list of sources.

Topic: definition of testing, quality, verification / validation, goals, stages, test plan, test plan points, test design, test design techniques, traceability matrix, tets case, checklist, defect, error/deffect/failure, bug report , severity vs priority, testing levels, types / types, approaches to integration testing, testing principles, static and dynamic testing, exploratory / ad-hoc testing, requirements, bug life cycle, software development stages, decision table, qa/qc/test engineer, connection diagram.

Go!

Software testing- checking the correspondence between the actual and expected behavior of the program, carried out on a finite set of tests selected in a certain way. In a broader sense, testing is one of the quality control techniques that includes the activities of work planning (Test Management), test design (Test Design), testing execution (Test Execution) and analysis of the results (Test Analysis).

Software Quality is a set of characteristics of software related to its ability to satisfy stated and anticipated needs.

Verification is the process of evaluating a system or its components to determine whether the results of the current development stage satisfy the conditions formed at the beginning of this stage. Those. whether our goals, deadlines, and project development tasks defined at the beginning of the current phase are being met.
Validation- this is a determination of whether the software being developed meets the user's expectations and needs, and system requirements.
You can also find another interpretation:
The process of assessing a product's compliance with explicit requirements (specifications) is verification, while at the same time assessing the product's compliance with user expectations and requirements is validation. You can also often find the following definition of these concepts:
Validation - ‘is this the right specification?’.
Verification - ‘is the system correct to specification?’.

Testing Goals
Increase the likelihood that the application intended for testing will work correctly under all circumstances.
Increase the likelihood that the application being tested will meet all of the described requirements.
Providing up-to-date information about the current state of the product.

Testing stages:
1. Analysis
2. Development of a testing strategy
and planning quality control procedures
3. Working with requirements
4. Creation of test documentation
5. Prototype testing
6. Basic testing
7. Stabilization
8. Operation

Test Plan- this is a document that describes the entire scope of testing work, starting from a description of the object, strategy, schedule, criteria for starting and ending testing, to the equipment required in the process, special knowledge, as well as risk assessment with options for their resolution.
Answers the questions:
What should be tested?
What will you test?
How will you test?
When will you test?
Criteria for starting testing.
Test completion criteria.

Main points of the test plan
The IEEE 829 standard lists the points that a test plan should (may) consist of:
a) Test plan identifier;
b) Introduction;
c) Test items;
d) Features to be tested;
e) Features not to be tested;
f) Approach;
g) Item pass/fail criteria;
h) Suspension criteria and resumption requirements;
i) Test deliverables;
j) Testing tasks;
k) Environmental needs;
l) Responsibilities;
m) Staffing and training needs;
n) Schedule;
o) Risks and contingencies;
p)Approvals.

Test design- this is the stage of the software testing process at which test cases (test cases) are designed and created in accordance with previously defined quality criteria and testing goals.
Roles responsible for test design:
Test analyst - determines “WHAT to test?”
Test designer - determines “HOW to test?”

Test design techniques

Equivalence Partitioning (EP). As an example, if you have a range of valid values from 1 to 10, you must choose one correct value inside the interval, say 5, and one incorrect value outside the interval, 0.

Boundary Value Analysis (BVA). If we take the example above, we will select the minimum and maximum limits (1 and 10) as values for positive testing, and values greater and less than the limits (0 and 11). Boundary value analysis can be applied to fields, records, files, or any kind of constrained entity.

Cause/Effect - CE. This is, as a rule, entering combinations of conditions (reasons) to obtain a response from the system (Effect). For example, you are testing the ability to add a customer using a specific display. To do this, you will need to enter several fields such as “Name”, “Address”, “Phone Number” and then click the “Add” button - this is the “Reason”. After clicking the “Add” button, the system adds the client to the database and shows his number on the screen - this is “Investigation”.

Exhaustive Testing (ET)- this is an extreme case. Within this technique, you should test all possible combinations of input values, and in principle, this should find all problems. In practice, the use of this method is not possible due to the huge number of input values.

Traceability matrix- The requirements compliance matrix is a two-dimensional table containing the correspondence between the functional requirements of the product and the prepared test cases. The table column headings contain requirements, and the row headings contain test scenarios. At the intersection there is a mark indicating that the requirement of the current column is covered by the test case of the current row.
The requirements compliance matrix is used by QA engineers to validate product test coverage. MCT is an integral part of the test plan.

Test Case is an artifact that describes a set of steps, specific conditions and parameters necessary to check the implementation of the function under test or its part.
Example:
Action Expected Result Test Result
(passed/failed/blocked)
Open page “login” Login page is opened Passed

Each test case must have 3 parts:
PreConditions A list of actions that bring the system to a condition suitable for basic testing. Or a list of conditions, the fulfillment of which indicates that the system is in a state suitable for conducting the main test.
Test Case Description A list of actions that transfer the system from one state to another to obtain a result on the basis of which it can be concluded that the implementation satisfies the requirements
PostConditions List of actions that transfer the system to the initial state (state before the test - initial state)
Types of Test Cases:
Test cases are divided according to the expected result into positive and negative:
A positive test case uses only correct data and verifies that the application correctly executed the called function.
A negative test case operates with both correct and incorrect data (at least 1 incorrect parameter) and aims to check for exceptional situations (validators are triggered), and also check that the function called by the application is not executed when the validator is triggered.

Check list is a document that describes what should be tested. At the same time, the checklist can be of completely different levels of detail. How detailed the checklist will be depends on reporting requirements, the level of product knowledge of employees and the complexity of the product.
As a rule, a checklist contains only actions (steps), without the expected result. The checklist is less formalized than the test script. It is appropriate to use it when test scripts are redundant. Checklists are also associated with flexible approaches to testing.

Defect (aka bug)- this is a discrepancy between the actual result of program execution and the expected result. Defects are discovered during the software testing stage, when the tester compares the results of the program (component or design) with the expected result described in the requirements specification.

Error- user error, that is, he tries to use the program in a different way.
Example - enters letters into fields where you need to enter numbers (age, quantity of goods, etc.).
A high-quality program provides for such situations and displays an error message with a red cross.
Bug (defect)- an error by the programmer (or designer or anyone else who takes part in the development), that is, when something in the program does not go as planned and the program gets out of control. For example, when user input is not controlled in any way, as a result, incorrect data causes crashes or other “joys” in the operation of the program. Or the program is built internally in such a way that it initially does not correspond to what is expected of it.
Failure- a failure (and not necessarily a hardware one) in the operation of a component, an entire program or system. That is, there are defects that lead to failures (A defect caused the failure) and there are those that do not. UI defects for example. But a hardware failure that has nothing to do with software is also a failure.

Bug Report is a document describing the situation or sequence of actions that led to the incorrect operation of the test object, indicating the reasons and the expected result.
A cap
Short description (Summary) A short description of the problem, clearly indicating the cause and type of error situation.
Project Name of the project being tested
Application Component (Component) The name of the part or function of the product being tested
Version number The version on which the error was found
Severity The most common five-level system for grading the severity of a defect is:
S1 Blocker
S2 Critical
S3 Significant (Major)
S4 Minor
S5 Trivial
Priority The priority of the defect:
P1 High
P2 Medium
P3 Low
Status The status of the bug. Depends on the procedure used and the bug life cycle (bug workflow and life cycle)

Author (Author) Bug report creator
Assigned To The name of the person assigned to the problem.
Environment
OS / Service Pack, etc. / Browser + version /… Information about the environment in which the bug was found: operating system, service pack, for WEB testing - browser name and version, etc.
…
Description
Steps to Reproduce Steps by which you can easily reproduce the situation that led to the error.
Actual Result The result obtained after going through the steps to reproduce
Expected Result Expected correct result
Add-ons
Attachment A log file, screenshot, or any other document that can help clarify the cause of the error or indicate a way to solve the problem.

Severity vs Priority
Severity is an attribute that characterizes the impact of a defect on the performance of an application.
Priority is an attribute that indicates the order in which a task is performed or a defect is resolved. We can say that this is a work planning manager's tool. The higher the priority, the faster the defect needs to be fixed.
Severity is exposed by the tester
Priority - manager, team lead or customer

Gradation of Defect Severity (Severity)

S1 Blocker
A blocking error that renders the application inoperative, making further work with the system under test or its key functions impossible. Solving the problem is necessary for the further functioning of the system.

S2 Critical
A critical error, a malfunctioning key business logic, a hole in the security system, a problem that led to a temporary crash of the server or rendered some part of the system inoperative, without the ability to solve the problem using other entry points. Solving the problem is necessary for further work with key functions of the system under test.

S3 Major
A significant error, part of the main business logic does not work correctly. The error is not critical or it is possible to work with the function under test using other input points.

S4 Minor
A minor error that does not violate the business logic of the part of the application being tested, an obvious user interface problem.

S5 Trivial
A trivial error that does not affect the business logic of the application, a poorly reproducible problem that is hardly noticeable through the user interface, a problem with third-party libraries or services, a problem that does not have any impact on the overall quality of the product.

Gradation of Defect Priority (Priority)
P1 High
The error must be corrected as quickly as possible, because... its presence is critical for the project.
P2 Medium
The error must be corrected; its presence is not critical, but requires a mandatory solution.
P3 Low
The error must be corrected; its presence is not critical and does not require an urgent solution.

Testing Levels

1. Unit Testing
Component (unit) testing checks functionality and looks for defects in parts of the application that are accessible and can be tested separately (program modules, objects, classes, functions, etc.).

2. Integration Testing
The interaction between system components is checked after component testing.

3. System Testing
The main objective of system testing is to verify both functional and non-functional requirements in the system as a whole. This identifies defects such as incorrect use of system resources, unintended combinations of user-level data, incompatibility with the environment, unintended use cases, missing or incorrect functionality, inconvenience of use, etc.

4. Operational testing (Release Testing).
Even if a system meets all requirements, it is important to ensure that it meets the needs of the user and fulfills its role in its operating environment as defined in the system's business model. It should be taken into account that the business model may contain errors. This is why it is so important to conduct operational testing as the final validation step. In addition, testing in the operating environment allows us to identify non-functional problems, such as: conflicts with other systems related to the business area or in software and electronic environments; insufficient system performance in the operating environment, etc. Obviously, finding such things at the implementation stage is a critical and expensive problem. That is why it is so important to carry out not only verification, but also validation, from the earliest stages of software development.

5. Acceptance Testing
A formal testing process that verifies that a system meets requirements and is conducted to:
determining whether the system meets acceptance criteria;
making a decision by the customer or other authorized person whether the application is accepted or not.

Types/types of testing

Functional types of testing
Functional testing
Security and Access Control Testing
Interoperability Testing

Non-functional types of testing
All types of performance testing:
o load testing (Performance and Load Testing)
o Stress Testing
o Stability / Reliability Testing
o Volume Testing
Installation testing
Usability Testing
Failover and Recovery Testing
Configuration Testing

Change-Related Types of Testing
Smoke Testing
Regression Testing
Re-testing
Build Verification Test
Sanity Testing

Functional testing considers pre-specified behavior and is based on an analysis of the specifications of the functionality of the component or the system as a whole.

Security testing is a testing strategy used to check the security of the system, as well as to analyze the risks associated with providing a holistic approach to protecting the application, attacks by hackers, viruses, unauthorized access to confidential data.

Interoperability Testing is functional testing that tests the ability of an application to interact with one or more components or systems and includes compatibility testing and integration testing

Stress Testing- this is automated testing that simulates the work of a certain number of business users on some common (shared by them) resource.

Stress Testing allows you to check how efficient the application and the system as a whole are under stress and also evaluate the system’s ability to regenerate, i.e. to return to normal after the cessation of stress. Stress in this context can be an increase in the intensity of operations to very high values or an emergency change in the server configuration. Also, one of the tasks of stress testing may be to assess performance degradation, so the goals of stress testing may overlap with the goals of performance testing.

Volume Testing. The purpose of volume testing is to obtain an assessment of performance as the volume of data in the application database increases

Stability / Reliability Testing. The task of stability (reliability) testing is to check the functionality of the application during long-term (many hours) testing with an average load level.

Testing the installation aimed at verifying successful installation and configuration, as well as updating or uninstalling software.

Usability testing is a testing method aimed at establishing the degree of usability, learnability, understandability and attractiveness for users of the product being developed in the context of given conditions. This also includes:
UI Testing is a type of research testing performed to determine whether some artificial object (such as a web page, user interface, or device) is suitable for its intended use.
User eXperience (UX) is the feeling experienced by the user while using a digital product, while User interface is a tool that allows user-web resource interaction.

Failover and Recovery Testing tests the product under test in terms of its ability to withstand and successfully recover from possible failures resulting from software errors, hardware failures, or communications problems (for example, network failure). The purpose of this type of testing is to test recovery systems (or systems duplicating the main functionality), which, in the event of failures, will ensure the safety and integrity of the data of the product being tested.

Configuration Testing- a special type of testing aimed at checking the operation of the software under different system configurations (declared platforms, supported drivers, different computer configurations, etc.)

Smoke testing is considered as a short cycle of tests performed to confirm that after building the code (new or fixed), the installed application starts and performs basic functions.

Regression testing is a type of testing aimed at verifying changes made to an application or environment (fixing a defect, merging code, migrating to another operating system, database, web server or application server), to confirm the fact that pre-existing functionality works as intended before. Regression tests can be both functional and non-functional tests.

Retesting- testing, during which test scripts that identified errors during the last run are executed to confirm the success of correcting these errors.
What is the difference between regression testing and re-testing?
Re-testing - bug fixes are checked
Regression testing - checks that bug fixes did not affect other software modules and did not cause new bugs.

Assembly testing or Build Verification Test- testing aimed at determining compliance of the released version with quality criteria to begin testing. In terms of its goals, it is analogous to Smoke Testing, aimed at accepting a new version for further testing or operation. It can penetrate deeper, depending on the quality requirements of the released version.

Sanitary testing- this is narrowly focused testing sufficient to prove that a specific function works according to the requirements stated in the specification. It is a subset of regression testing. Used to determine the performance of a certain part of the application after changes made to it or the environment. Usually done manually.

Error Guessing - EG. This is when the test analyst uses his knowledge of the system and ability to interpret the specification to “predict” under what input conditions the system might fail. For example, the specification says "the user must enter a code." The test analyst will think: “What if I don’t enter the code?”, “What if I enter the wrong code? ", and so on. This is the prediction of error.

Integration testing approaches:

Bottom Up Integration
All low-level modules, procedures or functions are collected together and then tested. After which the next level of modules is assembled for integration testing. This approach is considered useful if all or almost all modules of the level being developed are ready. This approach also helps determine the level of application readiness based on testing results.

Top Down Integration
First, all high-level modules are tested, and gradually low-level ones are added one by one. All lower-level modules are simulated as stubs with similar functionality, then when ready, they are replaced with real active components. This way we test from top to bottom.

Big Bang (“Big Bang” Integration)
All or almost all of the developed modules are assembled together as a complete system or its main part, and then integration testing is carried out. This approach is very good for saving time. However, if the test cases and their results are not recorded correctly, then the integration process itself will be greatly complicated, which will become an obstacle for the testing team in achieving the main goal of integration testing.

Testing principles

Principle 1- Testing shows presence of defects
Testing can show that defects are present, but cannot prove that they are not present. Testing reduces the likelihood of defects in the software, but even if no defects are found, this does not prove its correctness.

Principle 2- Exhaustive testing is impossible
Complete testing using all combinations of inputs and preconditions is physically infeasible except in trivial cases. Instead of exhaustive testing, risk analysis and prioritization should be used to better focus testing efforts.

Principle 3- Early testing
To find defects as early as possible, testing activities should be started as early as possible in the software or system development life cycle, and should be focused on specific goals.

Principle 4- Defects clustering
Testing efforts should be concentrated in proportion to the expected, and later the actual, module defect density. As a rule, most of the defects discovered during testing or that caused the majority of system failures are contained in a small number of modules.

Principle 5- Pesticide paradox
If the same tests are run over and over again, eventually this set of test cases will no longer find new defects. To overcome this “pesticide paradox,” test cases must be regularly reviewed and revised, and new tests must be comprehensive to cover all components of the software or system and find as many defects as possible.

Principle 6- Testing is concept depending
Testing is done differently depending on the context. For example, security-critical software is tested differently than an e-commerce site.

Principle 7- Absence-of-errors fallacy
Finding and fixing defects will not help if the created system does not suit the user and does not meet his expectations and needs.

Static and dynamic testing
Static testing differs from dynamic testing in that it is performed without running the product code. Testing is carried out by analyzing the program code (code review) or compiled code. The analysis can be done either manually or using special tools. The purpose of the analysis is to early identify errors and potential problems in the product. Static testing also includes testing specifications and other documentation.

Exploratory/ad-hoc testing
The simplest definition of exploratory testing is designing and running tests at the same time. Which is the opposite of the scenario approach (with its predefined testing procedures, whether manual or automated). Exploratory tests, unlike scenario tests, are not predetermined and are not executed exactly as planned.

The difference between ad hoc and exploratory testing is that theoretically, ad hoc testing can be carried out by anyone, but exploratory testing requires skill and knowledge of certain techniques. Please note that certain techniques are not just testing techniques.

Requirements is a specification (description) of what should be implemented.
Requirements describe what needs to be implemented, without detailing the technical side of the solution. What, not how.

Requirements Requirements:
Correctness
Unambiguity
Completeness of the set of requirements
Consistency of a set of requirements
Testability (testability)
Traceability
Understandability

Bug life cycle

Software development stages- these are the stages that software development teams go through before the program becomes available to a wide range of users. Software development begins with the initial development stage (pre-alpha stage) and continues with stages in which the product is refined and modernized. The final stage of this process is the release of the final version of the software to the market (“generally available release”).

The software product goes through the following stages:
analysis of project requirements;
design;
implementation;
product testing;
implementation and support.

Each stage of software development is assigned a specific serial number. Also, each stage has its own name, which characterizes the readiness of the product at this stage.

Software development life cycle:
Pre-alpha
Alpha
Beta
Release candidate
Release
Post release

Decision table- an excellent tool for organizing complex business requirements that must be implemented in a product. Decision tables present a set of conditions, the simultaneous fulfillment of which should lead to a specific action.

QA/QC/Test Engineer

Thus, we can build a model of the hierarchy of quality assurance processes: Testing is part of QC. QC is part of QA.

Connection diagram is a quality management tool based on identifying logical relationships between various data. This tool is used to compare causes and effects on the problem under study.