A message on the topic of medieval culture. The most important features of medieval culture
CULTURE OF MEDIEVAL WESTERN EUROPE".
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IMPORTANT FEATURES OF MEDIEVAL CULTURE
The medieval era covers more than a thousand years of dominance of feudalism, which replaced the Greco-Roman slave civilization. With the birth of medieval society, new territories and peoples entered history, no longer limited to the Mediterranean and surrounding areas.
The Western European cultural type was formed on the basis of a synthesis of the ancient heritage, Christianity and the spiritual development of Germanic tribes. Christianity played the main role in the formation and development of medieval culture.
The term " middle Ages» was introduced into use by Italian humanists of the Renaissance (XV century). They called the era separating them the Middle Ages. Modern times, from classical antiquity. Since then, the division of world history into ancient, middle and modern has become firmly established in historical science.
The assessment of medieval culture by Italian humanists was generally negative: they considered the Middle Ages to be “dark centuries”, “the dark night of Christianity”, a break in the development of culture, etc. However, while stating the fact of the largely negative role of the church in the Middle Ages, we should not forget that the medieval era laid the foundations of the cultural community of Europe, that then modern European languages arose, new states arose, new lands were discovered, printing was invented and much more. And if in ancient Greece and Rome many outstanding discoveries and brilliant guesses of Greek and Roman scientists were not used (because cheap slave labor made the use of machines and mechanisms unnecessary), then the Middle Ages began with the widespread use of water wheels and windmills.
Medieval culture had a number of distinctive features: it symbolism And allegory(allegory), craving for generality, universalism, anonymity most works of art, etc.
The most important feature of medieval culture is its theocentrism, the dominance of a religious worldview based on Christian theology. The medieval worldview was based on the idea of duality of the world, which, according to theological views, was divided into visible, tangible, perceived by human senses earthly world And heavenly peace, ideal, otherworldly, existing in our imagination. At the same time, the highest, heavenly, “ mountain"the world, and earthly existence (" the world below") was considered only as a reflection of the existence of the heavenly world. From the doctrine of the dualism of the world came symbolism medieval art: only symbols were taken into account, i.e. hidden meaning of real objects and phenomena.
Just as the world is divided into two parts, so in a person, from the point of view of Christianity, there are two principles - body and soul. Of course, the soul takes precedence over the body, called the “prison of the soul.” Therefore, in the Middle Ages, pacification of the flesh was considered the highest virtue, and the ideal of man was monks and ascetics who voluntarily renounced worldly goods.
The dominance of the religious worldview in the Middle Ages predetermined the characteristics of medieval art. Almost all of his creations served a religious cult, reproducing images not of the real, but of the other world, using the language of symbols and allegories. Unlike ancient art, medieval art almost did not express the joy of earthly existence, but was conducive to contemplation, deep reflection and prayer. He was not interested in a detailed, specific image of space or a person: after all, only the “high” world seemed truly real, true. Therefore, the art of the Middle Ages conveyed only the typical, general, and not the individual and unique.
The dominant role of the church in the Middle Ages led to the fact that the most widespread and popular genre of medieval literature (especially in the early Middle Ages) was lives of saints; the most typical example of architecture was Cathedral; the most common genre of painting - icon, and favorite images of sculpture - Scripture characters.
The influence of religion and the Christian church was especially strong in the first centuries of the Middle Ages. But as secular trends in culture strengthened, secular genres of literature, theater, urban culture, developing scientific knowledge, etc. gradually emerged from the control of the church.
Historians divide the medieval era into three stages, corresponding to the stages of formation, flourishing and decline of feudalism. So, V-X centuries cover the period early Middle Ages, when a new feudal Europe was born on the ruins of the Western Roman Empire. Massive invasions of various tribes (Celts, Germans, Slavs, Huns, etc.) into Roman territory (this process was called the Great Migration) led to the formation of so-called barbarian kingdoms in Europe: Visigothic - in Spain, Ostrogothic - in Italy, Frankish - in Gaul, etc. During this period, there was a significant economic, political and cultural decline associated with endless wars and the destruction that accompanied them.
Since the end of the 10th century in Western Europe, a period of rapid development begins, affecting a variety of spheres: economic, technological, political, social, religious, artistic, etc. The barbarian kingdoms are being replaced by strong national states - France, England, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany - in which medieval culture is experiencing its heyday. The rise of cultural life found expression in the emergence and flourishing of new architectural styles - Romanesque And Gothic, in development secular schools And universities, in the broad intellectual movement and spread of education, in the flowering of literature and medieval scholasticism (school science).
THE BIRTH OF MEDIEVAL CULTURE was the result of the meeting between antiquity and the barbarian world:
1. The most important source of the culture of the early Middle Ages was the ancient heritage, which was assimilated and creatively processed in the 5th-10th centuries. Played a huge role in the development of medieval culture Latin, which has retained its significance as the language of the church, government office-work, international communication, science and scholarship. Interacting with various local dialects (Germans, Celts, etc.), the Latin language soon became different from itself and at the same time became the basis for the development of European national languages. The Latin alphabet was also adopted by non-Romanized peoples. Latin was not only the language of learning, but also the only language that was taught. In the Middle Ages, “the ability to read” meant “the ability to read Latin.” On the other hand, a large number of local vernacular dialects and languages continued to exist in the early Middle Ages. The Latin language in the Middle Ages was sacred language, guarantor of the unity of faith. Due to the dominance of Latin in the early Middle Ages, historians often call this era " Latin Middle Ages" Everywhere, the entire Middle Ages passed in the conditions of the coexistence of two languages - local and Latin.
In the process of assimilation of the cultural heritage of antiquity, the most important role was played by rhetoric. In Ancient Rome, it was both part of education and an integral element of the Roman way of life. In the Middle Ages, rhetorical culture retained its importance and significantly influenced the appearance of medieval culture.
The culture of the early Middle Ages was also greatly influenced by roman education system, which survived until the 7th century. The Middle Ages adopted such an important element of it as the system “ seven liberal arts"-septem artes liberates, a compulsory set of school disciplines, which included grammar, dialectics (logic), rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. But if in the Roman rhetorical school the audience was quite narrow and consisted of selected members of Roman society, then in the early Middle Ages, peasants, townspeople, knights, and clergy began to be accepted into schools. Nevertheless, the old Roman classical education turned out to be unnecessary in the Middle Ages. Therefore, the ancient school was replaced by a new one - monastery, or episcopal school(the latter studied the “seven liberal arts”). In the early Middle Ages, the quality of education was low, because... the content of the items was as close as possible to the needs of the church. So, rhetoric considered as the art of composing sermons, dialectics- how to have a conversation, astronomy boiled down to the ability to use a calendar and calculate the dates of Christian holidays. Each school student was supposed to know chants and prayers, the main events of sacred history and several quotes from the Bible. Thus, the education system in the early Middle Ages was quite primitive and had a utilitarian character.
2. Another important source of culture in the Middle Ages was spiritual life of barbarian tribes, their folklore, art, customs, peculiarities of worldview. Although our knowledge of barbarian culture is very meager, we are quite knowledgeable about, for example, folding heroic epic peoples of Western and Northern Europe (Old German, Scandinavian, Anglo-Saxon, Irish). In the popular consciousness there lived remnants of pre-Christian mythology and cults, which even penetrated into church art. Folklore, one of the components of medieval culture, which gave rise to both folk poetry and fairy tales, became the basis of the heroic epic.
Artistic creativity of the barbarians represented mainly by objects applied arts. These are richly decorated weapons, religious and ritual utensils, various brooches, buckles, clasps and household items, indicating a highly developed technology for processing metals, leather and other materials. In the works of art of the barbarians, preference was always given ornament.
Ideas about the mighty Germanic and Celtic gods, heroes and their struggle with evil forces gave rise to bizarre ornaments of the so-called “animal” style, in which images of fantastic animals were woven into intricate patterns. The “animal” style was subsequently widely used in applied art and Romanesque architecture. Images of Irish sagas (epics) and Celtic pagan symbols, found even in images of saints, penetrated early medieval Irish and English miniatures. And the construction technology of the barbarian tribes, embodied in wooden architecture, made the glory of the Burgundian and Norman carpenters.
Related information.
MOSCOW OPEN SOCIAL UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC
ABSTRACT
Topic: Medieval Culture
Completed by a 2nd year student:
Bondareva L.V.
Supervisor:
Professor Semin V.P.
MOSCOW 2007
Introduction.
1. Early Middle Ages.
2. High (classical) Middle Ages.
2.1 The emergence of “urban culture”.
2.2 Sermons as a layer of folk culture.
3. Late Middle Ages.
Conclusion.
Bibliography.
Introduction.
Culturologists call the Middle Ages a long period in the history of Western Europe between Antiquity and Modern Times. This period spans more than a millennium from the 5th to the 15th centuries.
Within the millennium, it is customary to distinguish at least three periods: the Early Middle Ages, from the beginning of the era to 900 or 1000 (until the X - XI centuries);
High (Classical) Middle Ages - from the X-XI centuries to approximately the XIV century;
Late Middle Ages, XIV-XV centuries.
Some authors, in the context of the Middle Ages, also consider the so-called transition period from the Middle Ages to the New Time (XVI-XVII centuries), however, it seems more reasonable to consider the period of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation as a separate period of history and culture, which had a great influence on the further formation of the cultural consciousness of the masses .
The folk culture of this era is a new and almost unexplored topic in science. The ideologists of feudal society managed not only to push the people away from the means of recording their thoughts and moods, but also to deprive researchers of subsequent times of the opportunity to restore the main features of their spiritual life. “The great dumb”, “the great absentee”, “people without archives and without faces” - this is what modern historians call the people in an era when direct access to the means of written recording of cultural values was closed to them.
The folk culture of the Middle Ages was unlucky in science. Usually when
they talk about it, mention, at most, the remnants of the ancient world and the epic, the remnants of paganism. In those relatively rare cases when a modern specialist turns to the folk religiosity of the Middle Ages, he does not find other characteristics for it such as “naive”, “primitive”, “uncouth”, “rude”, “superficial”, “paralogical”, “childish” ”; This is the religion of the “child people”, overflowing with superstitions and focused on the fabulous and fabulous.
The criteria for such value judgments are taken from the “high” religion of the enlightened and it is from their position that the consciousness and emotional life of common people are judged, without setting themselves the task of considering it “from the inside,” guided by its own logic.
Early Middle Ages.
The Early Middle Ages was a time when turbulent and very important processes took place in Europe, such as the barbarian invasion, which ended with the fall of the Roman Empire. Barbarians settled on the lands of the former empire, assimilated with its population, creating a new community of Western Europe.
At the same time, the new Western Europeans, as a rule, accepted Christianity, which by the end of Rome’s existence became its state religion. Christianity in its various forms replaced pagan beliefs, and this process only accelerated after the fall of the empire.
This is the second most important historical process that determined the face of the early Middle Ages in Western Europe.
During the early Middle Ages, the ideological positions of feudal lords and peasants had not yet taken shape, and the peasantry, which was just being born as a special class of society, was dissolved in ideological terms into broader and more uncertain strata.
The bulk of the population of Europe at that time were rural residents, whose lifestyle was completely subordinated to routine, and whose horizons were extremely limited. Conservatism is an integral feature of this environment.
The peasantry and its life are almost not reflected at all in the social picture of the world, as it was thought at that time, and this fact in itself is very symptomatic. The society, agrarian in nature, built on the exploitation and subjugation of broad sections of the rural population, seemed to allow itself to ideologically ignore its own majority.
Paradox: ordinary people, first of all the peasantry, despised and ignored by the ruling class, at the same time, in a certain sense, dominated the spiritual life of the early Middle Ages. Rural life, with its leisurely pace and periodic change of production seasons, was the main regulator of the social rhythm of society (, p. 63)
2. High (classical) Middle Ages.
During the classical, or high, Middle Ages, Western Europe began to overcome difficulties and be reborn.
Since the 10th century, state structures have been consolidated, which made it possible to assemble larger armies and, to some extent, stop raids and robberies.
Missionaries brought Christianity to the countries of Scandinavia, Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary, so that these states also entered the orbit of Western culture.
The so-called knightly literature emerges and develops. One of the most famous works is the greatest monument of the French folk heroic epic - “The Song of Roland”. In the 12th century chivalric novels appear. Among the most popular was a poetic novel about the British King Arthur.
An important monument of German folk literature of the 12th-13th centuries is “The Song of the Nibelungs,” which tells about the invasion of the Huns on the Kingdom of Burgundy at the beginning of the 5th century. The “Song of the Nibelungs” is based on ancient Germanic legends.
Vagantes and their poetry were a significant phenomenon in the literature of France in the 12th-13th centuries. Vagants (from the Latin vagantes - wandering) were called wandering poets. A feature of their work was the constant criticism of the Catholic Church and the clergy for greed, hypocrisy and ignorance. The Church, in turn, persecuted the vagants.
The most important monument of English literature of the 13th century is the famous “Ballad of Robin Hood,” who to this day remains one of the most famous heroes of world literature.
2.1 The emergence of “urban culture”.
During this period, the so-called “urban literature” rapidly developed, which was characterized by a realistic depiction of the urban everyday life of various segments of the urban population, as well as the appearance of satirical works. Representatives of urban literature in Italy were Cecco Angiolieri and Guido Orlandi (late 13th century).
The development of urban literature testified to a new phenomenon in the cultural life of Western European society - urban culture, which played a very important role in the formation of Western civilization as a whole. The essence of urban culture boiled down to the constant strengthening of secular elements in all spheres of human existence.
Urban culture originated in France in the 11th-12th centuries. During this period, it was represented, in particular, by the work of “jugglers” who performed in city squares as actors, acrobats, trainers, musicians and singers. They performed at fairs, folk festivals, weddings, christenings, etc. and were very popular among the people.
From about the middle of the 12th century, theatrical actions moved from under the church vaults to the square, and the actions were no longer performed in Latin, but in French. The actors are no longer clergymen, but townspeople; the plots of the plays become more and more secular until they turn into scenes from everyday city life, often flavored with a good dose of satire. At the same time, theatrical art was developing in England.
A new and extremely important phenomenon, testifying to the deepening process of development of urban culture, was the creation of non-church schools in cities - these were private schools, financially independent of the church. The teachers of these schools lived off the fees collected from the students, and anyone who could afford to pay the fees could teach their children in them. Since that time, there has been a rapid spread of literacy among the urban population.
2.2 Sermons as a layer of folk culture.
European medieval society was very religious and the power of the clergy over the minds was extremely great. The teaching of the church was the starting point of all thinking, all sciences - jurisprudence, natural science, philosophy, logic - everything was brought into line with Christianity. The clergy was the only educated class, and it was the church for a long period that determined educational policy. The entire cultural life of European society of this period was largely determined by Christianity.
An important layer in the formation of folk culture during the classical Middle Ages was sermons.
The bulk of society remained illiterate.
In order for the thoughts of the social and spiritual elite to become the dominant thoughts of all parishioners, they had to be “translated” into a language understandable to all people. This is what preachers did. Parish priests, monks, and missionaries had to explain to the people the basic principles of theology, instill in them the principles of Christian behavior and eradicate the wrong way of thinking.
The sermon assumed any person as its listener - literate and illiterate, noble and commoner, city dweller and peasant, rich and poor.
The most famous preachers structured their sermons in such a way as to hold the attention of the public for a long time and convey to them the ideas of church teaching in the form of simple examples.
These “examples” are one of the early literary genres and are of particular interest for a more complete understanding of the worldview of ordinary believers. “Example” was one of the most effective means of didactic influence on parishioners.
In these “cases from life” the original world of medieval man is visible, with his ideas about saints and evil spirits as real participants in everyday human life.
However, the most famous preachers, such as Bertold of Regenburg (XIII century), did not use “Examples” in their sermons, building them mainly on biblical texts. This preacher structured his sermons in the form of dialogues, addressing calls and statements to a certain part of the audience or professional categories. He widely used the method of enumeration, riddles and other techniques that made his sermons into small performances. (, page 265)
Church ministers, as a rule, did not introduce any original ideas and statements into their sermons; this was not expected of them and parishioners would be unable to appreciate it. The audience received satisfaction from listening to things that were familiar and familiar.
3. Late Middle Ages.
The later Middle Ages continued the processes of formation of European culture that began during the classical period. However, their progress was far from smooth. In the XIV-XV centuries, Western Europe repeatedly experienced great famines. Numerous epidemics, especially the plague, caused innumerable human casualties. The Hundred Years' War greatly slowed down the development of culture.
During these periods, uncertainty and fear dominated the masses. Economic growth is followed by long periods of recession and stagnation. Among the masses, complexes of fear of death and the afterlife intensified, and fears of evil spirits intensified.
At the end of the Middle Ages, in the minds of the common people, Satan was transformed from, in general, not a terrible and sometimes funny devil into an omnipotent ruler of dark forces, who at the end of earthly history would act as the Antichrist.
Another cause of fear is hunger, as a consequence of low yields and several years of drought.
The sources of fears are best highlighted in the prayer of a peasant of that time: “Deliver us, Lord, from plague, famine and war.” (, page 330)
The dominance of oral culture powerfully contributed to the proliferation of superstitions, fears and collective panics.
However, in the end, the cities were revived, people who survived the pestilence and war were able to organize their lives better than in previous eras. Conditions arose for a new upsurge in spiritual life, science, philosophy, and art. This rise necessarily led to the so-called Renaissance or Renaissance.
Conclusion.
So. Now we can draw a conclusion from my essay, which is called “Culture of the Middle Ages.” It is clear from the work that since the Middle Ages, a complex of ideas about the world, beliefs, mental attitudes and systems of behavior, which could conditionally be called “folk culture” or “folk religiosity,” was in one way or another the property of all members of society (p. 356 ).
The thinking of the Middle Ages was predominantly theological.
The medieval church, wary and suspicious of the customs, faith and religious practices of the common people, was influenced by them. As an example, we can cite the sanctioning by the church of the cult of saints in its popular interpretation.
The magical approach to nature extended to Christian rituals, and belief in miracles was widespread.
The entire cultural life of European society of this period was largely determined by Christianity.
European medieval society was very religious and the power of the clergy over the minds was extremely great. The teaching of the church was the starting point of all thinking, all sciences - jurisprudence, natural science, philosophy, logic - everything was brought into line with Christianity. The higher clergy was the only educated class, but the medieval European, including the upper strata of society, was illiterate.
Mass medieval culture is a bookless, “Do-Gutenberg” culture. She relied not on the printed word, but on oral sermons and exhortations.
It existed through the consciousness of an illiterate person. It was a culture of prayers, fairy tales, myths and magic spells. Sermons, which represent a significant layer of medieval culture, “translated” the thoughts of the social and spiritual elite into a language accessible to all people. Parish priests, monks, and missionaries had to explain to the people the basic principles of theology, instill in them the principles of Christian behavior and eradicate the wrong way of thinking. Special literature was created that popularly presented the fundamentals of Christian teaching, giving the flock models to follow. This literature was mainly intended for priests to use in their daily activities. Medieval
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European culture as such began to take shape precisely at the moment when the cultural tradition of antiquity was stopped (or?) and precisely in the same geographical region. In many ways, medieval culture was determined by the very concept of Christianity, which was a form that met the cultural and ideological needs of society. At the origins of European culture were the church fathers, who laid the foundations of Catholicism, since in the Middle Ages culture was predominantly religious. Moreover, for a long time only the clergy was the most educated layer of Europe. The Church could not go through those elements of secular education that it inherited from antiquity and without which Christianity itself, adopted from antiquity, would simply remain incomprehensible. The Bible and the works of church writers were available to the Western Middle Ages only in Latin. The first attempt to bring together all the elements of ancient knowledge, which the church considered necessary to use for its own purposes, was made back in the 5th century. African writer Marcian Capella. In his book “On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury,” he gave a brief summary of those subjects that formed the basis of education in the ancient school and were known as the “seven liberal arts,” i.e. grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy and music. In the VI century. Boethius and Cassiodorus divided these seven arts into 2 parts - the trivium - (the crossroads of the three paths of knowledge) - grammar, rhetoric, dialectic and quadrivium - the rest. The trivium was considered the first stage of education, the quadrivium the highest. In this form, these items were included in all medieval textbooks and were preserved until the 15th century. Rhetoric was viewed by representatives of the Christian Church as a subject that teaches church eloquence, dialectics (or rather, formal logic) as a handmaiden of theology, helping to defeat heretics in disputes; arithmetic - as a subject that facilitates the religious and mystical interpretation of numbers found in the Holy Scriptures; geometry - description of the earth (“And here are the deserted deserts (in Ethiopia), and the inhuman faces of monstrous tribes. Some have no nose, the whole face is smooth and flat... Others have fused mouths, and through a small hole they suck food with an ear of oats... But the Moorish Ethiopians , have four eyes, and this is for the sake of accurate shooting." "In the Ganges there is a worm that has two claws, with which it grabs an elephant and dives with it under the water."); music was needed for church chants; astronomy made it possible to determine the dates of church holidays. According to the teachings of the church, the earth is a disk floating in water, and the sky is a vault supported by four pillars, the center of the earth is Jerusalem. The greatest attention was paid to grammar - the queen of sciences. In the images, the grammarian was shown in the form of a queen with a bunch of rods in her left hand, and with a knife for erasing texts in her right. Corporal punishment flourished in medieval schools. A French monk wrote a grammar manual called “Watch Your Back.” The expressions “being in training” and “walking under the rod” were synonymous. The works of ancient authors studied during the trivium were cut down as the clergy considered necessary. The same was done with works for the quadrivium. Therefore, many works of ancient authors were irretrievably lost in the early Middle Ages. They could have written on them (palimpsest). In the early Middle Ages, authors appeared whose works were also later used as the basis for medieval education. Master of the Office of the Ostrogothic King Severinus Boethius (480-525). His treatises on arithmetic, music, works on logic and theology, translations of Aristotle's logical works became the basis of medieval philology and education. He is sometimes called the father of scholasticism. He was accused and thrown into prison, where he wrote the treatise “Consolation of Philosophy” before his execution. Quaestor and Master of the Offices of the Ostrogothic King Flavius Cassiodorus (490-585) - wanted to create the first university, but failed. His work "Varii". On his estate he founded the monastery Vivarium = cultural center, school, scriptorium, library, which became a model for Benedictine monasteries. Visigothic Spain gave the world an educator - Isidore of Seville (570-636) - the first medieval encyclopedist. “Etymology” - 20 books, collected everything that has been preserved from antiquity. In the second half of the 7th century. the cultural life of Western Europe fell into decline, except for Ireland, where pockets of education glowed in the monasteries, from there this education went around the world - the Venerable Bede “Ecclesiastical History of the Angles”, Alcuin and others. But in the early Middle Ages, chronicles began to appear - “Getica” by Jordan, “The History of the Kings of the Goths, Vandals and Sueves” by Isidore of Seville, “The History of the Lombards” by Paul the Deacon, “The History of the Franks” by Gregory of Tours. The rise of Western European culture dates back to the reign of Charlemagne, hence the name Carolingian Renaissance. Under Charlemagne, various copies of the Bible were compared and its single canonical text was established for the entire Carolingian state. The liturgy was reformed and became uniform according to the Roman model. Around 787, the “Capitulary on Sciences” appeared, according to which schools were to be created in all dioceses, at every monastery, where not only clergy, but also children of lay people studied. A reform of writing was also carried out - minuscules and majuscules. Textbooks appeared. The center of education is the court academy in Aachen. Alcuin was discharged from Britain. His most famous student is the encyclopedist Hraban the Maurus. The heyday of education did not last long. And in the 9th century. Ferrières abbot Servat Lupe († 862) wrote, “For anyone in our time to move from grammar to rhetoric, and then in order to other sciences is an unprecedented thing.”
As cities developed, they experienced an ever-increasing need for educated, especially literate, people. This need gave rise to new, non-church schools, which differed in both their program and student composition. These schools were a special phenomenon in the intellectual life of medieval society. A specific feature of the non-church school of the 12th century. was that it was a private school, i.e. a school which was not maintained by the church, and whose masters subsisted on fees collected from the students. Especially many such schools arose in Northern France. The most famous schools in the middle of the 12th century. there were the Parisian schools of Guillaume of Conches and Pierre Abelard. The grammarian and dialectician Guillaume was famous for the thoroughness of his lectures and his love for ancient authors. Being a follower of Democritus and Epicurus, Guillaume tried to explain to his students the teaching of Democritus about atoms and sought to find a natural explanation for all natural phenomena, denying supernatural explanations. Guillaume's treatises attracted the attention of the church and were condemned by it. One of the brightest representatives of urban culture was Abelard (1079-1142), who by birth belonged to the knighthood, but became first a wandering schoolboy and then a master of liberal arts. He founded one non-church school after another. Was extremely popular. But the church is not in honor because of its philosophical views. He entered into a dispute with the head of the cathedral school of Paris, Guillaume of Champeaux, on the issue of the so-called. "universals" or general concepts. The dispute revolved around the question of whether general concepts have real existence, or whether they are just simple names for a number of individual phenomena. Medieval nominalists considered general concepts - universals - words or names (nomina), arising only on the basis of reality (universalia post rem). Medieval realists viewed universals from a purely idealistic point of view, as certain things (res) existing before the real world and independently of the latter (universalia ante rem). Abelard took a position close to nominalism (conceptualist), Guillaume of Champeaux was a realist. Abelard was condemned at the Council of Sens in 1140. He himself burned one of his best treatises. His studies with Eloise led to emasculation and sending both of them to a monastery, where the brethren did not like him and intrigued against him.
In the 12th century in the West, a higher school - a university - begins to take shape (from the Latin universitas - totality). This was the name given to associations of teachers and students. The first university in Europe was considered to be Bologna, which arose at the end of the 11th century. based on the Bolognese school, where the famous expert on Roman law Irnerius taught. Gradually, the Bologna school turned into a “general” school (stadium generale), and then into a university. The oldest uni in Europe was the uni of Salerno, which arose from the Salerno medical school (811-1811). A typical medieval university was the University of Paris, which received the first royal charter with the legalization of its rights in 1200. The University of Paris united both students and teachers. Those who were involved in its maintenance (booksellers, scribes, messengers, pharmacists and even innkeepers) were also considered members of the university. All university teachers were united in special organizations - faculties (from Latin - facultas - ability, i.e. the ability to teach a particular subject). Subsequently, the faculty began to be understood as that department of the university in which a certain branch of knowledge was taught. The University of Paris had 4 faculties - artistic, where the seven liberal arts (septem artes liberalis) were studied (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music) and 3 senior ones - medical, theological, legal, for which students were accepted only after graduating from the artistic faculty. Those. the artistic faculty provided an educational base, after which one could study further. Only those persons who had bachelor's, master's, and doctorate degrees could be teachers. They chose their head - the dean. Students (from the word studere - to study diligently) united into community corporations, provinces, and nations. In the Parisian uni there were 4 nations - Norman, English, Picardy, Gallic. At the head of each nation was an elected person - the procurator, and all 4 nations elected the head of the uni - the rector. The Uni was subordinate to the Chancellor of Notre Dame Cathedral and the Pope. All students and teachers were clerics, took a vow of celibacy, and wore dark dresses. True, doctors (medical doctors) were allowed to marry. The faculties differed sharply from each other in their numbers. The most numerous was the artistic department, the completion of which gave the student a Bachelor of Arts degree and the right to teach the latter outside the walls of the uni. (A degree obtained at one uni was not immediately recognized at others. The first departure from this discrimination was made in Toulouse - the papal bull of 1233 gave everyone who received a degree there the right to teach everywhere. The first incidents related to the awarding of academic degrees date back to this time. Thus, the Paris uni, which was on bad terms with the Dominican Order, denied Thomas Aquinas a doctorate for five years.) Therefore, they sought to obtain a license to teach at the uni and become a Master of Liberal Arts. The legal department was in second place in terms of number. Only one third of all those entering uni left with a bachelor's degree, and only 1/16 with a master's degree, all the rest left uni, content with the knowledge they acquired at a lower faculty. To become a bachelor, master, or doctor (the doctorate was first awarded in 1130 in Bologna), one had to give a speech and take part in a debate before worthy people who tested the candidate’s knowledge. Then there was a party to be had. "Aristotle's Feast" We studied for a long time. It was expensive. Therefore, in the letters: “I appeal to your parental soul and beg you not to leave me in a difficult situation. After all, you yourself will be pleased if I successfully complete my studies in order to return to my homeland with glory. Do not refuse to send money, as well as shoes and stockings, with the bearer of this letter.” Training - lecture, debates. During the lectures, the teacher (who came to the scholars) (the teachers’ salaries were paid by both the city and the scholars themselves) read and commented on books that were studied in a particular department. The participants in the debates achieved great skill. Thus, Duns Scott, participating in a dispute organized by the Paris Uni, listened to 200 objections, repeated them from memory and then consistently refuted them. The topic - theses - arguments was brought up for debate. The respondent and the opponent participated. It was necessary to monitor speech and avoid indecent expressions. The entertainment was a debate about anything (disputatio de quodlibet). At the theological faculty, the main debate took place during Lent. Those who survived the Lenten debate received the title of bachelor and the right to wear the red kamilavka. At the Paris Uni, the degree of doctor (a symbol of doctoral dignity - a beret, a book, a ring) was first awarded in 1231. Study sessions were designed for an entire academic year, only from the end of the 15th century. a division into semesters appeared - a large ordinary academic period - (magnus ordinaries) - from October (St. Remy's Day - October 1 (15), or as at the Paris Uni in the three higher faculties from mid-September to Easter, with a short break for Christmas, and the small ordinary educational period (ordinarius parvas) - from Easter to July 25 (St. Jacob). Classes began around five in the morning and lasted four hours, followed by evening classes. The lectures were ordinary and extraordinary. The differences are based on what books were read, when and how. During ordinary lectures, listeners could not interrupt the lecturer with words or questions, but during extraordinary lectures this was allowed. At Paris Uni, dictation was prohibited; it was assumed that the lecturer should present the material fluently and without a cheat sheet. If this was not observed, then a fine followed - they could be suspended from teaching for 1 year, in case of relapse - for 2, 4 years. Repeating the text was also not allowed, except for particularly difficult passages. From the 14th century uni received the epithet alma mater (as the Romans called the mother of the gods Cybele). Textbooks - grammar was studied according to a short course by Donatus, then according to Priscian, rhetoric was taught according to Cicero, dialectics according to Aristotle, Boethius, Augustine, etc., doctors - Galen, Hippocrates, jurists - their own authorities.
Colleges began to be built to accommodate students. Although the students rented apartments from the townspeople, there was a rule that the townspeople were not to increase the rent arbitrarily. The first person to take care of the students' lives was Robert de Sorbonne, confessor and physician to the French king Louis IX. A specialization appeared at uni Salerno, Montpellier - medicine, Bologna - law, about the Faculty of Theology in Paris - “all the knots can be untangled here.” Therefore, students often continued to listen to a course of lectures on a particular discipline at different universities from the most famous teachers, undergoing a kind of internship. Therefore, vagantes and goliards, wandering students, appeared. Authors of student poetry. The most famous collection of works by 13th-century vagants. "Carmina Burana", composed by an unknown amateur from southern Bavaria, consisting of over 200 works, mainly of Vagant origin. They are arranged in sequence - moral-satirical poems, love poems, wandering songs, drinking songs, religious hymns and liturgical dramas. Those who did complete their studies and received a doctorate were expected to receive honor and recognition at best, a good position at court and in society, and at worst, whatever happens. In the Middle Ages there were doctors who received epithets for their learning - Francis of Assisi (Giovanni Francesco (del Moricone) (1181-1226) - Doctor of Mariinsky (Marianus), i.e., who dedicated his activities to the Virgin Mary; Albert the Great, Cologne (1198 and 1206 -1280) - doctor comprehensive (Universalis); Roger Bacon (1214-1294) - doctor Amazing (Mirabilis); Henry of Ghent (1217-1293) - triumphant (Solemnis); Bonaventura (Giovanni Fidanza) (1221-1274) - seraphic (seraphicus); Aquinas (1225-1274) - angelic (angelicus); Raymond Lullius (1235-1315) - enlightened (illuminatus); Aegidius of Rome (1257-1316) - most thorough (fundatissimus); - refined (subtilis); William of Ockham (1285-1349) - invincible (invicibilis); John Charles Gerson (1363-1429) - most Christian (christianissimus); Dionysius the Carthusian (1402-1471) - enthusiastic (extaticus) (Shevelenko A.Ya. . Doctor Mariinsky and Doctor Comprehensive // VI. 1994. No. 9. P. 170.) Members of the uni corporation had their own privileges - they were not subject to the jurisdiction of the city authorities, were exempt from mutual responsibility for debt obligations, and had the right to secession. Although scholars often get into fights with townspeople, they are judged by their superiors.
Medieval university science was called scholasticism or “school science” (from the Latin schola - school). Its characteristic feature was the desire to rely on authorities and a complete disregard for experience. The ability to freely operate with the concepts of formal logic was considered the main thing among the scholastics. The positive thing about the activities of the scholastic logicians was that they introduced compulsory study of a number of ancient authors into all uni programs, tried to pose and solve important problems of knowledge, and introduced Western Europe to the works of Arab scientists. In the 12th century in Cordoba Ibn Roshd (1126-1198) (Averroes) taught, whose teachings were developed in the teachings of Amaury of Ben († 1204), David of Dinan, Siger of Brabant (killed in prison).
An important part of medieval culture are epic tales, which can be considered as collective memory and the custodian of history. At first, the epic was sung by jugglers and shpilmans. Later they were written down, in addition, the heroic epic became an integral part of knightly culture. Epic works are based on real events, but with a touch of the fantastic. The recording of the Anglo-Saxon epic "Beowulf" dates back to 1000. It is about Beowulf (nephew of the ruler of the Geats), who, together with his 14 comrades, offered his services to the ruler of Denmark Hrothgar, who decided to build a huge banquet hall, but the noise disturbed the monster Grendel, who every evening appeared in the hall and destroyed several of Hrothgar's comrades. Beowulf managed to defeat Grendel in battle, and he crawled away to die in his swamp. But the next evening a new monster appeared - Grendel's mother, who decided to avenge her son. Approaching the swamp, the knights saw snakes, dragons, water nyxes, Beowulf sank into the pool to the bottom and defeated her (Beowulf's sword - Hrunting). Beowulf returned home and became a good king. But soon snakes began to visit Beowulf's possessions. The snake guarded the treasures in the cave for 300 years, and after a certain man stole a cup from him, the snake decided to take revenge on the people. Beowulf (now old) went to fight the serpent to keep his country safe. The serpent was killed, but Beowulf also died, receiving a mortal wound.
The Scandinavian sagas consist of 12 songs from the Elder Edda, composed in the ancient North Germanic (Scandinavian) dialect. According to the content of the songs, they are divided into tales about gods and tales about heroes. Some songs set out the concepts of the ancient Scandinavians about the universe and all 9 worlds, the constituent parts of the universe. One of the songs tells how the god Frey wooed the giant's daughter Gerda. In another, how the god Heimdal came to earth to establish classes and establish mutual relations between people. It tells about episodes of Odin's wanderings through the land, about the Aesir (light gods), the Jotungs (giants), the death of the Aesir and the whole world is predicted, about dwarfs, about Valkyries. Songs about heroes tell about two families - the Welzungs and the Niflungs. In the 13th century. “The Younger Edda” by Snorri Sturluson appeared - a manual on how to compose skaldic tales. The ancient Scandinavian tales of the Edda about the Niflungs, their treasure, Sigurd about his fight with Fafnir, about Gudrun and Brünnhilde were not exclusively Scandinavian tales. They belonged to all Germanic tribes, and a little later these legends became the basis for the poem in Middle German “Songs of the Nibelungs”. But unlike the Edda, the Nibelungenlied has a god and religious rituals are observed. Brunnhilde is a girl of wondrous beauty. Sigfried is the son of the Dutch kings. The Abelungs and Nibelungs die in the battle, the treasure was not found (Hagen did not say). The Song of Roland is based on the battle in Roncesvalles with the Basques, while the Song of My Cid is based on episodes of the reconquista. The stories were extremely popular and everyone knew them.
A separate page of medieval culture was knightly culture. It took shape by the 11th-12th centuries. The creator and bearer is the knightly class. It is based on the code of conduct of the ideal knight. Loyalty, courage, nobility, good manners, etc. One of the sources of the Western European knightly (courtly - the term was introduced by Gaston Paris (1839-1903) to denote the form of relations between a man and a woman that develops among gentlemen) novel was the Celtic epic about King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. (The story of Tristan and Isolde). In the knightly culture, the cult of the lady arises, constituting a necessary element of courtliness. From the end of the 11th century. the poetry of the troubadours flourishes in Provence, the poetry of the trouvères in the north of France, and the minnesingers in Germany. The most famous authors of chivalric romances were Chretien de Troyes, Wolfram von Eschenbach, Hartmann von Aue (knight) (1170-1210) (“Poor Henry”), a participant in the Third Crusade. In 1575, Michel Nostradamus's brother Jean published biographies of troubadours, who could also be people of noble origin, for example. Thibault of Champagne, and grandfather of Alienor of Aquitaine.
From the 11th century Cities become centers of cultural life. The genres of urban literature are fabliaux, schwanks, farces, and soti. A satirical epic is also taking shape - “The Romance of the Fox”. The main character, the Fox Renard (a wealthy townsman), defeats the Wolf Isengrin, the Bear Brenn, deceives the Lion Noble, the Donkey Baudouin. By the 13th century. refers to the origins of urban theatrical art. City games - “The Game of Robin and Marion”, etc. Then secular plays appear. Adam de Al (from Arras, nicknamed “The Hunchback” (1238-1286), who lived in Paris in 1262-1263, at the court of Count d'Artois (from 1272) and Charles of Anjou (from 1283) was the author of the first secular plays in the folk language, “Games under the leaves”, “Games about Robin and Marion”. says that she is in love with Robin, who bought her a scarlet dress and a belt, and that he is wooing her. Then the Knight returning from the tournament appears and tries to seduce her, Marion does not give in, and then Robin appears, and they coo sweetly. Games were popular - pastorals - scenes between a knight and a shepherdess, a shepherd and a shepherdess. Sample - the poems of Thibaut of Champagne “The King of Navarre”: “These days, Thibaut narrates, I met a shepherdess between the grove and the garden, who was singing, her song began like this. : “When illness attracts me, love.” Hearing this, I went to her and said: “Dear, God bless you, have a good day.” To this she answered with a bow. She was sweet, fresh, rosy, that I wanted to talk to her again. “Darling, I am looking for your love. I will give you a luxurious headdress!” “Knights are great deceivers, I prefer my shepherd Perren than rich scoffers.” “Beauty, don’t say that. Knights are very worthy people. Only knights and people of the highest circle can have a girlfriend according to their desire. But a shepherd's love costs nothing. Let's go..." “Sir, by the Mother of God, you wasted your words. Knights are greater deceivers than the traitor Ganelon. I would rather return to Perren, who is waiting for me and loves me with all his honest heart. And you, sir, stop chatting.” I realized that the shepherdess wanted to get away from me. I asked her for a long time and in vain, but when I hugged her, the shepherdess screamed: “Perinet, treason.” They responded from the forest, and I left her. Seeing that I was leaving, she mockingly shouted to me: “Oh, brave knight!” (La Barthe. Conversations...P.168-169).
An indispensable attribute of urban culture were processions, which could be arranged for any reason. In England, as well as in other European countries, processions of corporations and the ceremonial entry of the Lord Mayor of London into the City were common.
From the processions in Italian cities, as well as in other European countries, trionfo arose - i.e. a costumed procession, partly on foot, partly on carts, which, being originally church-based, gradually acquired a secular meaning. Processions for the feast of Corpus Christi and carnival processions here stylistically merge, and the ceremonial entries of sovereigns soon join this style.
Carnival - was held in the week preceding Lent, on Maslenitsa - either on Broad Thursday or on Fat Tuesday. First carnesciale (meat eater), carnevale. It got its name either from carrus navalis - ship, cart, carne vale - meat eater, flesh. An exclusively urban phenomenon. It acquired a variety of forms by the 15th century. It included processions, games, acrobatic and sports displays, and masks. Perhaps masks are an attribute exclusively of the Venetian carnival. The first mention of masks is found in a Senate decree of 1268. It was a ban on wearing masks when organizing certain categories of games, but the Venetians... In 1339 the decree was repeated. Then workshops for mask manufacturers appeared. Over the years, the carnival has become wild, lush and fun. The opening carnival was accompanied by a church service and speeches from the authorities. So-called entertainment companies appear. Compagnie delle Calze, whose members wore symbolic emblems decorated with pearls and precious stones, ladies wore them on their sleeves, men wore them on their stockings. In the 15th century the carnival becomes diverse - fortune tellers, astrologers, soothsayers, sellers of all-healing ointments, ointments, insect repellents, against female infertility, against bullets, against bladed weapons. Then, as an addition to the carnival, and then as an independent component, the commedia delle arte appeared, i.e. folk comedy. There were over 100 masks. 2 quartets - northern - Pantalone (Venetian with his own dialect, old man - merchant, rich, stingy, sick, frail, sneezes, coughs, considers himself smarter than everyone else, but most often becomes the object of pranks, womanizer, merchant who has grown old), Doctor (Bolognese scientist, spouts, misinterpreting Latin quotes, lawyer, sometimes a doctor (the attribute in this case is klystyre), loves to drink, womanizer, the most complex mask - comedy), Brighella (smart servant, complex and responsible mask, since it is he who starts the intrigue), Harlequin = Truffaldino (stupid servant, often gets beat up), (both come from Bergamo, the homeland of Italian fools); southern - Coviello (southern parallel of Brighella), Pulcinella (southern parallel of Harlequin - consistently stupid), Scaramuccia (boastful warrior, coward), Tartaglia (appeared in Naples around 1610 - Tartaglia in Italian. stutterer, the character of the Spanish servants, preventing people from living ), + Captain (a parody of the Spaniards), Lovers (ladies - 1. powerful, proud, 2. soft, gentle, submissive; gentlemen - 1. cheeky, optimistic; 2. timid, modest. speak the correct literary language), Fantesque (Serveta = Colombina - a maid, in Goldoni - Mirandolina), etc. Masks=role.
Since laughter was banished from official life, that is why "Feast of Fools", which were held on New Year's Day, the Day of the Innocent Infants, Epiphany, Midsummer's Day. There were few such holidays. What could cause laughter? Buffon tricks = lazzi (lazzi = l "atto, action, i.e. buffon trick. Lazzi with a fly - Zanni makes a gesture with his hand, as if catching a fly in the air, then with facial expressions shows that he tears off its wings, legs and throws it at mouth to yourself. Or lazzi with pasta - a plate of pasta that is eaten either with the hands or with the mouth. The actors are tied with their backs, one bends over, the other dangles his legs in the air;
In many cities the townspeople were organizing in neighborhoods for public performances. These include the performance of hell on stages and barges standing on the Arno (Florence) (05/1/1304), during which the Alla Caraya bridge collapsed under the audience. One of the specific features of the performances in Italy was the use of machines - they carried out ascent into the air and descent. Florentines already in the 14th century. maligned when the trick did not go smoothly. Famous artists took part in organizing the holidays. For example, Brunelleschi invents for the Feast of the Annunciation in Piazza San Felice an apparatus depicting a celestial globe framed by two garlands of angels, from which Gabriel descended to earth in an almond-shaped machine. Cecca also develops mechanisms for such celebrations. The most solemn holiday was the Feast of Corpus Christi. It was celebrated magnificently in 1480 in Viterbo. The holiday was organized by Pope Pius II. Here is the suffering Christ, surrounded by angelic boys; The Last Supper, where Thomas Aquinas was present, the struggle of the Archangel Michael with demons, a spring gushing with wine, the Holy Sepulcher, the scene of the Resurrection, on the cathedral square - the tomb of Mary, which, after a solemn mass and blessing, was opened, and the Mother of God in a host of angels soared into the paradise, where Christ placed a crown on her and led her to the eternal Father. Rodrigo Borgia (Alexander VI) organized similar holidays, but he was distinguished by his passion for cannon cannonades. S. Infessura wrote about the holiday that Pietro Riario organized in 1473 in Rome on the occasion of the passage of Eleanor of Aragon, the bride of Prince Ercole of Ferrara. There were also mysteries, and pantomimes on mythological themes - Orpheus surrounded by animals, Perseus and Andromeda, Ceres, who was attracted by a dragon, Bacchus, Ariadne with a panther; there was a ballet of love couples of prehistoric times, all this was interrupted by the invasion of robber centaurs, whom Hercules Pri defeated. During all the festivities, people depicting statues stood in niches and on columns, while they recited and sang. In the halls of the Riario there was a boy completely covered in gold, spraying water from a fountain. Vasari in his “Biography of Pontormo” described how such a child in 1513. On one Florentine holiday, he died due to overexertion or gilding. The boy represented the “golden age.” In Venice, the arrival of the princess from the house of Este (1491) was celebrated with a gala reception with the “Bucentaur”, a rowing competition and the pantomime “Meleager” in the palace of the Doge’s Palace. In Milan, Leonardo da Vinci took care of the festivities of the Duke and other nobles. One of his machines represented on a huge scale the celestial system and all its movements; whenever one of the planets approached the young Duke's bride, Isabella, the corresponding god appeared from the ball and sang the verses of the court poet Bellincioni (1489). From Vasari we know what kind of automata Leonardo invented to greet the French king, who was entering Milan as a conqueror.
In addition, there were holidays that were celebrated only in one city or another. For example, in Rome they organized running competitions: donkeys, horses, buffaloes, old men, young men, Jews. In Siena they organized a paleo (on horseback). In Venice - regattas, the betrothal of the Doge to the sea. Torchlight processions are popular. Thus, in 1459, after the Congress of Mantua, Pius II was waited in Rome with torches; participants in the torchlight procession formed a ring near his palace.
City entertainment - walks around the city, in the park, “sports” - fist fights, various competitions, in England - curling, etc. Trips to the resort, visits to drinking establishments, in the countries of Northern Europe and the Netherlands - ice skating, visits with occasion (or without?).
Religious holidays. 4 holiday cycles - Yuletide (winter), (Maslenitsa), Easter (spring), Trinity (summer), Theotokos (autumn), or December birth, April crucifixion, June Ascension, August death of the Mother of God and her September birth.
Winter holidays began on November 11 - St. Martina, or Martin's Day - the time of pouring new wine, slaughtering livestock. Expression - Martyn's pig, Martyn's goose. Disease of St. Martina - being drunk. The day of hiring workers, settlement with owners, the day of rent payment. They ate and drank (Grimmelshausen - St. Martin's Day - then we, the Germans, begin to feast and revel until Maslenitsa. Then many, both officers and townspeople, began to invite me to visit Martin's goose), and had fun. In the Netherlands there was a game of cat - a cat was put in a barrel, which was tied to a tree, and they tried to get it out of there with sticks. In Italy, on Martin's day they ate pasta, pork, poultry, sweet pretzels and drank new wine.
November 25th celebrated St. Catherine and the Christmas period began. Christmas was preceded by the “dead weeks” of Advent (4 Sundays before Christmas (candles are lit before Christmas, a candle every Sunday).
December 6th - St. Nicholas, in the Netherlands on this day children (good and small) are given gifts and placed in stockings (bad and grown-up children are given coals). Later St. Nicholas turned into Santa Claus (1822). The prototype of Santa Claus was Bishop Nicholas of Myra, who lived in the 4th century, who first gave gifts to three sisters who dreamed of getting married, but did not have a dowry (he tossed a wallet with money to each, the youngest - the wallet ended up in a stocking, which she hung up to dry at the hearth after washing).
December 25th is Christmas. Roman proverb: “Spend Christmas with your own people, and Easter where she finds you.” Then Christmastide came until January 6 (until the day of the Three Kings. The Bean King. (A bean or some inedible object was placed in the pie; whoever got the wrong piece was the Bean King, who fulfilled all wishes). The first 12 days of the new year were determined all year, January 1 - January, 2 - February, etc. “Whoever counts coins on the first day of the year, counts them all year, on January 1-6, Befana walks around Italy either on a donkey, or it is brought by the stars.” and gives gifts to children. The custom of putting up a Christmas tree came from Germany. It was first erected in the 16th century (after the Reformation) in Strasbourg on the day of remembrance of Adam and Eve on December 24. A tree decorated with red apples was placed in the room, representing the tree of good and evil. , or a triangular pyramid, on the shelves of which there were gifts, and the top was decorated with the Star of Bethlehem (Champagne began to be drunk in 1668 - in Italy they throw old furniture out of the window, at midnight - whoever eats the most grapes wins the most). will be prosperous all year, food is prepared from lentils (resembles coins), eggs; in Spain - they eat a grape and make a wish; in England - when midnight strikes, they open the back door of the house, letting out the old year, and with the last blow, open the front door, letting in the new year. They drink punch - grape wine, vodka (rum), tea, sugar, lemon juice (2 alcoholic components for 3 non-alcoholic), boil in a silver pan.
January 17th - St. Anthony, blessed domestic animals, lit bonfires - “the fires of St. Anthony" - with cleansing properties, the extinct firebrand was kept as a remedy against lightning.
End of winter - Meeting on February 2. - In Italy it's Candelora's holiday. (candles). It is believed that on Candelora a bear crawls out of its den to see what the weather is like. If it is cloudy, it makes 3 jumps - winter is over; if it is clear, it returns back to the den, saying that it will be cold for another 40 days. The culmination of the holiday is the blessing of candles.
Spring - On March 14, a ceremony was held in Rome called mamuralia - a man dressed in the skin of “old Mars” was driven out of the city with sticks.
March 15 is the holiday of Anna Perena - the goddess of the Moon or water. At this time, a carnival was held. Carts (carrus navalis - (chariot - ship), carne vale - long live the flesh), processions, masks, games. The last Thursday (Tuesday) before the carnival is Fat Thursday, the apogee of the holiday. Lent began with Ash Wednesday, which followed Fat Tuesday.
Palm Sunday, Easter.
April 30 - (Walpurgis Night - Witches' Sabbath) night walk in the forest behind a tree. In all countries of Western Europe there was a custom to celebrate the “day of renewal of nature” - May 1st. Young people went out of town to “bring May.” They returned with flowers, fragrant herbs, and leaves that decorated the doors and windows of houses. In France and Belgium, the homes of lovers were decorated with flowering rosehip branches. This was called “planting May.” In the Middle Ages, at the courts of the lords, a special “May ride” was organized, with the May count or the May king at the head of the cavalcade. On the May holidays, young people led round dances and sang. They built a maypole, from the top of which gifts (ham, sausages, sweets, poultry, etc.) were hung. The holiday ended with a competition to see which of the guys could climb the tree the fastest. The winner is the King of May + Queen of May.
Summer cycle holidays began with the Feast of Corpus Domini and was celebrated on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. Introduced by Pope Urban IV on September 8, 1264 in memory of the Bolsena miracle (when, during a service in one of the churches in Bolsena, the blood of Christ appeared on a wafer). The holiday ritual is a procession. The city was always decorated with carpets and flowers; the pavements were decorated with carpets of fresh flowers. Holiday - carpet demonstrations.
June 24 - St. Day John the Baptist. Fires were lit. On the eve of the holiday they told fortunes. At night they put 2 beans under the pillow - black and white, in the morning they took them out at random, if they pulled out the black one, the girl would get married within a year, if the white one - not. They also wondered about the wealth of the future husband. If they pulled out peeled beans, they were poor; if they were unpeeled, they were rich. June 24 is the day of Florence, since St. Giovanni is the patron saint of the city. So, just like every city has its own heavenly patron, in whose honor a holiday was always held.
August 15 - Assumption of the Virgin Mary. In Italy, “buon Ferragosto” means good August holidays. The season ended with a big summer festival. In Rome, Navin Square was flooded with water. They organized a competition - a paleo (palio) competition of riders. Dante wrote about a similar competition near Verona, the winner received green cloth, the last - a rooster. They shot from a crossbow.
From August to October, holidays began throughout the Mediterranean, dedicated to the harvesting of grapes, figs, and the ripening of leaves on mulberry trees (Murcia). The grape harvest season is a time of revelry, fun and extravagance.
Autumn. A wine fair was held in Seville from October 5 to 15. On the third Sunday of October in Germany, fairs began in many lands, where they held the so-called. kirbaum resembled a maypole, + lunch.
(October 30 - Halloween in English-speaking countries), preceded November 1 - All Saints' Day. Introduced in 610, it first fell on May 13, in the 9th century. postponed to November 1st.
November 2 is the day of remembrance of all the dead. November 1 was spent in the church, November 2 - in the cemetery, and then they had a meal. (In Italy, beans are a funeral food).
There were annual holidays for schoolchildren. They were celebrated either on St. Nicholas, or on the day of innocent babies (December 27). On this day, in all major cathedrals, a boy was elected bishop, who led the religious holiday and delivered a sermon. The second holiday of schoolchildren is Penitential Tuesday (during Maslenitsa week) on this day the students brought fighting cocks and had cockfights. On the same day they played ball.
In addition, all regions of Europe had their own local patronal holidays. In German and Dutch countries it was called kermes (kirmes).
Culturologists call the Middle Ages a long period in the history of Western Europe between Antiquity and Modern Times. This period spans more than a millennium from the 5th to the 15th centuries.
Folk culture this era is a new and almost unexplored topic in science. The ideologists of feudal society managed not only to push the people away from the means of recording their thoughts and moods, but also to deprive researchers of subsequent times of the opportunity to restore the main features of their spiritual life. “The great dumb”, “the great absentee”, “people without archives and without faces” - this is what modern historians call the people in an era when direct access to the means of recording cultural values in writing was denied. The folk culture of the Middle Ages was unlucky in science. Usually, when they talk about it, they mention at most the remnants of the ancient world and epic, the remnants of paganism.
Early Middle Ages - from the end of the 4th century. The “great migration of peoples” began. Wherever the rule of Rome took deeper roots, “Romanization” captured all areas of culture: the dominant language was Latin, the dominant law was Roman law, the dominant religion was Christianity. The barbarian peoples who created their states in the ruins of the Roman Empire found themselves either in a Roman or Romanized environment. However, it should be noted the crisis of the culture of the ancient world during the period of the barbarian invasion.
High (classical) Middle Ages- at the first stage of late feudalism (XI-XII centuries), crafts, trade, and city life were poorly developed. Feudal landowners reigned supreme. During the classical period, or high Middle Ages, Western Europe began to overcome difficulties and revive. The so-called knightly literature emerges and develops. One of the most famous works is the greatest monument of the French folk heroic epic - “The Song of Roland”. During this period, the so-called “urban literature” rapidly developed, which was characterized by a realistic depiction of the urban everyday life of various segments of the urban population, as well as the appearance of satirical works. Representatives of urban literature in Italy were Cecco Angiolieri and Guido Orlandi (late 13th century).
Late Middle Ages continued the processes of formation of European culture that began during the classical period. During these periods, uncertainty and fear dominated the masses. Economic growth is followed by long periods of recession and stagnation.
In the Middle Ages, a complex of ideas about the world, beliefs, mental attitudes and systems of behavior, which could conventionally be called “folk culture” or “folk religiosity,” was in one way or another the property of all members of society. The medieval church, wary and suspicious of the customs, faith and religious practices of the common people, was influenced by them. The entire cultural life of European society of this period was largely determined by Christianity.
During the Middle Ages, there was a special influence of the Christian Church on the formation of the mentality and worldview of Europeans. Instead of a meager and difficult life, religion offered people a system of knowledge about the world and the laws operating in it. That is why medieval culture was completely imbued with Christian ideas and ideals, which considered human earthly life as a preparatory stage for the upcoming immortality, but in a different dimension. People identified the world with a kind of arena in which heavenly and hellish forces, good and evil, confronted each other.
Medieval culture reflects the history of the struggle between the state and the church, their interaction and the implementation of divine goals.
Architecture
In the 10th-12th centuries in Western European countries, which is rightfully considered the first canon of medieval architecture, prevailed.
Secular buildings are massive, characterized by narrow window openings and high towers. Typical features of Romanesque architectural structures are domed structures and semicircular arches. Bulky buildings symbolized the power of the Christian god.
During this period, special attention was paid to monastery buildings, as they combined the monks’ home, chapel, prayer room, workshops and library. The main element of the composition is a high tower. Massive reliefs decorating facade walls and portals were the main element of temple decor.
Medieval culture is characterized by the emergence of another style in architecture. It is called Gothic. This style shifts the cultural center from secluded monasteries to crowded city neighborhoods. At the same time, the cathedral is considered the main spiritual building. The first temple buildings are distinguished by slender columns that soar upward, elongated windows, painted stained glass windows and “roses” above the entrance. Inside and out, they were decorated with reliefs, statues, and paintings, emphasizing the main feature of the style - upward direction.
Sculpture
Metal processing is used primarily for manufacturing