Arab culture

medieval culture that developed in the Arab Caliphate in the 7th-10th centuries. in the process of cultural interaction between the Arabs and the peoples of the Middle and Middle countries they conquered. East, North Africa and South-West Europe. In the scientific literature the term “A. To." is used both to denote the culture of the Arab peoples themselves, and when applied to the medieval Arabic-speaking culture of a number of other peoples that were part of the Caliphate. In the latter sense, the concept “A. To." is sometimes identified with the concept of “Muslim culture” (i.e., the culture of Muslim peoples) and its use is conditional.

On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula, A.K. was preceded by the culture of pre-Islamic Arabs - a nomadic and agricultural population that was in the stage of transition to an early form class society. Its bearers were mainly polytheists. In the 4th-6th centuries. it was influenced by the ancient Yemenite, Syro-Hellenistic, Jewish, and Iranian cultures. A characteristic element of the pre-Islamic culture of this period (the so-called jahiliyya) was a developed oral folk literature. The formation of A.K. proper dates back to the period of the emergence of Islam. (7th century) and the creation of the Caliphate, which as a result of the Arab conquests (See Arab conquests) turned into a huge state. The state-political community founded by the Arabs, supplemented by religious and, in most areas, linguistic community, created the conditions for the emergence of common forms of cultural life of the peoples of the Caliphate. In the early stages, the formation of ancient culture was mainly a process of assimilation, revaluation, and creative development in new ideological and socio-political conditions (Islam and the Caliphate) of the heritage of the cultures of conquered peoples (ancient Greek, Hellenistic-Roman, Aramaic, Iranian, etc.) . The Arabs themselves gave A.K. such components as the religion of Islam, the Arabic language, and the traditions of Bedouin poetry. A significant contribution to the Arab world was made by peoples who, having converted to Islam, retained national and then revived state independence (the peoples of Central Asia, Iran, and Transcaucasia). An important role was also played by the part of the population of the Caliphate that did not accept Islam (Christian Syrians, Jews, Zoroastrian Persians, representatives of the Gnostic sects of Western Asia); Their activities (especially the Nestorian Syrians and the Sabians of Harran) are associated, in particular, with the spread of philosophical and ethical ideas and the scientific heritage of antiquity and Hellenism. In the 8th-9th centuries. Many scientific and literary monuments of antiquity were translated into Arabic, including Greek, Syrian, Middle Persian and Indian. In translations and adaptations, they became part of the Arabic written language and contributed to the establishment of a continuous connection with the culture of the Hellenistic world, and through it - with ancient and ancient Eastern civilization.

From the end of the 7th century. until the middle of the 8th century. Along with Damascus, the capital of the Umayyads (See Umayyads), the main centers that determined the formation of AK were Mecca and Medina in Arabia, Kufa and Basra in Iraq. Religious and philosophical ideas, the first achievements of science, the canons of Arabic poetry, examples of architecture, etc. received distribution and further development in the provinces of the Umayyad Caliphate, over a vast territory from the Pyrenees to the river. Ind.

With the formation of the Abbasid Caliphate (See Abbasids) (750) the center of Egypt in the east of the Caliphate moved from Syria to Iraq, to ​​Baghdad, founded in 762, which for almost three centuries was the focus of the best cultural forces of the Muslim East. In the 9th-10th centuries. A.K. reached its peak. Her achievements enriched the culture of many peoples, in particular the peoples of medieval Europe, and made an outstanding contribution to world culture. This applies primarily to the development of philosophy, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, geographical knowledge, philological and historical disciplines, chemistry, and mineralogy. Remarkable monuments mark the development of material culture and art (architecture, artistic craft). The division of branches of knowledge in academia is conditional, because for it, as for other cultures of the Middle Ages, the absence of a clear differentiation of sciences and the encyclopedic nature of the education of most of the figures of the Academy were typical. The philosopher and mathematician was often also a major historian, physician, geographer, poet and philologist.

An important factor in the flourishing of Arab culture was that the development of science and literature was the property of all the peoples of the Caliphate (both Arabs and non-Arabs). The enrichment of the Arab world was facilitated by ample opportunities for communication and the exchange of cultural achievements between the peoples of the Muslim East, as well as lively ties with many countries of the East and Europe.

The collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate (mid-10th century) due to the formation of independent states on its territory led to a narrowing of the sphere of distribution of ancient history and a gradual decrease in its role in general development world culture. In Muslim Spain, which separated from the Abbasid Caliphate back in the 8th century, the so-called independent development began. Arab-Spanish culture. In the eastern provinces of the Caliphate at the end of the 9th century. centers of the Iranian cultural and national revival are being formed. The Persian language displaces the Arabic language, first from literature and poetry, and then from some humanities (history, geography, etc.). The Arabic language retained its importance here as the language of the Koran, religious canonical (law, theology) and a number of natural science disciplines (medicine, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry), as well as philosophy. AK centers move to Syria, Egypt, and Spain.

All in. In Africa, under the Fatimids (See Fatimids) (10th-12th centuries) and the Ayyubids (See Ayyubids) (12th-13th centuries), the development of the best traditions of AK in the field of science, literature, art and material culture continued, although with less influence on the overall progress of the culture of the peoples of the Muslim East than in the 8th - 1st half of the 10th centuries. By the end of the 10th century. Baghdad ceded the leading role to Cairo.

The meaning of A. k. 8-10 centuries. in the history of world culture was determined by the discovery by its creators of new means of scientific, religious, philosophical and artistic knowledge of the world and man. The main efforts of AK figures in subsequent periods were directed mainly at systematizing and detailing this heritage.

Although the scientific and aesthetic traditions of A.K. were not interrupted, from the 2nd half of the 13th century. In the work of academic figures, the epigonic direction, compilative in science and imitative in literature, prevailed. Individual exceptions could not influence the general state of spiritual stagnation and the increasingly noticeable lag in the development of ancient culture from the pace of cultural progress in other countries of the Muslim East (Iran, Middle Asia in the 14th and 15th centuries, Ottoman Turkey in the 16th century. ) and in Europe.

The Arab-Spanish civilization experienced a brilliant flourishing in the 10th-15th centuries. Its centers were Cordoba, Seville, Malaga and Granada. The greatest successes were achieved in astronomy, mathematics, chemistry and medicine. The development of the progressive line of Arab philosophy continued here [al-Farabi, about 870 - about 950; Ibn Sina (Avicenna), 980-1037], represented by the works of Ibn Rushd a (Averroes, 1126-1198). In poetry and literature, works were created that were among the best artistic monuments of A.K. World famous acquired monuments of Spanish-Moorish architecture and applied art (see Moorish art).

A major achievement of the AK of the late Middle Ages was the creation by the historian and sociologist Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) historical and philosophical theory of social development.

In the 16th century Arab countries became provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Egypt fell into decline, although even during this period the old cultural centers of Syria, Iraq and Egypt traditionally retained an attractive force for Muslim scholars.

A qualitatively new period in the development of AK began in the first half of the 19th century. In the context of the economic and political revival of the Arab countries in modern times, in the conditions of the beginning of the development of the national liberation movement and, finally, the formation of independent Arab states, the formation of a modern academia is taking place, mainly within each of the Arab countries. (See relevant sections in articles about individual Arab countries.)

Exact and natural sciences. The center for the development of natural sciences in the Caliphate was initially the territory of Syria and part of the South-West. Iran. Here the beginning of translations into Arabic and commentary on the works of ancient authors was laid. Translations from Greek and Syriac, which introduced scholars of Islamic countries to a significant part of ancient scientific literature, in many cases were the only sources for which the West. Europe could become acquainted with ancient science. For example, Heron’s Mechanics and many of Archimedes’ treatises have come down to us only in Arabic translation. Through the carriers of the AK, many technical innovations (compass, oblique sail, etc.) entered European use; some of them were adopted from China and India.

9th-11th centuries - a period of rapid development of science in the Caliphate. Baghdad is becoming a major scientific center with schools and libraries. Along with the creation of a huge translated literature and commentaries on it, a scientific direction is already beginning to take shape here, closely related to the solution of applied problems and practical problems of construction, land surveying, and trade. Astronomy and mathematics, mineralogy, and descriptive geography are intensively developing.

In connection with the collapse of the Caliphate into separate states (10th century), new scientific centers emerged along with Baghdad: Damascus and Aleppo (Aleppo) in Syria, Cairo in Egypt, Maragha in Azerbaijan, Samarkand in Middle East. Asia, Ghazni in Afghanistan, as well as the centers of Spanish-Arab culture - Cordoba, and then Seville and Granada. IN different time major scientific centers were Bukhara and Isfahan, where from the end of the 11th century. Persian and Tajik poet and scientist Omar Khayyam worked at the observatory (about 1048 - after 1122), who wrote his scientific treatises in Arabic. In Cairo from the beginning of the 11th century. the “House of Knowledge” functioned, in which astronomer Ibn Yunus worked (950--1009) and the mathematician and physicist Ibn al-Haytham (about 965-1039); in 1004 an observatory was built here.

In addition to the Greek heritage, the formation of mathematics in Islamic countries was greatly influenced by the Indian scientific tradition. The decimal positional number system using zero, which originates from Indian mathematics, has become widespread. The first work in Arabic devoted to arithmetic is a treatise by the largest representative of the Baghdad school, al-Khwarizmi (9th century). In the 15th century Samarkand scientist al-Kashi introduced decimal fractions into use and described the rules for operating them. In the writings of Abu-l-Vefa (940-998), the Central Asian scientist al-Biruni (973-1048, according to other sources - after 1050), Omar Khayyam, Nasireddin Tuei (1201-80, according to other sources - 1274 or 1277), Methods for extracting roots with natural indicators were developed and systematized. The role of Khorezmi and Omar Khayyam in the creation of algebra as an independent mathematical discipline was extremely great. Khorezmi's algebraic treatise contains a classification of quadratic equations and methods for solving them; treatise by Omar Khayyam - theory and classification of cubic equations. The computational techniques of Viruni, Kashi, and others were significantly improved.

Of great interest are the geometric treatise of the brothers “sons of Musa” (“Banu Musa”) of the 9th century, the works of Abu-l-Vefa on practical geometry, the treatises of Ibn Kurra (See Ibn Kurra) (about 836-901), the treatise of Ibn al- Haytham on the quadratures of conic sections and the cubatures of bodies obtained from their rotation, studies by an-Nayrizi (9th-10th centuries), Ibn Kurra, Ibn al-Haytham, Omar Khayyam, Tuey and others on the theory of parallel lines.

Mathematicians from Islamic countries turned plane and spherical trigonometry from an auxiliary branch of astronomy into an independent mathematical discipline. In the works of Khorezmi, al-Marwazi, al-Battani, Biruni, Nasireddin Tuya, all six trigonometric lines in a circle were introduced, dependencies between trigonometric functions were established, all cases of solving spherical triangles were studied, the most important theorems of trigonometry were obtained, various trigonometric tables were compiled, which were distinguished by great accuracy.

Astronomy has achieved significant success. First, translation and commentary on the works of Ptolemy and Indian astronomical works - siddhantas - were carried out. The center of translation activity was the “House of Wisdom” and its observatory in Baghdad. Translations of Indian astronomical treatises were made by al-Fazari - father (died about 777) and son (died about 796), and Yaqub ibn Tariq (died about 96). Starting from Greek methods of modeling the movement of celestial bodies and Indian calculation rules, Arab astronomers developed methods for determining the coordinates of luminaries on the celestial sphere, as well as rules for transitioning from one of the three coordinate systems used to another. Even treatises on astrology contained elements of important natural science knowledge. Zijs - collections of tables and calculation rules of spherical astronomy - have become widespread. About 100 zijs from the 13th to 15th centuries have reached us. About 20 of them were compiled on the basis of the authors’ own observations in the observatories of many cities: Biruni in Ghazni, Battani in Raqqa, Ibn Yunus in Cairo, Nasireddin Tuei in Maragha, Kashi in Samarkand, etc. Arab astronomers achieved significant accuracy in measuring the inclination of the ecliptic. Under Caliph Mamun (9th century), the meridian degree was measured to determine the size globe.

Further development of the heritage of ancient mechanics continued [Ibn Kurra's treatise on lever scales - korastun; treatises of Biruni, Omar Khayyam, al-Khazini (12th century) on the determination of the specific gravities of metals and minerals]. The cycle of works on general issues of mechanics originates from the translation and commentary of the works of Aristotle. Among the commentators on Aristotle's natural science works were Biruni and Ibn Sina.

Many scientists worked in the field of mineralogy [works of Biruni, Khazini, scientist and physician al-Razi].

Information on physics, in particular atmospheric physics and geophysics, is contained in the “Canon of Masud”, “Mineralogy” by Biruni, and in the “Book of Knowledge” by Ibn Sina. Ibn al-Haytham's "Optics" was widely known in the West. Europe.

Great strides have been made in medicine. Ibn Sina’s “Canon of Medicine” has long been the main guide in medical practice, both in medieval East, and in the West. Europe. Among Biruni's works there is a treatise on pharmacology. Al-Razi's body of medical knowledge is known (864-925). Issues of surgery, ophthalmology, therapy, and psychiatry were developed.

Geography. In terms of the abundance of geographical information, the variety of genres and the number of works of Arab geography, literature has no analogues in medieval geography. Arab geographers and travelers left a description of the entire Muslim East, as well as a number of countries, including Europe, the North. and Center. Africa, East coast. Africa and Asia up to Korea, the islands of the Malay Archipelago. Their works are the most important, and sometimes the only evidence about many peoples of the Middle Ages. A characteristic feature of Arab geographical science is that in its theoretical constructions it proceeded, despite the real information it had accumulated about the geography of the Earth, from the Ptolemaic picture of the world and its geographical theory. Cartographic material usually reproduced Ptolemaic maps or schematic maps that went back to ancient Iranian prototypes.

The geographical ideas of the pre-Islamic Arabs are reflected in ancient poetry and the Koran. Appearance at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. translations and processing of astronomical and geographical works of ancient authors, especially Ptolemy, marked the beginning of Arab scientific geography, which applied calculation rules and tables of spherical astronomy. The highest achievement of this branch of Arab geography, along with the works of Battani and Khorezmi, are the astronomical, geographical and geodetic works of Biruni. In the 9th century The first examples of descriptive geography also appeared [the works of Ibn Khordadbeh a (about 820 - about 912/913), Qudama ibn Jafar (1st half of the 10th century), al-Yaqubi (died 897 or 905)], as well as travel stories , containing fantastic and real information about countries and peoples outside the Caliphate (collection of Abu Zaid al-Sirafi, early 10th century; op. Buzurg ibn Shahriyar, etc.). The genre of travel descriptions developed subsequently (notes of Ibn Fadlan a, 10th century, Abu Dulafa, 10th century; travel diaries of Abu Hamid al-Garnati, died 1170, Ibn Jubair a, died 1217, and Ibn Battuta (See), 1304-1377, description of the journey to Russia of Patriarch Macarius of Antioch, etc.).

The heyday of Arabic geographical literature falls in the 10th century. Particularly significant were the works of representatives of the classical school of Arab geography, devoted to the description of trade routes and regions of the Muslim world and containing rich geographical, historical and cultural material (works of al-Istakhri, Ibn Hawqal, 10th century, al-Muqaddasi, 946/947 - about 1000 ). B 11-14 centuries genres of geographical dictionaries and general descriptions of the Universe arose - cosmographies, summarizing the previously accumulated geographical material (dictionaries Yakut a, 1179-1229, al-Bakri, died 1094, cosmographies al-Qazwini, died 1283, ad-Dimashki, died 1327, Abul -Feeds). In Europe, al-Idrisi (1100-1165 or 1161) received the greatest fame. His works with 70 maps were considered the best geographical treatise in the Middle Ages. In addition to a description of the Muslim East, it contains various information about the countries and peoples of the West. and Vost. Europe. The subsequent development of geography proceeded mainly through the creation of extensive compilations, especially cosmographies and historical and topographical descriptions of individual cities and countries (for example, the works of al-Maqrizi). The geographical sections in the works of al-Nuwairi, al-Umari, al-Kalkashandi and others are of great value. A major contribution to Arab geographical science were the works of the pilot Vasco da Gama - Ibn Majid a (15th century) and al-Mehri (16th century). ), summarizing the theory and centuries-old practice of Arab navigation.

Philosophy. The main content of the history of medieval Arab philosophy was the struggle between the Eastern Peripatetics (see Peripatetic school), who proceeded from the Hellenistic heritage, and supporters of religious idealistic teachings. The background to the emergence of philosophical thought proper in the Arab East dates back to the 2nd half of the 8th century. and is associated with the Mu'tazilites (See Mu'tazilites), early representatives of rational theology (kalam), who, starting with a discussion of questions about the divine Attributes and free will, ended with the development of concepts that not only went beyond the scope of religious issues, but also undermined faith in some basic tenets of Islam. Thus, consistently pursuing the idea of ​​Monotheism, the Mu'tazilites rejected the presence of positive attributes in God that complemented his essence; Denying in it, in particular, the attribute of speech, they rejected the idea of ​​​​the eternity of the Koran and on this basis concluded that its allegorical interpretation was admissible. The Mu'tazilites developed the concept of reason as the only measure of truth and the position of the inability of the creator to change the natural order of things. The idea of ​​the atomic structure of the world was widespread among the Mu'tazilites. Thus, on the one hand, they laid the foundation for rational geology, and on the other, they cleared the ground for the emergence of purely philosophical free-thinking of the Peripatetics.

As a reaction to the ideas of the Mu'tazilites, the doctrine of the Ash'arites (followers of al-Ash'ari, 873 or 874 - 935/936) developed, who directed rational theology into the mainstream of philosophical defense of the dogmas of divine providence and miracles (it is with this doctrine that the term “kalam” is often associated and the main thus its representatives are called mutakallim). According to the teachings of the Ash'arites, nature turned out to be a heap of atoms and their qualities, unrelated to each other and instantly recreated by God; in the world, they argued, there are no cause-and-effect relationships, for the Almighty is able at any moment to give any object any shape and any movement.

In contrast to both the speculations of theologians and the teachings of the Peripatetics, Sufism developed. Using, together with elements of the Muslim worldview, the ideas of Gnosticism and Neoplatonism, Sufis developed a doctrine of the paths leading a person through renunciation of worldly passions and thought of God to the contemplation of God in mystical intuition and the final merger with him. At the same time, at some stages of their development, Sufi ideas were subject to interpretation in the spirit of naturalistic pantheism.

The mysticism of the Sufis, which at first was persecuted by the orthodox clergy, was legitimized by al-Ghazali (1059-1111), the largest representative of religious-idealistic philosophy. In his criticism of the “heretical” and “anti-religious” views of the Peripatetics, Ghazali defended the position of the Ash’arites along with mystical Sufism, refusing, however, to accept their atomistic theory. Ibn al-Arabi (1165-1240) can also be considered one of the influential representatives of Sufism.

Eastern Peripatetism was based on the philosophy of Aristotle, which was passed on to the Arabs through Syrian translators, partly in the interpretation of the Athenian and Alexandrian schools, as well as other ancient teachings, in particular the political theory of Plato. The interpretations of Aristotle by the Eastern Peripatetics opened up the possibility of atheistic and even materialistic concepts. Thus, the position of dual truth, already contained in a hidden form in the teachings of the Mu'tazilites, suggested allegorical interpretations of the dogmas of Islam.

The founder of Eastern Peripatetism was al-Kindi (about 800 - 879), who was the first in Arab philosophy to set out the content of the main works of Aristotle. He was the first to present (based on the classification of intellects going back to Alexander of Aphrodisias) rational knowledge as the introduction of the individual’s mind to the universal, the deity, the mind. Kindi's deism, his idea of ​​God as a faceless "distant cause", developed within the framework of al-Farabi's Neoplatonic theory of emanation. Farabi's ontological and epistemological ideas were deepened and detailed by the greatest thinker of the Middle Ages, Ibn Sina, who affirmed the eternity of matter and the independence of private phenomena of life from divine providence.

In the 12th century the center of philosophical thought moved to the west of the Muslim world - to Spain. Here in Andalusia, similar humanistic themes are being developed by Ibn Baj, reflecting on man’s ability through purely intellectual improvement, without mystical insight, to achieve complete happiness and merge with the active mind, and Ibn Tufail, in a philosophical Robinsonade describing the history of the development and knowledge of nature by mankind, setting out at the same time in allegorical form the concept of dual truth. However, Andalusian, and with it the entire medieval Arab philosophy, reaches its peak in the work of Ibn Rushd, who defended the ideas of peripatetism from the attacks of the Ash'arites and Ghazali and created an independent philosophical doctrine. Rejecting the teaching of Ibn Sina about the introduction of forms into matter from the outside, Ibn Rushd came up with a thesis about the immanence of forms in matter itself. He also denied the immortality of individual souls, considering eternal only the human intellect, which joins the active divine mind, which embodies the ultimate goal of human knowledge. Big role The development of the concept of dual truth by Ibn Rushd played a role in the history of medieval philosophy.

Another major thinker of the Arab West was Ibn Khaldun, rightfully considered one of the founders of the philosophy of history.

Arab philosophy found a second life in Europe - in the activities of the Averroists (followers of Ibn Rushd, see Averroism) and other fighters against official ideology Catholicism.

Historical science. Arabic (Arabic-language) historiography as an independent discipline emerged at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. First recordings historical content date back to the end of the 7th century. The material for the early monuments of historical literature in Arabic was the historical and genealogical legends of Arab tribes, semi-legendary reports about pre-Islamic states in the South. Arabia and the Arab principalities in Syria (Ghassanids) and Iraq (Lakhmids), as well as religious and historical legends about the emergence and spread of Islam, especially about the activities of Muhammad and his companions. The scheme of world history adopted in Arab historiography was formed under the influence of the Koranic idea of ​​the past as a successive series of prophetic missions, and the constructions of Muslim genealogists and exegetes of the 7th-8th centuries, who connected family tree Arabs with the biblical "table of nations". A significant role in the creation of historiography was played by the development of astronomical knowledge (establishing the chronology of world history) and the use of materials from Iranian historical and epic traditions (translations of the “Book of Kings” of Sasanian Iran), as well as apocryphal Judeo-Christian traditions. Medieval Arab historiography proceeds from the theological interpretation of the course of world history as the implementation of the divine plan for the human race. At the same time, she recognizes the responsibility of man for his actions and sees the task of the historian in teaching through historical experience. The idea of ​​the didactic value of history, accepted by most Muslim historians, was especially clearly formulated by Ibn Miskawaih (died 1030). Arab historians did not go beyond narrative history, and only Ibn Khaldun made an attempt to move on to the presentation of historical events in their causal relationship, developing an original doctrine of the general laws of development of human society.

The predecessors of professional Arab historians were experts and collectors of genealogies and oral tribal traditions. These materials were systematized by Muhammad al-Kalbi (died 763), expanded and recorded by his son Hisham (died c. 819). In addition to Hisham al-Kalbi's monumental collection of Arab genealogies, similar collections were compiled by Muarrijas-Sadusi (died 811), Suhaim ibn Hafs (died 806), Musab al-Zubayri (died 851), Zubair ibn Bakkar (died 870), Ibn Hazm (died 1030), al-Qalqashandi (1355-1418), etc. The largest figure in the initial period of Arab historiography was Muhammad al-Zuhri (died 741/42), who combined the collection of genealogies and tribal traditions with an interest in the political history of the Caliphate. He owns one of the first records of legends about the military campaigns of Muhammad (the so-called magazi). The first major historical work in Arabic (the history of the ancient prophets and the biography of Muhammad) by Ibn Ishaq (about 704-768 or 767) served as a model for subsequent works on this topic. The most significant works are the works of al-Waqidi (747-823), Ibn Sad (died 845), the later compilations of Ibn Said an-Nas, Nuraddin al-Halabi and others. Adjacent to them are hagiographic literature popular in the Middle Ages, mostly fantastic stories about the prophets and Muslim saints.

For the 2nd half of the 8th - mid 9th centuries. characterized by the predominance of historical works devoted to individual events mainly from the history of the Arab conquests and civil wars in the Caliphate 7th - early 8th centuries. [Abu Mikhnaf (died 774), Abu Ubaidah (died about 824) and especially al-Madaini (died about the middle of the 9th century)]. Iraq became the center of Arab historiography for a long time. From the 2nd half of the 9th century. essays appear that combine the accumulated material into a coherent historical narrative. The most significant were the works of al-Belazuri (about 820 - about 892); Abu Hanifa ad-Dinaveri (See Abu Hanifa ad-Dinaveri) (died about 895) and al-Yaqubi by general history, which became the leading genre of historiography during its heyday (9th - 1st half of the 11th centuries). Compiled more often in the form of annals, they contained an overview of world history from the creation of the world, the initial history of the Muslim community, a description of the Arab conquests and the political history of the Caliphate (the rule of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties). The largest work of this genre is the multi-volume “History of Prophets and Kings” by at-Tabari (838 or 839-923). The general history of al-Masudi (died 956 or 957), Hamza al-Isfahani (See Hamza al-Isfahani) (died in the 2nd half of the 10th century), Ibn Miskawaih, and later Ibn al-Athir ( 1160 - 1233 or 1234), Ibn Khaldun and other historians of the 9th-10th centuries. distinguished by their breadth of outlook, reflecting the encyclopedic nature of their interests and knowledge (especially Yaqubi and Masudi, who collected material on the history and culture of peoples outside Muslim countries).

In connection with the formation of local political identity in the states that emerged on the territory of the Abbasid Caliphate, in historiography from the 2nd half of the 10th century. dynastic and local chronicles predominate, the authors of which were mainly court historiographers (usually official secretaries, viziers, etc.), rather than scholarly historians. Biographical chronicles were developed devoted to the history of secretaries, viziers (for example, al-Azhakhshiyari, died 943; Hilal al-Sabi. 969-1056), judges (Waqi al-Qadi, died 918; al-Kindi, died 961; al-Khusani , died 971). Local historiography is represented by works on the history of individual cities, regions and provinces, for example the history of Mecca - al-Azraqi (died about 858), Baghdad - Ibn Abu Tahir Taifur (819/20 - 893), Egypt - Ibn Abd al-Hakam (about 798 -871), Muslim Spain - Abd al-Malik ibn Habib (about 796-853). The historical encyclopedia of the Yemeni historian al-Hamdani (died in the 2nd half of the 10th century), which contains information on genealogy, history, archeology, geography and literature of the South, deserves special attention. Arabia. At a later time, in works of this kind, the main attention was given to the biographies of local political, religious and cultural figures, and many of these biographical works are characterized by a combination of annals with political biography. This is the history of Baghdad - al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (1002-71), Damascus - al-Qalanisi (died 1160) and Ibn Asakir (1105-1176), Aleppo (Aleppo) - Ibn al-Adim (1192-1262), Granada - Ibn al-Khatib (1313-1374). Dynastic history, begun by the works of Ibrahim al-Sabi (died 994) on the history of the Buyids (See Buyids) and al-Utbi (961-1022, according to other sources, died 1036 or 1040) on the history of the Ghaznavids (See Ghaznavids), received special development in the 12th-13th centuries, mainly in Syria, where the center moved historical science. The local Zengid and Ayyubid dynasties found their historiographers in the persons of Imad-ud-din al-Isfahani (1125-1201), Ibn Shaddad (1145-1234), Abu Shama (1203-1268) and especially Ibn Wasil (1207-1298). General histories were also created here (Abu-l-Fida, 1273-1331; al-Zahabi, 1274-1353 or 1347; Ibn Kathir, around 1300-1373, etc.). In the 15-16th centuries. The leading place in Arab historiography was occupied by Egyptian historians, authors of works on the history of the Mamluks (See Mamluks), historical encyclopedias (al-Nuwayri, 1279-1332) and general chronicles (Ibn al-Furat, 1334-1405) and especially a galaxy of polyhistorian historians , such as al-Makrizi (1364-1442), al-Aini (1361-1451), Abul-Mahasin Ibn Tagriberdi (1409 or 1410-1470) and al-Suyuti (1445-1505), who left multi-volume works on political, socio-economic and cultural history of Egypt.

One of the main places in Arab historiography is occupied by biographical literature itself: general biographical dictionaries Yakut, Ibn Khallikan (1211-1282) and al-Safadi (1296/97 - 1363), sets of biographies of figures in the field of philosophy, medicine and natural sciences Ibn al-Qifti (1172-1248) and Ibn Abu Usaybi (1203-1270) etc. Historical works in Arabic were written not only in Arab countries, but also in other countries of the Muslim East, including India, Iran, Turkey and the East. Africa. The era of Turkish rule (16th - early 20th centuries) is represented mainly by epigonian compilations on general and local history, biographical and historical-bibliographical collections. The most valuable are the history of Andalusia al-Makkari (1591/92 - 1632) and the biographical work of the Egyptian historian al-Khafaji (died 1659).

Literature. Arabic literature has its roots in the oral literature of the tribal society on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. Early records (8th-10th centuries) include: co. “Selected” or “Strung” (“Mullaqat”), compiled by Rabbi Hammad (694/695 - 772) (includes 7 masterpieces by seven poets); "Mufaddaliyat" and "Asmaiyat" by the philologists al-Mufaddal (died 786) and al-Asma'i (died about 830); two anthologies “Valor” (“Ha-masa”) belonging to Abu Tammam u (about 796-845) and al-Bukhturi (821-897); the divan of poets from the Khuzail tribe - “The Book of Criticism of Poetry” by Ibn Qutayba (died 889); “The Book of Explanation” by al-Jahiz; anthology “Book of Songs” by Abu-l-Faraj al-Isfahani (See Abu-l-Faraj al-Isfahani) (897-967); sofas of individual poets and collections of proverbs.

Ancient Arabic literature is original, foreign influences in it are negligible. Most of all, it was cultivated among nomadic pastoralists (Bedouins), but it also became widespread among the semi-nomadic and sedentary population of agricultural oases and cities. The leading role in it was played by poetry, the origins of which can be traced to labor, lullabies, hunting, and caravan songs; The genres of vilification of the enemy (hija), boasting (fakhr), songs of revenge (cap), mourning lament, or elegy (risa), as well as elements of love and descriptive lyrics (nasib and wasf) developed very early on. The beginnings of artistic prose go back to ancient times: oratory, stories about tribal battles (ayyam al-Arab) and other memorable events.

Poetry of the 5th-7th centuries, when it flourished, became a kind of standard of poetic language, metrics and aesthetic ideals in Arabic literature, defining the themes and artistic techniques for a long time.

The central figure in pre-Islamic poetry is the poet himself, who acts as a Bedouin, a patriot of his tribe. The idealized image of the Bedouin poet is revealed against the backdrop of real pictures of nomadic life, battle and hunting scenes, and views of the Arabian desert. The main literary forms of ancient Arabic poetry were qasida and amorphous fragment (qita, muqatta). A characteristic feature of Arabic poetry is the monorhyme; each verse, as a rule, consists of one sentence and is an independent semantic aesthetic unit. The language of ancient Arabic poetry is characterized by a colossal vocabulary, flexibility of syntactic structures, and a variety of specific visual means.

Arabic tradition has preserved the names of about 125 pre-Islamic poets (late 5th - 1st half of 7th centuries): Imru-ul-Qais, who is credited with creating the classical type of qasida; Tarafa, author of the wonderful qasida-muallaqa; Antara ibn Shaddad, singer of military valor and love; Zuhair and Labid, considered the best exponents life wisdom and ethical ideals of Bedouin society; Shanfara and Taabbatha Sharran, who sang the free life of a lone robber in the desert; Alqama, Urwa ibn al-Ward, Harith ibn Hillisa and Amr ibn Kulthum, acting as heroes and singers of their tribes; the first court panegyrists were an-Nabiga, Abid ibn al-Abras and Hatim; the wandering poet al-Asha, famous for his satires and bacchanalian poems; poetess al-Khansa; Jewish poet Samaual and Christian Adi ibn Zaid, whose poems combine cheerful motifs about wine with sad thoughts about the vanity of the world, etc.

The first monument of Arabic writing was the Koran, which contains the religious sermons of Muhammad, stories on biblical subjects, edifying speeches and laws of the Islamic community and state. The influence of the Koran is felt in all subsequent Arabic literature. Muhammad and his followers initially opposed poetry as a common form of expression of pagan ideology. For a short time the development of poetry was weakened, only its traditional, artistic conventions were preserved, and the ideological content underwent slight changes under the influence of new faith- Islam. Syria and Iraq became the center of poetry. Outstanding poets worked at the Umayyad court - al-Akhtal, al-Jarir, al-Farazdak and others.

New phenomena in poetry of this period are observed in the aristocratic environment of the large urban centers of the Caliphate, where love lyrics in the form of short poems developed. A prominent representative of this genre was Omar ibn Abi Rabia of Mecca (641 - about 712 or about 718). Other poets are also known in Mecca (Ibn Qays ar-Rukayat, Abu Dahbal), Medina (Ahwas) and Damascus (Caliph Walid II). In the Bedouin environment in Arabia, a galaxy of singers of ideal, or “Uzrit” (from the Uzra tribe) love emerged. The poet and his beloved formed a constant couple, dying of unquenched love. Later, romantic stories were written about famous couples (Jamil and Busaina, Majnun and Leila, Qusayir and Azza, etc.). The story of Majnun and Layla gained worldwide fame.

From the middle of the 8th century. Representatives of the conquered peoples are increasingly taking part in the creation of Arabic literature, along with the Arabs. In the Caliphate, interest in the study of Arab antiquity increased, theories of language, style and metrics were developed, and translations of the most important works of antiquity into Arabic were carried out. For the development of prose, translations from the Middle Persian (Pahlavi) language were of particular importance. Ibn al-Muqaffa (executed around 759) translated “Kalila and Dimna (See Kalila and Dimna),” which goes back to the Indian collection “Panchatantra,” and the Middle Persian collection of epic legends and chronicles “Khvaday-namak” (“Book of Kings”). Aban Lahiki (died 815) translated into Arabic verses “Kalila and Dimna”, books about Mazdak (see Mazdakism) and about Sinbad, etc. The influence of the Near Asian civilization, primarily Iranian, was also felt in poetry, which became predominantly urban. There was some renewal of Arabic poetry, expressed in the preference for the cumbersome qasida of short, elegant poems with an independent theme and in a “new style” (badit), the main feature of which was the use of previously unknown images, tropes and comparisons. The founder of the “new style” was the poet and freethinker Bashshar ibn Burd (died 783). Love lyrics were continued in an erotic-hedonistic direction by a group of poets at the Abbasid court (Muti ibn Iyas, Waliba ibn Khubab, Ibrahim al-Mausili and his son Ishaq, Dibil, etc.). Among them stands out magnificent master verse by Abu Nuwas (762-815). The innovator was Abul-Atahiya (died 825), who deliberately avoided traditional poetic conventions in poems imbued with ascetic sentiments and reflection. Gradually, the “new style” gained recognition and found its theoretician in the person of Ibn al-Mutazz (861-908). But even then there were poets who supported the qasid tradition, which was also influenced by the “new style”: Marwan ibn Abi Hafsa (721-97), Muslim ibn al-Walid (died 803) and especially the poets of the 9th century. Abu Tammam and al-Bukhturi.

Great successes in the 8th-9th centuries. reached Arabic prose, the ground for which was prepared by records of folklore, the study of the Koran, and translations of scientific and artistic literature from Syriac, Middle Persian and Greek. The historical literature that was emerging at that time included stories, legends and descriptions individual events, and geographical works contained stories of merchants and travelers about distant countries. Literary prose was also enriched by epistolary and speech styles: in business correspondence, oratory and sermons, some authors achieved great expressiveness and skill. A mixture of stories on various subjects and colorful educational and didactic material is represented by numerous works of the great Arab prose writers al-Jahiz a (767-868) and Ibn Qutayba (828 - about 889), who systematized a large literary material in “Sources of News” (10 books) according to thematic principle: about power, about war, about friendship, etc. This work became the subject of imitations. In the 9th century An Arabic translation of the Persian collection “A Thousand Tales” (“Khezar Afsane”), the prototype of the collection “A Thousand and One Nights,” appeared.

The collapse of the Caliphate contributed to the decentralization of literature. The most important of the local literary centers of the 10th century. became the city of Aleppo (Aleppo). Here, at the court of Hamdanid Sayf ad-Daula, the poet-panegyrist al-Mutanabbi (915-965) lived. His laudatory and satirical qasidas are full of stylistic embellishments, exquisite metaphors, hyperboles and comparisons; in the finishing of verse he achieved sophisticated skill. In the 11th century The poet and thinker Abu-l-Ala al-Ma'arri (973-1057) lived in Syria. Starting by imitating Mutanabbi, he further improved the technique of verse by introducing complicated double rhymes. Prominent prose writers of the 10th century. were Abu Hayyan at-Tawhidi (died 1009) and at-Tanukhi (940-994). Rhymed prose became widespread in secular literature. Abu Bakr al-Khwarizmi (died 993) wrote witty “Epistle” (“Rasa’il”) in this form, and Badi al-Zaman al-Hamadani (died 1007) created an original genre - the maqama, which is considered the highest achievement of Arabic prose. Hamadani's maqams compiled a cycle of 50 picaresque short stories, or stories about the adventures and reincarnations of a quirky tramp. Maqams entered literature from urban folklore. However, if Hamadani's Arabic prose retained its liveliness and spontaneity, then among his numerous imitators (including al-Hariri, 1054-1122) it degenerated into stylization.

Arabic literature stood apart in Andalusia (Arab Spain), closely connected with the Maghreb. In the 8th-10th centuries. Culturally, Andalusia remained a province of the Caliphate; the norm for its poetry was the patterns that developed in the east of the Caliphate. Andalusian poetry was represented by: the sophisticated lyricist and author of epic poems about the conquest of Spain by the Arabs, al-Ghazal (770-864); compiler of the popular anthology “The Only Necklace” and author of the anacreontic poems of Ibn abd Rabbihi (860-940); author of about 60 qasidas Ibn Hani (died 972), etc. However, gradually in Andalusian lyric poetry not only local color appeared, but also the strophic forms muwashshah (belted) and zajal (melody), until then alien to Arabic poetry, arose. They were born into the common people as a result of the interaction of the culture of Arabs, Berbers and the local Romanesque population. Muwashshah, first mentioned at the end of the 10th century, penetrated into literature, spread to the east of the Caliphate, and by the 13th century. took on frozen forms, becoming the subject of formalistic exercises. Zajal escaped pastiche and remained a favorite folk genre in Muslim and Christian Spain, spread to other Arab countries, and appears to have influenced the development of early Provençal poetry. The divan of the largest representative of this genre, Ibn Kuzman (about 1080-1160), has been preserved. Andalusian poetry in literary Arabic flourished in the 11th century, when the Cordoba Caliphate split into several emirates. Court literary circles arose in each of them. Panegyric, erotic and Bacchanalian poetry prevailed everywhere. Seville became a major center with its poet-patrons al-Mu'tadid (1012-1069) and al-Mu'tamid (1040-1095). The latter ended his life in Morocco while in captivity; his voluntary companion in captivity was the famous lyric poet from Sicily Ibn Hamdis (1055-1132). The last major Arab poet of Cordoba, Ibn Zaydun (1003-1071), lived in Seville. Many Andalusian poets of the 11th-13th centuries. became famous for their elegies on the fall of Arab dynasties and cities under the blows of the Reconquista (See Reconquista) (Ibn Abdun, al-Wakashi, Ibn Khafaja, Salih ar-Rondi, etc.). In prose, Ibn Hazm stands out, who created “The Necklace of the Dove” - a unique treatise on love, and Ibn Tufail (about 1110-1185), the author philosophical novel"Living, son of the waking one."

Since the mid-11th century, despite quantitative growth, Arabic literature bears the stamp of decline. Mysticism begins to predominate in poetry, and didactics in prose. Mystical poetry is characterized by a combination of bacchic and erotic motifs with ecstatic appeals to the deity. Its prominent representatives were the Andalusians Ibn al-Arabi (1165-1240), al-Shushtari (died 1269) and the Egyptian Omar ibn al-Farid (1182-1235). The Sicilian Ibn Zafar (died 1169) took timid steps towards creating a historical novel. The Syrian emir Osama ibn Munkyz (1095-1188) wrote the only artistic autobiography in medieval Arabic literature, “The Book of Edification.” Ibn Arabshah (1392-1450), taken by Timur from Baghdad to Samarkand, in his didactic anthology “Pleasant Fruit for the Caliphs.” reworked Northern Iranian fairy tales in florid style.

With the decline of written literature, which served the cultural and aesthetic needs of large feudal lords and a narrow circle educated people, blossoming has come oral and poetic creativity. In Egypt and Syria, where after the Mongol invasion (13th century) the center of Arabic literature finally moved, the genres of muwashshah and zajal spread. Sufi poets and even the court poet Bahaaddin Zuhair (1187-1258) sought to write in a language close to the folk language; Ibn Daniyal (13th century) in Egypt recorded popular prints for shadow theater. They became widespread in the 13th-15th centuries. and later peculiar folk works in the genre of sira (literally - “biographies”), i.e. cycles of stories on heroic and love plots associated with historical and fictional persons and events. European terminology classifies them as chivalric romances. These works were performed by storytellers and actors in the streets and squares. The most important sires: about the poet-warrior of the 6th century. Antara and his beloved Abla, about the Mamluk Sultan Baybars, about the resettlement of the Banu Hilal tribe to Egypt and the North. Africa, about Dhu-l-Khimma. Some of them began to take shape, apparently, very early. Folk memory carried them through the centuries, and storytellers of each generation layered new episodes and details, introducing anachronisms and contradictions into them. The sires reflected the events of the era of the Crusades (heroes usually perform feats in battles against the “infidels” - the “Franks” or “Rums”). To the same type folk literature refers to the collection of fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights”, which, along with folklore and literary materials, completely included the sirah about Omar ibn al-Numan.

Arabic literature of the 16th-18th centuries, constrained by scholasticism and traditional frameworks, had limited significance; What is important is the continuous handwritten tradition, which has preserved many monuments of the past to this day.

Architecture, fine and decorative arts. The art of Arab countries is complex in its origins. In southern Arabia they go back to the cultures of the Sabaean, Minaan and Himyarite states (1st millennium BC - 6th century AD), associated with the Mediterranean and East. Africa. Ancient traditions can be traced in the architecture of the tower-shaped houses of Hadhramaut and the multi-story buildings of Yemen, the facades of which are decorated with colored relief patterns. In Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Maghreb, the styles of medieval Arab art were also formed on a local basis, experiencing some influence from Iranian, Byzantine and other cultures.

Architecture. The main religious building of Islam became the mosque, where the followers of the prophet gathered for prayer. Mosques consisting of a fenced courtyard and a colonnade (which laid the foundation for the “courtyard” or “column” type of mosque) in the 1st half of the 7th century. were created in Basra (635), Kufa (638) and Fustat (40s of the 7th century). High artistic solution The Arab column mosque received in Damascus, the capital of the Umayyads: the builders of the Damascus mosque (early 8th century) made excellent use of local Hellenistic and Syro-Byzantine architectural traditions and decorated the building with polychrome mosaics depicting the architectural landscape. The mosques in Kairouan (Sidi Okba, 7-9 centuries) and Cordoba (8-10 centuries) are majestic. The columnar type remained the main one for a long time in the monumental religious architecture of Arab countries (mosques: Ibn Tulun in Cairo, 9th century; Mutawakkilya in Samarra, 9th century; Hassan in Rabat and Koutoubia in Marrakesh, both 12th century; Great Mosque in Algeria, 11th century, etc.) and influenced the Muslim architecture of Iran, the Caucasus, Wed. Asia, India. Domed buildings also developed in architecture, an early example of which is the octagonal Qubbat al-Sakhra mosque in Jerusalem (687-691). Later, various religious and memorial buildings are completed with domes, most often crowning mausoleums over the graves of famous people.

Under the Umayyads, great secular construction was carried out: cities were fortified, country palaces and castles of the caliphs were erected (Mshatta, Quseir Amra, Qasr al-Kheir al-Gharbi and Qasr al-Kheir al-Sharqi, Khirbet Al-Mafjar), decorated with circular sculpture, carvings, mosaics and wall paintings.

Under the Abbasids, large urban planning works were carried out. Baghdad, founded in 762, like Hatra and Ctesiphon, was a city with a round plan; in its center there was a palace and a mosque, and the perimeter was surrounded by a double ring of defensive walls. In Samarra (the capital of the Caliphate in 836-892), stretching along the river. Tiger, rectilinear layout prevailed; the ruins of huge palaces and houses of the nobility built of brick, which had rectangular courtyards and vaulted reception halls, the walls of which were covered with carved ornaments and polychrome painting, have been preserved. The mosques of Samarra had ziggurat-shaped minarets.

A special school of Arab architecture is represented by the buildings of Fatimid Cairo (founded in 969). The city walls, built of stone, form a square in plan; Several 11th-century gates have been preserved, to which the main streets of the city led. Fortress architecture was distinguished by the expressiveness of simple monumental forms. Fatimid Cairo was decorated with palaces, caravanserais, baths, shops, residential buildings, as well as mosque buildings, of which the grandiose al-Hakim and al-Azhar, as well as al-Aqmar and al-Salih-Talai, decorated with elegant stone carvings, have come down to us .

From the 13th century until the beginning of the 16th century. the architecture of Egypt and Syria was closely interconnected. Large fortress construction was carried out: citadels in Cairo, Aleppo (Aleppo), etc. In the monumental architecture of this time, the spatial principle that dominated the previous stage (the courtyard mosque) gave way to grandiose architectural volumes: towering towers rise above the smooth surface of powerful walls and large portals with deep niches. tall drums supporting domes. Majestic buildings of the four-aivan are being built (see Ivan) type (known before in Iran): maristan (hospital) of Qalaun (13th century) and the Hassan mosque (14th century) in Cairo, mosques and madrassas (theological schools) in Damascus and other cities of Syria. Numerous domed mausoleums are being built, sometimes forming a picturesque ensemble (Mamluk Cemetery in Cairo, 15-16 centuries). To decorate walls outside and inside, along with carvings, inlay with multi-colored stones is widely used. In Iraq in the 15th-16th centuries. colored glaze and gilding are used in the decoration (mosques: Musa al-Kadim in Baghdad, Hussein in Karbala, Imam Ali in Najaf).

It experienced high prosperity in the 10th-15th centuries. Arabic architecture of the Maghreb and Spain. In large cities (Rabat, Marrakech, Fez, etc.) kasbahs were built - citadels fortified by powerful walls with gates and towers, and medinas - trading and craft quarters. The large columned mosques of the Maghreb with multi-tiered, square minarets are distinguished by an abundance of intersecting naves, a wealth of carved ornaments (mosques in Tlemcen, Taza, etc.) and are magnificently decorated with carved wood, marble and mosaics of multi-colored stones, like numerous madrassas 13-14 centuries in Marocco. In Spain, along with the mosque in Cordoba, other outstanding monuments of Arab architecture have been preserved: the La Giralda minaret, erected in Seville by the architect Jeber in 1184-96, the gate to Toledo, the Alhambra Palace in Granada - a masterpiece of Arab architecture and decorative arts 13th-15th centuries Arab architecture influenced the Romanesque and Gothic architecture of Spain (Mudejar style), Sicily and other Mediterranean countries.

Capture of Arab countries by the Ottoman Turks in the 16th century. brought forms of Ottoman architecture, especially into religious architecture. But local construction and artistic traditions continued to live and develop in secular architecture.

Decorative, applied and fine arts. In Arab art, the principle of decorativeness, characteristic of the artistic thinking of the Middle Ages, was vividly embodied, giving rise to the richest ornament, special in each region of the Arab world, but connected by general patterns of development. Arabesque (See Arabesque), dating back to ancient motifs, is a new type of pattern created by the Arabs, in which mathematical rigor of construction is combined with free artistic imagination. Epigraphic ornamentation also developed - calligraphically executed inscriptions included in the decorative pattern.

Ornament and calligraphy, which were widely used in architectural decoration (stone carving, wood carving, knocking), are also characteristic of applied art, which reached its peak and especially fully expressed the decorative specificity of Arab artistic creativity. Ceramics were decorated with colorful patterns: glazed household dishes in Mesopotamia (centers - Raqqa, Samarra); vessels painted with golden luster of different shades, made in Fatimid Egypt; Spanish-Moorish luster ceramics of the 14th and 15th centuries, which had a great influence on European applied art. Arabic patterned silk fabrics - Syrian, Egyptian, Moorish - were also world famous; The Arabs also made pile carpets. Bronze artefacts (bowls, jugs, incense burners and other utensils) are decorated with the finest embossing, engraving and inlay made of silver and gold; Products from the 12th to 14th centuries are distinguished by their special craftsmanship. Mosul in Iraq and some craft centers in Syria. Syrian glass coated with the finest enamel painting and Egyptian products made of rock crystal, ivory, and expensive wood, decorated with exquisite carved patterns, were famous.

Art in Islamic countries developed in complex interactions with religion. Mosques, as well as the holy book Koran, were decorated with geometric, floral and epigraphic patterns. However, Islam, unlike Christianity and Buddhism, refused to widely use fine art to promote religious ideas. Moreover, in the so-called Reliable hadiths, legitimized in the 9th century, contain a prohibition on depicting living beings and especially humans. Theologians of the 11th-13th centuries. (Ghazali and others) declared these images to be the gravest sin. However, artists throughout the Middle Ages depicted people and animals, real and mythological scenes. In the first centuries of Islam, while theology had not yet developed its own aesthetic canons, the abundance of realistically interpreted paintings and sculptures in the Umayyad palaces testified to the strength of pre-Islamic artistic traditions. Subsequently, figurativeness in Arab art is explained by the presence of essentially anti-clerical aesthetic views. For example, in the “Epistle of the Brothers of Purity” (10th century), the art of artists is defined “as the imitation of the images of existing objects, both artificial and natural, both people and animals.”

Fine art experienced a high flourishing in Egypt in the 10th-12th centuries: images of people and genre scenes adorned the walls of buildings in the city of Fustat, ceramic dishes and vases (master Saad and others), and were woven into the pattern of bone and wood carvings (panels of the 11th century. from the Fatimid palace in Cairo, etc.), as well as linen and silk fabrics; bronze vessels were made in the form of figures of animals and birds. Similar phenomena took place in the art of Syria and Mesopotamia of the 10th-14th centuries: court and other scenes are included in the exquisite embossed and inlaid ornament of bronze items, in the pattern of paintings on glass and ceramics.

Arabic book miniatures occupy a prominent place in the history of world art. In Egypt miniature 9-10 centuries. (originating from Fayoum) and 11th-12th centuries. stylistically related to Coptic art. Byzantine influence is noticeable in the painting of Syrian miniatures. The art of book miniatures reached great heights in Iraq in the 12th and 13th centuries. There were several style directions. One of them (possibly northern Iraqi) is distinguished by lush and colorful court scenes; the other is represented by laconic illustrations in scientific treatises (for example, leaves from the “Pharmacology” of Dioscorides, rewritten by Abd Allah ibn Fadl in 1222, stored in various museums around the world). The real pride of the Iraqi school of miniaturists are full of live observations, conveyed in expressive figurative language, sonorous in color painting illustrations to the “Maqams” of Hariri, which survived in several manuscripts (the miniatures of the manuscript of 1237 stand out, the artist Yahya ibn Mahmud of Wasit, the Paris National Library, and the manuscripts of the beginning 13th century, belonging to the Leningrad branch of the Institute of Oriental Studies). New rise miniature painting in Iraq survived at the end of the 14th century, when the outstanding artist Junaid Sultani, the author of miniatures with a manuscript of “Khamsa” by Khaju Kermani 1396 (British Museum, London), worked in Baghdad.

The visual element was less developed in the art of the countries of the Arab West. However, here too, decorative sculpture in the form of animals, patterns with motifs of living creatures, as well as miniatures were created (manuscript “History of Bayad and Riyadh,” 13th century, Vatican Library).

Arab art as a whole was a bright, original phenomenon in world history. artistic culture medieval era. His influence extended throughout the Muslim world and went far beyond its borders.

Music. Arabic music was formed as a result of the fusion of Arab art itself with the art of conquered countries. The early, “Bedouin” period in its development is characterized by the unity of music and poetry. Information has been preserved about ancient Arab professional singer-poets (shairs), about song genres - hida (caravan songs), habab (horsemen's songs), about musical instruments - duff (small square tambourine), mizhar (primitive lute with a leather soundboard), rebab (a type of one-string violin).

After the conquest of Iran, part of Byzantium and the establishment of dominance over Sr. Asia and Egypt, the Arabs assimilated the traditions of more developed cultures (the basics of Greek were adopted music theory; under the influence of Persian and Byzantine melodic music, the Arabic scale expanded to two octaves; some Arabic modes and instruments showed Iranian influences). The flourishing of classical Arabic music begins at the end of the 7th century. It is based on 7-step modes, in which, along with the main sounds, intermediate intervals are used - commas (less than 1/8 of a whole tone). The modal features of Arabic music have determined a unique style of singing, in which glissanding (sliding from sound to sound) is widely used. Arabic music is characterized by flowery melismatics, giving the music an original flavor. Classical Arabic music is predominantly vocal. The most common genre is the vocal-instrumental ensemble, in which the leading role belongs to the singer. The largest singers of the Umayyad period were Ibn Musajih, Muslim ibn Muhriz, and the singer Jamileh and her students were also famous. During the Abbasid dynasty, musicians Ibrahim al-Mausili (742-804) and his son Ishaq al-Mausili (767-850), the founder of the Baghdad school, as well as Mansur Zalzal, stand out. Arabic musical science has reached a high level. Among the outstanding musical theorists of the Middle Ages: al-Kindi, who developed and applied to Arabic music the metaphysical doctrine of the “harmony of the Universe” of the Neoplatonists; al-Isfahani (897-967), author of the “Big Book of Songs”; Safi ad-din Urmavi (about 1230-1294), who wrote a treatise on acoustics and harmonic connections “Esh-Sharafiyya” - an outstanding work of medieval eastern science of music. The most important information about the music of the East is contained in the works of al-Farabi - the author of the “Great Treatise on Music”, Ibn Sina and others. In the Middle Ages, Arabic music influenced the musical art of Spain, Portugal, and the formation of some European musical instruments.

Lit.: Bartold V.V., Soch., vol. 6,. M., 1966; Krachkovsky I. Yu., Izbr. soch., vol. 1-6, M.-L., 1955-60; Belyaev E. A., Arabs, Islam and the Arab Caliphate in the Early Middle Ages, 2nd ed., M., 1966; Levi-Provencal E., Arab culture in Spain, trans. from French, M., 1967; Metz A., Muslim Renaissance, trans. from German, M., 1966; Kremer A., ​​Culturgeschichte des Orients unter den Chalifen, Bd 1-2, W., 1875-77; Sarton G., Introduction to the history of science, v. 1-3, Balt., 1927-48; Gibb H. A. R., Studies on the civilization of Islam, Boston, 1962; Grünebaum G. von. Medieval Islam. A study in cultural orientation, 2 ed., Chi., 1961; The legacy of Islam, ed. by T. Arnold and A. Guillaume, Oxf., 1931; Sauvaget J., Introduction a l "histoire de Orient Muslim. Elements de bibliographic, P., 1961; Grohmann A., Arabien, Münch, 1963; Yushkevich A. P., History of mathematics in the Middle Ages, M., 1961; Kennedy E. S., A survey of Islamic astronomical tables, Phil., 1956.

Favorite prod. thinkers of the countries of the Near and Middle East 9-14 centuries, M., 1961; History of philosophy, vol. 1, M., 1957, p. 222-36; Grigoryan S. H., Medieval philosophy of the peoples of the Near and Middle East, M., 1966; Stöckl A., History of medieval philosophy, [trans. from German], M., 1912; Ley G., Essay on the history of medieval materialism, [trans. from German], M., 1962; Al-Fakhouri H., al-Darr al-Khalil, Tarikh al-falsafa al-'Arabiya (History of Arab Philosophy), vol. 1-2, Beirut, 1957-58; Mehrin-Mehrdad, Falsafe-ye-sharg (Philosophy of the East), Tehran, ; Radev R., From istoriyat na arabskata philosophia, Sofia, 1966; Mrozek A., Sredniowieczna filozofia arabska, Warsz., 1967; Ueberweg F., Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophic, 12 Aufl., Tl 1-3, 5, V., 1924-28; Boer T. J. de, The history of philosophy in Islam, L., 1933; Munk S., Mélanges de philosophic juive et arabe, nouv. ed., P., 1955; Gruz Hernandez M., Filosofia hispano-musulmana, v. 1-2, Madrid, 1957.

Gibb H. A. R., Muslim historiography (translated from English by P. A. Gryaznevich), in his book: Arabic literature, M., 1960, p. 117-55; Historians of the Middle East, ed. by B. Lewis and P. M. Holt, L., 1962; Rosenthal F., A history of Muslim historiography, 2 ed., Leiden, 1968.

Rosen V.R., Excerpts from an essay on the history of Arabic literature, in the collection: In memory of academician V.R. Rosen, M.-L., 1947; Krymsky A.E., History of the Arabs and Arabic literature, secular and spiritual, parts 1-3, M., 1911-13; Filshtinsky I. M., Arabskaya classic literature, M., 1965; Gibb H. A. R., Arabic Literature, [trans. from English], M., 1960; al-Fakhouri H., History of Arabic Literature, [trans. from Arabic], vol. 1-2, M., 1959-61; Brockelmann S., Geschichte der arabischen Literatur, 2 Aufl., Bd 1-2, Leiden, 1943-49; Suppl.-Bd 1-3, Leiden, 1937-42; Graf G., Geschichte der christlichen arabischen Literatur, Bd I-5, Citta del Vaticano, 1944-53; González Palencia A., Historia de la literatura arábigo-espacola, Barcelona, ​​1928; Blachére R., Histoire de la littérature arabe des origines a la fin du XV siéсle..., , P., 1952-66; Sezgin F., Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums, Bd 1, Leiden, 1967.

Weymarn B., Kaptereva T., Podolsky A., Art of Arab Peoples, M., 1960; General history of art, vol. 2, book. 2, M., 1961, p. 9-53; Kube A.P., Spanish-Moorish ceramics, M.-L., 1940; Bolshakov O., Islam prohibits..., “Science and Religion”, 1967, No. 5, 7; Marçаis G., L "architecture musulmane d" Occident, P., 1954; Creswell K. A. S., Early Muslim architecture, pt 1-2, Oxf., 1932-40; him. The Muslim architecture of Egypt, v. 1-2, Oxf., 1952-60; Lane A., Early Islamic pottery. Mesopotamia, Egypt and Persia, L., 1958; Dimand M. S., A handbook of Mohammadan art, 3 ed., N. Y., 1958; Ettinghausen R., Arabische Malerei, Gen., 1962; Hoag J. D., L "architettura araba, Mil., 1965; Islamic art in Egypt. 969-1517, Cairo, 1969.

Kuznetsov K. A., Arabic music, in the collection: Essays on the history and theory of music, [collection] 2, L., 1940, p. 265-80; Farmer N. G., A history of Arabian music to the XVIIIth century..., L., 1929, 2 ed., L., 1967; Erianger R. d", La musique arabe, v. 1-6, P., 1930-59; Kutahialian I. O., Ecriture musicale arabe moderne, Marsiglia, 1957.

P. A. Gryaznevich (introductory section, historical science, geography), M. M. Rozhanskaya (natural and exact sciences), A. V. Sagadeev (philosophy), A. B. Khalidov (literature), B. V. Weymarn (architecture and fine arts).

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Federal Agency for Education

St. Petersburg State University of Service and Economics

Abstract on the discipline "Culturology"

Topic: “Culture of the Arab East. Specifics of Muslim culture"

1st year correspondence student

specialty 080109 C

Ruban Irina Valerievna

Velikie Luki

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3

Main part:

1. The Arab East is the birthplace of Islam………………………………………….4

2. Prophet Muhammad…………………………………………………………....4-5

3. Specifics of Islamic culture………………………………………………………5-8

4. The culture of the Arab East and its influence on world culture…………..9

4.1. Literature………………………………………………………………………………..10

4.2. Science………………………………………………………………………………..10-12

4.3. Architecture. Art……………………………………………………………...12-13

4.4. Life and customs of the Arabs……………………………………………………...13-14

4.5. The position of men and women…………………………………….14

4.6. Mythology of the Arab East………………………………………...14-15

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………...17

Introduction

In the history of great cultures, classical Arab-Muslim culture occupies one of most important places. At one time this highly developed, original culture flourished in the vast expanses from India to Spain, including the Near and Middle East and North Africa. Its influence was and is still felt in many parts of the world; it was an important link between the cultures of antiquity and the medieval West. The uniqueness of this culture is due to the peculiarities of Islam, which is not just a world religion, but an integral culture - law and state, philosophy and art, religion and science, which has its own uniqueness.

Islam played a huge role in the history and culture of not only the Arabs, but also all the peoples of the Middle Eastern region, as well as Iranians, Turks, Indians, Indonesians, many peoples of Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Volga region, the Balkans, and a significant part of the population of Africa. As a result of the Arab conquest and under the direct influence of Islam, not only the destinies of the peoples of the “Islamic world” took shape, but also their cultural traditions, ideological baggage, moral norms, mythopoetic and epic images and legends, which today largely determine their lives.

Main part

1. The Arab East is the birthplace of Islam

The main part of the territory of Arabia is steppes, deserts and semi-deserts; only a small part of the land was suitable for farming. The majority of the population of the peninsula were Bedouin nomads who called themselves Arabs - the word “Arab” meant “dashing rider”. Already in the first centuries of our era, flying Bedouin troops, camel and horse, turned into formidable force, which the settled urban population was forced to reckon with. The nomads robbed caravans of townspeople - they considered their property their legitimate prey, attacked villages, and poisoned crops. The townspeople resisted and angrily ridiculed the “camel hunters.” However, it was difficult for both of them in difficult natural conditions, which required maximum effort in order to survive. In their attitude to the world there were more similarities than differences, and the life values ​​of both sedentary and Bedouins were activity, enterprise and the ability to deny oneself everything. Islam, the future world religion, was born among nomadic tribes, having an exceptionally strong influence on the countries of the East and quickly spreading and being accepted by all residents of the Arabian Peninsula.

2. Prophet Muhammad

Islam arose at the beginning of the 7th century. n. e. The founder of Islam was a real person - the Prophet Muhammad.

Muhammad was born in 570 AD. Muhammad was orphaned at an early age and was raised by his grandfather and then by his uncle, a wealthy merchant. In his youth, Muhammad was a shepherd, and at the age of 25 he began working for a 40-year-old widow, the mother of several children. She organized caravans that went to other lands for goods. They got married - it was a marriage of love - and they had four daughters. In total, the prophet had nine wives.

Over time, Muhammad became less and less interested in trade and more and more in matters of faith. He received his first revelations in a dream - the angel Gabriel, the Messenger of Allah, appeared to him and announced his will: Muhammad must preach in his name, gentlemen. Revelations became more and more frequent, and in 610 the prophet preached for the first time in Mecca. Despite Muhammad's passion, the number of his supporters grew slowly. In 622, Muhammad left Mecca and moved to another city - a little later it would be called Medina - the city of the prophet. His like-minded people also moved to Medina with him. From this year of flight to Medina the Muslim calendar begins.

The people of Medina recognized Muhammad as their prophet, religious and political leader and supported him in his quest to defeat Mecca. The fierce war between these cities ended in the complete victory of Medina. In 630, Muhammad triumphantly returned to Mecca, which became the center of Islam.

At the same time, a Muslim theocratic state was formed - the Arab Caliphate, the first leader of which was Muhammad himself. His associates and successors as heads of the caliphate carried out a number of successful campaigns of conquest, which led to a significant expansion of the territory of the caliphate and contributed to the rapid spread of Islam there. Islam (or Islam) becomes the state religion of the Arab East. Muhammad died in 632 and was buried in Medina. His grave is the most important shrine of Islam.

3. Specifics of Islamic culture

A characteristic feature of Islamic culture is that it is not divided into secular and religious. This is due to a specific understanding of the nature of man’s connection with God: the initial principle of Islam is the ahistorical meeting of man with God and the handing over of his destiny to him. There is no description of historical events in the Koran, there is no chronology, it is illogical, so it is not the understanding that is important, but the interpretation of the “word” of the Koran. Unlike Jewish temples, which face the past, and Christian churches, which face the future, the mosque represents the entrance to the world of the Eternal Covenant, where the past, present and future are fused.

The main credo of Islam is the well-known and often used phrase: “There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet.” This saying clearly and definitely expresses the idea of ​​monotheism, which was brought to its most consistent conclusion precisely in Islam. There is only one Allah - the only and faceless god, the highest and omnipotent, wise and all-merciful, the creator of all things and its supreme judge.

The basic ideas and principles of Muhammad are recorded in the Koran, the main source of Muslim doctrine.

The features of this religion are fatalism, humility (primarily in the reverence of Allah and his prophet Muhammad), as well as observance of the basic duties of a Muslim: confession, prayer (namaz), fasting, almsgiving (zakat) and hajj.

The principle of confession- central to Islam. To become a Muslim, it is enough to observe it, that is, to solemnly pronounce the phrase that there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet. Thus, a person becomes submissive to Allah, a Muslim. But, having become one, he must observe the duties of a true believer.

Prayer (namaz) – a mandatory daily five-fold ritual, from which only sick, infirm and small children can be exempted. Those who do not pray five times a day are not faithful. Prayer is supposed to be performed at dawn, at noon, in the afternoon, at sunset and before going to bed. Most often it is performed individually, less often in groups, usually in mosques (at least 40 men, women do not pray in mosques). There are also solemn services there on Fridays and holidays, led by respected leaders in the Islamic community - imams. Before prayer, the faithful are required to perform a cleansing ritual. If there is no water, for example in the desert, you can cleanse yourself with sand. The prayer is performed in clothes, in a clean place on a special rug and facing Mecca. So that the faithful do not forget about the time of prayer in their current affairs, high minarets are erected at mosques in cities and villages, and muezzins announce with loud voices that the time for prayer has come.

Fast. Muslims have only one main and obligatory fast, but it lasts for a whole month. In Arab countries this month is called Ramadan, and in Turkey, Iran, and Afghanistan it is called Ramadan somewhat differently.

Muslim fasting is unique: the whole day you cannot eat, drink, let alone have fun, smoke, etc. The only thing you are allowed to do is swallow your own saliva. However, all of the above requirements must be met only during the day. In the dark, from evening to morning, the fast is broken.

Alms (or zakat). Every property owner is obliged to share his income once a year, allocating part of it as alms in favor of the poor. In addition to obligatory alms, which were perceived as a cleansing ritual for the wealthy and were usually calculated at several percent of their annual income, there was also additional alms, expressed in the form of retribution to individuals, alms to the poor, donations for well-maintained needs - the construction of mosques, schools, hospitals.

Hajj- the fifth and last of the obligatory pillars of faith, and the least obligatory of all. It is believed that every healthy Muslim can visit the holy places in Mecca and worship the Kaaba once in his life.

Some Muslim theologians consider the war against the “infidels” - jihad, which was one of the main duties of a Muslim, of the entire Muslim community at the first stage of the history of Islam, as another - the sixth pillar of religion. However, starting from the 9th-10th centuries, the concept of “jihad” (the original meaning was “effort”, “zeal”) was filled with new content. There was an idea about highest form jihad as internal, spiritual self-improvement on the path of knowing Allah.

LektsIa 10

CULTURE

CLASSICAL ARAB EAST

Plan

Islam as a cultural phenomenon, its birth and evolution. The flourishing of slave-Muslim culture in the 9th-12th centuries.

Achievements of Arab science. Philosophy.

Arab-Muslim art, architecture.

Features of Islamic law and morality. The culture of the Arab East and its influence on world culture.

In the history of great cultures, classical Arab-Muslim culture occupies one of the most important places. At one time, this highly developed, distinctive culture flourished in the vast expanses from India to Spain, including the Near and Middle East and North Africa. Its influence was and is still felt in many parts of the world; it was an important link between the cultures of antiquity and the medieval West; the uniqueness of this culture is due to the characteristics of Islam, which is not just a world religion, but an integral culture - law and state, philosophy and art, religion and science, which have their own uniqueness. And although Islam is historically close to many European cultural traditions, a comparative analysis of these differences, which are not obvious at first glance, shows the greatest distance between Islam and the European standard and its certain similarity with Chinese religious and doctrinal norms. Therefore, it is necessary to find out the nature of Islam, its direction.

Islam is one of the universal world religions, a revealed religion that grew up in the 7th century. from the traditions of such monotheistic religions as Christianity and Judaism, having adopted many of their basic provisions and dogmas. Islam itself recognizes the essence of these religions as identical with its own dogma, however, human imperfection has led to the fact that Jews and Christians misunderstood the meaning of the revelation of the same god. Only the prophet Muhammad came with true revelation, correcting the mistakes of his predecessors.

However, to the extent that the original principles of Islam are similar to the foundations of Christianity and Judaism, the development of the basic ideas of Islam has taken completely different paths. Simple ideas, born among the nomads and merchants of the Arabian Peninsula, acquired new layers in the conditions of developing feudalism in the Middle East. Therefore, Islam itself, being essentially a religion, turned into principles that organized the entire early world of the then societies subordinate to the power of the caliphate. Islam has become the law defining the social structures and morals of society, the basis of which is found in the Holy Qur'an. Since Allah is absolute perfection, the morality and laws given by him have absolute truth, eternity and immutability and are suitable “for all times and peoples.”

While Muhammad was alive, he ruled the Muslim community, but when he died, it turned out that the instructions contained in the Koran were far from sufficient to resolve all state and public issues - naturally, he could not leave instructions for all occasions. In this regard, two movements arose in Islam: Sunnism and Shiism, differing in their interpretation of the Sunnah. In a broad sense, the sunnah - a set of customs and rules of behavior of the ancient community - meant the practice and theory of Muslim orthodoxy; it was transmitted orally and served as a supplement to the written law.

Devout Muslims who believed that the Koran cannot do without the Sunnah received the name “Ahl-as-Sunnah” - “people of the Sunnah” or Sunnis. The disseminators of the sunnah were the companions of Muhammad, who, in appropriate cases, recalled his actions, words and even silence, serving as an example in certain circumstances. Sunniism is based on the common opinion of the ulema (Sunni scholars), while Shiism is based on the authority of the mama (heir to the mission of the prophet). And one more difference: the Limits base the Sunnah solely on the authority of the family of the prophet, while true Sunnis also recognize the testimony of the ascetics of the Prophet Muhammad. Until now, the entire Muslim world is divided between Shiites and Sunnis;

In the course of the evolution of Islam, Sufism—Muslim mysticism—emerged, which in a certain sense represented the reaction of ardent puritans to the process of the beginning desacralization of Islam. Sufis—Islamic mystics did not consider it obligatory for themselves to observe everyday norms, rituals, and conventions strictly prescribed to devout Muslims. Their life was dedicated to Allah and hence their non-standard behavior - they did not pray five times a day, but performed the ritual of falling (dhikr) in various variations - from ecstatic trance to deep internal concentration, close to Hindu-Buddhist meditation. The most interesting thing is that the origins of Sufism include the concepts of various cultures, namely: the dogmas of the Koran, the Neoplatonism of Plotinus with his thesis about divine emanation, which is reflected in the objects of the world as in a mirror, the position of Hindu-Buddhism on the primacy of absolute reality over the phenomenal world of sensations and Christian asceticism. The synthesis of these sources on the basis of Islam led to the emergence of Sufism.

Sufism itself differentiated itself. One of his variants was intellectual Sufism, which had a huge influence on Arab-Muslim culture, remember, for example, Sufi poetry. The Sufi is striving for God, he chooses the path of love and worship in order to achieve his highest goal - to be remade or reincarnated and thus gain timeless experience. Love for God allows the Sufi to achieve complete harmony with the absolute; with the help of love, this “sweet madness,” he merges with God, during which even the very concepts of “god” and “man” disappear. The path of love and wisdom allows the individual to achieve power over his body, thoughts and feelings, to create within himself his own paradise, in which he can experience bliss until he plunges into the ocean of eternity. In other words, in mystical self-knowledge the comprehension of God occurs: “he who knows himself knows God” (Koran).

Another version of Sufism is the Sufism of religious orders, which has enormous political power and is oriented towards dogma of a very rigid, extreme kind. Sufi orders even in our century play an important role, since they influence politics by influencing the religious consciousness of the members of the order and its leader, it is enough to mention the orders of the Qadiriya, Senusiyya and others that still largely control the lives of the masses in African countries, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Iran and other Muslim countries. In addition, we should not forget that the social memory of Islamic society preserves the respectful attitude of the Prophet Muhammad to ascetics, who saw in abstinence almost the highest valor.

Undoubtedly, the influence of Sufism, as well as Islam in general, on the development of culture and socio-political life of the Muslim East. We can say that under the banner of Islam, the Arab people began their great history, full of successes, created a vast empire, a brilliant Arab-Muslim civilization and culture. The Arabs became the heirs of such great states as Byzantium and Persia.

In later times, other peoples - Persians, Turks, Mongols, Indians and Malays - entered the orbit of Islam, so that Islam became a world religion. Islam played a huge role in the lives of these peoples, changing their spiritual appearance and creating a new historical era. Thus, a single, although consisting of many peoples, large “Muslim community” arose - Ummaislamiya, which, despite the heterogeneity of its followers, is characterized by a certain monolithicity. This is due to the fact that Islam had a strong influence on its adherents, forming in them a certain specific Muslim mentality, regardless of their previous folk, cultural and religious traditions.

According to the hadith tradition attributed to the Prophet Muhammad, Islam from the very beginning strongly supported science and education, enjoining "the search for knowledge from the cradle to the grave."

It should be emphasized that Islam significantly contributed to the development of philosophy, art, humanities and natural sciences, as well as the creation of a sophisticated culture (it is no coincidence that the 7th-8th centuries are called the era of classicism). The caliphs, emirs and governors of the various provinces of the colossal Muslim empire were inveterate guardians of science and philosophy, patrons of art and fine literature, especially poetry. They were the initiators and patrons of famous scientific institutes- the then universities and academies of sciences, which were associated with huge libraries for those times, numbering many hundreds of thousands of volumes of religious and secular works. The main centers of medieval culture and science were located in Baghdad, Cairo, Cordoba and other cities of the Arab-Muslim caliphate. It can be said that the Arab-Muslim culture, as follows from the phrase itself, bears the stamp of Islam and Arabism with its spirit of freedom and tolerance, which was preserved during the era of Arab hegemony in the Arab-Muslim society and its state - the caliphate. We should also not forget that in medieval Arab-Muslim culture, socio-political ideas were intensively developed, oriented towards the search for a religious ideal, which presupposed the destruction of property and religious antagonisms: the search for this kind of social utopian ideal, for obvious reasons, caused a certain reaction on the part of orthodox Islam, as a result of which the emergence of Sufism.

An essential element of Arab-Muslim culture is the Arabic language, which is inextricably linked with the Koran. After all, the holy book of Islam, according to devout Muslims, was given to the Prophet Muhammad in “revelation” in Arabic (and many of them believe that it is in this form that its original is kept near the throne of the Almighty). This began the interaction of these two essential components of Arab-Muslim culture. Thus, under the influence of the need to comment on the Koran, philological studies of the Arabic language developed very strongly. In turn, the Koran contributed to expanding the sphere of distribution and strengthening the position of the Arabic language wherever Arabs and representatives of other nations converted to Islam appeared. Because all Muslims, regardless of their origin, are obliged to quote the Koran in Arabic, know it and understand it. And just as the Arabs (and Muslims) considered it a “miracle” that the Koran was presented to the world in Arabic, so it is a “miracle” that we see the amazing development of the Arabic language, which from the language of the Bedouins of desert Arabia in less than a century turned into the official language of scientists and philosophers.

When simple Bedouins emerged from the Arabian desert in the first half of the 7th century. to conquer the neighboring countries of the East and West, they took with them their language, the language of ancient Arabic poetry, the language of the Koran. It was still harsh, not processed by philologists, but potentially rich for further development. They carried with them their religion - Islam, which rallied them into a single fighting system and united them ideologically. The Arabic language and the Koran are two main elements of the emerging new Arab-Muslim civilization and culture: science, philosophy, art and other manifestations of Arab and Muslim culture bear the imprint of these two factors.

From the beginning of its development, in the classical era, in the centuries of brilliant development (IX-XII centuries) and in the post-classical era (XIII-XIV centuries), Arab-Muslim culture was at a high level, leaving far behind the then European science and culture. Arabs, Persians and representatives of other Islamized peoples took part in the creation and development of this culture as members of a single great Muslim society. Her successful development It was facilitated by the fact that Arabic was a single language that was used by all Muslim scientists, regardless of their origin, and not just Arabs, when presenting their works. It was in this language that almost all scientific, philosophical and literary works were written, not to mention the religious and legal works that were created in the region of Islam during the classical era of Arab-Muslim culture. It should be added that the Arabic alphabet was used as an ornamental motif in Muslim art and architecture, especially in sacred architecture.

The first centers of science in the Muslim world were mosques - unique universities, because they taught all religious and secular sciences. Some of them gained great fame in the history of Arab-Muslim science as genuine universities. Enough to remember big mosque The Umayyads in Damascus (founded in 732), the famous Cairo mosque Al-Azhar, known in the West, and others. Islam contributed to the flourishing of science, because the Prophet Muhammad said: “Contemplation of scientists is equivalent to prayer,” and his nephew Ali said: “Get knowledge: it will adorn you if you are rich, and feed you if you are poor.” The saying “books are the gardens of scientists” also deserves attention.

The enormous flowering of science and philosophy, literature and art occurred primarily in the first period of the rule of the Abassid dynasty, with its capital in Baghdad. Already from the end of the 8th century. Intensive work began on translating the most important Greek, Persian and Indian works into Arabic. The famous enlightened caliphal Mamun (813-833) especially encouraged science and scientists and allowed freedom of thought. It was in Baghdad in the 8th-19th centuries. A genuine enthusiasm for science was born. “The search for knowledge” has become, as it were, a need for the broad masses of Islamic adherents, according to the hadiths quoted above. Arab thinkers appeared who brought ancient scientific and philosophical achievements of other peoples into the treasury of Arab-Muslim culture, but also advanced science and philosophy with their original creativity.

Not only in the Arab East, but also in the Arab West, in Arab Spain, called Andalusia, science, philosophy, literature and art developed brilliantly under the patronage of the Umayyad caliphs from Cordoba, and then their successors, the emirs - rulers of small states. Cordoba, the capital of the “Spanish » Umayyads, became famous as a center of refined culture, not inferior to the Abbasid Baghdad. Along with Cordoba, other centers of high culture were also known: Seville, Toledo, Gromada. Scientists from Muslim countries of the East, where science and philosophy have been established since the 12th century. began to decline, and scientists from Italy, France and England arrived in these cultural centers to study such secular sciences as astronomy, medicine, geography and other natural sciences.

In this case, Arab-Muslim culture is seen as intermediate between the cultures of the East and West. The Arab Caliphate included large cultural centers of the Middle East, in which the thousand-year experience of the urban culture of Sumer, Akkad, ancient Egypt, etc. was concentrated. All cultural values, crystallized over the millennia by various eastern civilizations and Hellenism, were mastered by the Arabs and expressed in Arabic and transferred to Western Europe. The defining features imparted by the Muslim East to the culture of Western Europe were scientificity and aspiration for the joys and beauty of reality. The culture of the Muslim Middle Ages, thus, not only preceded the culture of the Renaissance in many of its aspects, but also directly prepared its emergence in the era called by the humanists of the 15th century. the Middle Ages. In the period between the 12th century. and during the Renaissance, the works of Arab scholars in all fields of knowledge were translated and rewritten in Spain, Sicily and Syria, thanks to which most of them became available in Latin translation. Despite the comparatively low level of translation and scholarship in the West at the time, these Latin texts contributed to the revival of the thirst for knowledge in Western Europe during the late Middle Ages. The question arises: what is the reason for the flourishing of scientific knowledge in Arab-Muslim culture? The following factors played a significant role in this. First of all, it should be borne in mind that Islam was based on concern for the faithful in this earthly world, and various scientific disciplines provided significant assistance here. Exact sciences, mathematics and astronomy, as well as medicine and pharmacology were very useful for the development of civilization, because they increased the standard of living of the population and did not threaten the ideology of Islam. All this led to the development of scientific disciplines without any special obstacles, to their achievement of a high level.

In the field of exact sciences, the achievements of Arab scientists were enormous. It is common knowledge that the Arabic counting system, whose roots go back to India, was adopted and spread in Europe. Arab scientists (Muhammad al-Khorezmi and others) made a great contribution to the development of algebra, spherical trigonometry, mathematical physics, optics, astronomy and other scientific disciplines. Astronomy and astrology have been very popular among Arabs for a long time, even in the pre-Muslim era; accepted by Islam, they received widespread support from Muslim rulers.

Chemistry reached a high level of development among the Arabs. Jabar Ibn Hayaniz Kufa, the creator of the foundations of experimental chemistry, became famous. He dealt not only with problems of the theory of chemistry, but also in his numerous experimental studies sought to obtain data for practical application in the processes of steel smelting, dyeing fabrics and leather, glass production, etc. In general, we can say that Arab scientists in the field of chemistry discovered sulfur oxide , nitric oxide, silver nitrate and other compounds, as well as distillation and crystallization.

Very high level The Arabs had medicine, and its achievements in various fields nourished European medicine for a long time. One of the first famous doctors, al-Razi (9th century) was the greatest clinician in the world of Islam, many of his works are real medical encyclopedias. A major encyclopedia in the field of medicine is the “Canon of Medicine” by the famous Ibn Sina (Avicenna). The greatest surgeon of the Arab world, Az-Zahrawi, raised surgery to the rank of an independent science; his most important treatise, Tashrif, laid the foundation for illustrated works on surgery. He began to use antiseptics in the treatment of wounds and skin lesions, invented threads for surgical sutures, as well as about 200 surgical instruments, which were subsequently used by surgeons in both the Muslim and Christian worlds. Another famous medical pioneer was Ibn Zuhr (Aven-zohar), one of the largest Arab doctors in Spain (1094-1160). He was the first to describe pneumonia, stomach cancer, etc.; he is considered the harbinger of experimental medicine.

We also owe to Arab scientists the creation of pharmacy as a recognized profession; pharmacology has become an independent science, independent of medicine, although related to it. They attached great importance to chemotherapy; many medicinal herbs from the Arab pharmacopoeia are still used in treatment: senna, knotweed, etc. Arab geographers and naturalists enriched zoology and botany by studying the flora and fauna of many countries.

The Arab art of healing knew hydrotherapy, psychotherapy and therapeutic diet. It should be noted that many hospitals were built in the Arab world, including special hospitals for the mentally ill; often these hospitals were associated with scientific institutions. Usually, in accordance with the tradition of Arab-Muslim construction, a mosque, a hospital and a school or other public institutions that contributed to the physical and spiritual health of a person were built in a new city. It can be said that Arab scientists replenished the sum of human knowledge with new and original information discovered in the field of natural science and medicine, thereby enriching all of humanity.

The philosophical tradition of the Muslim East is also of interest, which has two components - Hellenism and Islam, which determines its special features. After all, all types of knowledge, all disciplines for which Arab classical thought recognized the right to exist, received religious understanding thanks to the Koran. For the Koran only affirmed the unity of Allah, judge and creator, as stated in the revelations of the Prophet Muhammad, not only established a religious connection between the believer and his creator-benefactor, but also gave an impetus to tireless creative search in all areas of knowledge. It should also be taken into account that specialization in science has never prevented Arab scientists and thinkers from relating various disciplines to each other and connecting different fields of knowledge into a single whole.

All this must be kept in mind when considering Arab-Muslim philosophy, which clearly differed from the strictly religious aspect of classical Islam. Moreover, it even asserted itself as the visible opposite of this aspect, as evidenced by the constant divergences in views on the respective roles of reason and faith, the division into religious and rational knowledge, national judgments and judgments of canonical (religious) law. However, philosophy was actually intertwined with theology when it came to concerned ethics, politics and metaphysics, just as canon law used the fields of knowledge that philosophers dealt with: logic, mathematics, rhetoric, natural sciences. The interpenetration of philosophy and theology can be observed in the works of the Mu'tazilites, supporters of reason in all areas, including religion, as well as in the works of such humanists as Kakad-Jahiz. This tendency towards synthesis is even more clearly visible in the 19th century. in the works of grammarians, jurists, theologians, writers, doctors and such encyclopedists as the “Brothers of Purity”. A striking example of such a tendency towards synthesis are the famous fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights”, which reflect the thinking of the people, reveal their desires and beliefs. This connection between the humanities and literature is found in the works of a number of authors, in particular in the works of the great scientist al-Biruni (d. 1048), whose philosophy in many respects is surprisingly reminiscent of the philosophy of the 20th century.

The process of interpenetration of philosophy and theology was at the same time characterized by a constant clash of two main approaches - rationalistic, which continued the traditions of the Greek 1; thought, and traditional, which consisted in a direct interpretation of sacred texts (the Koran and Hadith). And yet, many thinkers did not adhere to such a distinction in their search. Often these were outstanding philosophers, for example, Ibn Sina (Avicenna, d. 11037), Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), Ibn Khaldun (d. 11406). The philosophical thought of Ibn Sina had a strong influence on the philosophy of the Muslim East, while the philosophical thought of Averroes left a deep imprint on medieval European philosophy, where Averroism was a very important philosophical movement. In general, it can be said that Arab thinkers and scientists had a tremendous influence on the culture of the West, especially in such fields of knowledge as mathematics, astronomy, medicine and philosophy.

Arab-Muslim culture did not create plastic arts - painting and sculpture in the European or ancient understanding of art. After all, Islam had a negative attitude towards the depiction of any living creature in painting and sculpture, so they were represented with ornamental, abstract motifs. In other words, the equivalents of the plastic arts in the Warabe-Muslim culture were artistic calligraphy and miniature painting. The art of calligraphy in the world of Islam was considered the most noble art, and calligraphers had their own “academies” and were highly respected.

It should be noted that the abstractness of Muslim art is far from modern abstractionism. Modern artists find in abstraction the answer to irrational subconscious impulses; for the Muslim artist, abstract painting directly reflects unity in diversity. Muslim art consists of reproducing objects in accordance with their nature, and it is saturated with beauty, since it comes from God: there is nothing else left to do but to reveal and express this beauty. In the Islamic concept, art in a broad sense is a means of refining material. Muslim art (carpet weaving, architecture, painting, calligraphy) is characterized by the repetition of expressive geometric motifs, unexpected changes in rhythm and diagonal symmetry. The Islamic structure of the mind includes a keen sense of the fragility of the world, a capacity for thought and action, and a sense of rhythm.

Another typical example of Arab-Muslim culture is the arabesque, a specific Muslim ornament in which logic is associated with the living integrity of rhythm. Elements of Muslim Decorative Art are borrowed from the historical past common to the peoples of Asia, the Middle East and Northern Europe. Islam assimilates these archaic elements, reducing them to the most abstract and pure definition, neutralizing them to a certain extent and thus depriving them of any magical character. As a result of this synthesis, the arabesque has analogies in Arabic rhetoric and poetry, distinguished by a rhythmic flow of thought, filled with strictly related parallels and inversions. For Muslims, the arabesque is not only the possibility of creating art without paintings, but also a means of dispersing the painting or what corresponds to it in thought. In an arabesque, reproduction of an individual form is impossible due to the infinity of the canvas.

Calligraphy, the most noble visual art of Islam, has a function similar to that of icons in Christian art, as it represents the visible body of the divine Word. Arabic words in sacred writings correlate with arabesques, primarily with floral patterns associated with the Asian symbol of the tree of the world, the leaves of which correspond to the words of the holy book.

In the Arab-Muslim world, calligraphy was widely used in architecture, both as a means of conveying text and simply for decoration. Architects sometimes covered entire walls of palaces and mosques with intricate Arabic script, stylized plant motifs, and geometric patterns. The architecture itself is also famous, the masterpieces of which are the Taj Mahal, the blue mosque in Istanbul, which is based on a Christian temple, the blue domes of Samarkand and Isfahan mosques, the Algamation Palace in Granada, the palaces and mosques of Cordoba. We must also remember the patterned tiles of Muslim architecture, the ornaments of which later brought fame to Persian carpets .

Many examples of Islamic art can be seen in the Western Hemisphere thanks to the conquistadors. In the Mexican city of Pueblo, the walls of ancient Catholic churches are covered with tiled mosaics with floral patterns. It turns out that mutually competing cultures and religions mutually enrich each other.

Originality is also inherent in the Muslim understanding of morality and law, for it is believed that following Islamic morality and Sharia law with faith in Allah provides the opportunity for the highest moral improvement of the individual.

The geography of the modern Arab world is surprisingly diverse. The Arabian Peninsula was divided between Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman and other states. Iraq became the successor civilizations of Mesopotamia; Syria, Lebanon and Jordan occupy the territories of ancient Syria. Egypt inherited the possessions of Ancient Egypt stretching along the Nile. On the North African coast Mediterranean Sea, which received the name Maghreb (Arabic, “west”) from medieval Arab geographers, contains the states of Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. The history and culture of Arab countries is also closely connected with Iran and Turkey.

Arab medieval culture also developed in those countries that underwent Arabization (adopted Islam), where classical Arabic was dominant for a long time as the official language.

The greatest flourishing of Arab culture occurred in the 8th–11th centuries:

1) poetry developed successfully;

2) the famous fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights” were composed; Many works of ancient authors were translated.

During this period, the Arabs made a significant contribution to world mathematical science, the development of medicine, and philosophy. They created unique architectural monuments.

2. Religion. Islam

The basis of the religious life of the inhabitants of the East was Islam. Islam (Arabic, “submission”) is the youngest of the world’s religions. In the modern world, Islam is the second most followed world religion. It is a monotheistic religion, and in almost all countries with a predominantly Muslim population, Islam is the state religion. But Islam is not only a religion. This is a system of relationships between a person and society that determines the way of life of a Muslim.

Islam arose in Arabia in the 7th century, and its founder was Muhammad. This religion developed under the influence of Christianity and Judaism. As a result of the Arab conquests, it spread to the Near and Middle East, some countries of the Far East, Asia and Africa.

The ideal form of Islamic statehood is an egalitarian secular theocracy. All believers, regardless of their social status, were equal before the divine law; imam or mullah is the leader of a common prayer, which can be led by any Muslim who knows the Koran. Legislative power is possessed only by the Koran, and executive power - religious and secular - belongs to God and is exercised through the Caliph.

Main directions of Islam:

1) Sunnism;

3) Wahhabism.

Reformers of the 2nd half of the 19th – early 20th centuries. (for example, al Afghani) understood the reformation as the purification of Islam from distortions and layers through a return to the early Muslim community. In the 20th century largely as a reaction to the influence of the West, ideologies based on Islamic values ​​(pan-Islamism, fundamentalism) arise in Muslim countries.

3. Life and customs of Muslims. Sharia

The main source of Muslim doctrine is the Koran (Arabic, “reading aloud”). The second source of Muslim doctrine is the Sunnah - examples from the life of Muhammad as an example of solving religious socio-political problems. The Sunnah is made up of hadiths that tell about the statements of Muhammad on a particular issue. Through revelation, signs and names, man can only partially comprehend the meaning of the divine in the world, and a Muslim is obliged to believe in this. Each religious group in Islam was united into a separate community (ummah).

The Koran, in addition to sermons, prayers, spells, edifying stories and parables, contains ritual and legal regulations that regulate various aspects of the life of Muslim society. In accordance with these instructions, family, legal, and property relations of Muslims are built. The most important part of Islam is Sharia - a set of moral, legal, cultural and other guidelines that regulate the entire public and personal life of a Muslim.

Traditional norms of behavior eastern society combined with traditional thinking and mythology, an important part of which were angels and demons, or jinn. Muslims were very afraid of the evil eye and believed in the immortality of the soul and the afterlife. In the Arab East, great importance was attached to dreams. Various fortune tellings were also widespread.

4. Science. Literature. Arabic

Since the 7th century. How applied sciences to religious disciplines develop:

1) grammar;

2) mathematics;

3) astronomy.

Their development occurred in the process of close contacts between Muslims and other Eastern cultures:

1) Syrian;

2) Persian;

3) Indian.

The main scientific achievements of Arab scientists date back to the Middle Ages.

The contribution of the Arabs to mathematical science was significant. Abu-l-Wafa derived the sine theorem of trigonometry, calculated the table of sines, and introduced the concept of secant and cosecant. The poet and scientist Omar Khayyam wrote Algebra. He also successfully worked on the problem of irrational and real numbers. In 1079 he introduced a calendar more accurate than the modern Gregorian calendar. Arab medieval medicine was glorified by Ibn Sina - Avicenna(980-1037), author of the encyclopedia of theoretical and clinical medicine. Abu Bakr, a famous Baghdad surgeon, gave a classic description of smallpox and measles and used vaccinations. Arab philosophy largely developed on the basis of the ancient heritage.

Historical thought also developed. If in the 7th–8th centuries. Historical works had not yet been written in Arabic, but there were many legends about Muhammad, the campaigns and conquests of the Arabs, then in the 9th century. Major works on history are being compiled. The most famous historian of the 14th–15th centuries. was Ibn Khaldun, the first Arab historian to try to create a theory of history. He identified the natural conditions of the country as the main factor determining the historical process.

Arabic literature also attracted the attention of scientists. At the turn of the 8th–9th centuries. An Arabic grammar was compiled, which formed the basis of all subsequent grammars. Arabic writing is regarded as the greatest cultural value.

The centers of medieval Arab science were the cities of Baghdad and Basra. The scientific life of Baghdad was especially lively, where the House of Science was created - a kind of association of an academy, an observatory, and a library. Already in the 10th century. In many cities, secondary and higher Muslim schools - madrasahs - appeared. In the X–XIII centuries. In Europe, a signed decimal system for writing numbers, called “Arabic numerals,” became known from Arabic writings.

Enduring world fame brought Omar Khayyam(1048–1122), Persian poet, scientist, his poems:

1) philosophical;

2) hedonic;

3) free-thinking hacks.

In the X–XV centuries. The now world-famous collection of Arabian folk tales, “A Thousand and One Nights,” gradually emerged. These are tales about Ali Baba, Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor, etc. Orientalists believe that the heyday of Arabic poetry, literature, and culture in general occurred in the 8th–9th centuries: during this period, the rapidly developing Arab world stood at the head of world civilization . From the 12th century the level of cultural life is declining. Persecution of Christians and Jews begins, which was expressed in their physical extermination, oppression secular culture, pressure on natural sciences is increasing. Public burning of books became common practice.

5. Fine arts and calligraphy

Islam, advocating strict monotheism, has since ancient times fought against the tribal cults of the Arabians. In order to destroy the memory of tribal idols, sculpture was prohibited in Islam, and images of living beings were not approved. As a result, painting also did not receive significant development in Arab culture, being limited to ornaments. From the 12th century The art of miniatures, including books, began to develop.

A handwritten book was valued in Muslim society as a shrine and a treasure. With all the differences in artistic techniques and plots, book illustrations of that time have a lot in common. Conventionality in depicting the scene and characters in miniatures is combined with a masterful command of line and color, and a lot of details. The poses of the characters are expressive.

Most popular images:

1) scenes of royal receptions;

4) battles.

Court painters often served at the same time as court historians, accompanying the Sultan on military campaigns.

The artist did not seek to reproduce earthly reality. The true world had to be comprehended speculatively, through reading the Koran, saying prayers, inscribing and contemplating sacred inscriptions from the Koran, hadiths, and the names of Allah and Muhammad. The sacred word of the Koran accompanied the Muslim all his life.

In the Muslim medieval culture of the East and West, the degree of mastery of the “beauty of writing,” or calligraphy, became an indicator of a person’s intelligence and education. Various handwritings were developed. The 6 writing styles were based on the system of “standard writing” - a system of proportions that determined the relationship between the vertical and horizontal elements of letters, as well as letters in a word and line.

The writing instrument was a reed pen - “kalam”, the method of cutting which depended on the chosen style and traditions of the school. The materials for writing were papyrus, parchment and paper, the production of which was established in Samarkand (Central Asia) in the 60s. VIII century The sheets were covered with starch paste and polished with a crystal egg, which made the paper dense and durable, and the letters and patterns printed with colored ink were clear, bright and shiny.

In general, fine art was carpet art; its characteristic features were floweriness and patterning. The combination of bright colors, however, was always strictly geometric, rational and subordinated to Muslim symbolism.

6. Architecture of Islam

It should be noted that medieval Arab architecture developed on the basis of the Arabs' processing of Greek, Roman and Iranian traditions. From the 10th century buildings begin to be decorated with floral and geometric ornaments, which included stylized inscriptions - Arabic script. Such an ornament - Europeans called it arabesque - was built on the principle of endless development and rhythmic repetition of the pattern.

The main place in the construction of cities was occupied by religious buildings - mosques. They were a square courtyard surrounded by galleries on pillars or columns. Over time, mosques began to differ in their purpose. The small mosque served as a place of individual prayer. The cathedral, or Friday, mosque was intended for collective prayers performed by the entire community on Friday at noon. The main temple of the city began to be called the Great Mosque.

The distinctive features of any mosque from the end of the 7th - beginning of the 8th century. became mihrab and minbar. From the 8th century The most important element of the cathedral mosque was the minaret - a high tower from which the call to prayer was proclaimed.

The Arab world also gave rise to such a unique phenomenon as Moorish art.

Moorish art is the conventional name for an artistic style (a mixture of Arabic and Gothic styles) that developed in North Africa and Andalusia (Southern Spain) in the 11th–15th centuries. The Moorish style was most clearly manifested in architecture. The pearl of Moorish architecture of the 13th–14th centuries. – Alhambra (Granada in Spain). Massive fortress walls, towers and gates, secret passages hide and protect the palace. The composition is based on a system of courtyards (Courtyard of Myrtles, Courtyard of Lions), located at different levels. Distinctive features– fragile, frost-like carved stone patterns and inscriptions on the walls, thin twisted columns, forged window grilles and multi-colored stained glass windows.

Arab culture the totality of spiritual and material achievements of the population of the Arabic-speaking countries of the Near and Middle East, Northern. Africa, South-West Europe. In general, as a specific phenomenon, Arab culture was formed in the 7th-10th centuries, as a result of the cultural interaction of the Arabs and the peoples that were part of the caliphate. However, this term applies not only to the medieval culture of the caliphate, but also to the culture of Arab countries throughout their historical development. A.K. originated on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. It was preceded and influenced by the pre-Islamic culture of the pagan population of the South. Arabia, a characteristic feature of which was the development of oral folk literature. With the birth of Islam and the formation of the caliphate (see Arab Caliphate), which created a single space and a community of peoples within it, united by one language and the dominant religion, Arab culture proper took shape. The directly Arab elements of this culture are Islam, the Arabic language, and oral folk traditions. poetry. The population made a significant contribution to the creation of A.K. Syria, Lebanon, Yemen, Iraq, Iran And India, including those who did not convert to Islam - for example, Christians brought elements of the heritage of the ancient world to A.K.
In the VII-VIII centuries. under the dynasty Umayyads the capital of the caliphate and the center of A.K. was Damascus, although along with it the major centers of formation of A.K. remained Mecca And Medina in Arabia, Kufa and Basra Iraq. It was then that the first canons of literature, architecture, philosophical and religious ideas appeared. During the reign of the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258), the capital of the caliphate moved to Baghdad, which became one of the largest architectural centers of Aktobe. In the 9th-10th centuries, Aktobe experienced its period of greatest prosperity. Literature, history, exact and natural sciences, philosophy developed rapidly, and outstanding monuments of architecture and art were created. During this period, ancient culture had a significant influence on the cultures of other peoples. After the collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate (mid-10th century), the area of ​​influence of the Abbasids narrowed. At Fatimid(910-1171) and Ayyubids (1171-1250) the center of development of A.K. became Cairo. Back in the 8th century. Muslim Spain separated from the Abbasid Caliphate, where its own Arab-Spanish culture developed. In the X-XV centuries. the centers of this culture are Cordoba, Seville, Granada and Malaga are experiencing a period of prosperity. However, from the second half of the 13th century. Azerbaijan began to stagnate, especially against the backdrop of the prosperous culture of other eastern countries (Ottoman Turkey, Central Asia, Iran) and Europe, and then its decline after the Ottoman conquest of Arab territory in the 16th century. Nevertheless, the traditions of scientific knowledge of A.K. were preserved in the cultural centers of Egypt, Syria and Iraq.
The stage of a new gradual rise in A.K. began in the first half of the 19th century. with modernization and revival in various areas of life in Arab countries. With the formation of sovereign Arab states, Arabia developed mainly within these countries.
In medieval academia, mathematics, astronomy, and other sciences were closely intertwined, and the encyclopedic nature of knowledge led to the fact that famous astronomers could also be famous poets or historians. Arabic mathematics was based on translations of works by ancient and Indian authors. However, in the 9th-10th centuries. in Baghdad, Arab scientists were no longer engaged in translations and commentaries on ancient authors, but in the independent development of mathematical, astronomical and other natural science fields of knowledge, which were closely connected with the rapid development of construction, architecture, land surveying and navigation. From Indian scientists, the Arabs adopted the decimal number system using zero, which contributed to the further development of mathematics. Arab scientists introduced trigonometric function, developed techniques for solving quadratic and cubic equations, extracting roots with natural exponents, and identified trigonometry as an independent field of knowledge. Outstanding achievements in mathematics are associated with the names of Central Asian scientists al-Khorezmi (IX century), who wrote the first arithmetic treatise, al-Biruni (973-1048) and al-Kashi (XV century), who introduced decimal fractions into use, Persian and Tajik polymath Omar Khayyam (c. 1048 - after 1122), Egyptian Ibn al-Haytham (c. 965-1039). The “sons of Musa” (9th century), Ibn Kurra (about 836-901), and others became famous in the field of geometry. Many of them also contributed to the development of physics and mineralogy.


In astronomy, Arab scientists also initially relied on the translated works of ancient and Indian authors, then significantly developing what they achieved. Observatories were built in Baghdad, Cairo, Samarkand and other centers of Aktobe, where the famous astronomers of their time Ibn Yunus (950-1009), Nasir ad-din al-Tusi (1201-1280, according to other sources - 1274 or 1277), al-Biruni and others made their observations. Already in the 9th century. The length of the meridian was measured and the dimensions of the globe were calculated. Medical treatises of Arab doctors are known - Ibn Sina(/Avicenna/980-1037), al-Biruni, ar-Razi (980-1037), which were also used in Europe. Arab scientists developed issues of surgery, ophthalmology and other areas of medical knowledge.
The first works on descriptive geography appeared in the 9th century, but the heyday of classical Arab geography began in the 10th century. and was associated with the names of al-Masudi, al-Balkhi, al-Istakhri (10th century), al-Biruni (11th century), Yakut (13th century), al- Idrisi(1100 - 1165 or 1161), Ibn Battuta(1304-1377), etc. Arab scientists adopted the Ptolemaic picture of the world, maps and descriptions were compiled in accordance with it, although the knowledge accumulated by Arab geographers and travelers was much broader - they described the entire Arab East, a number of other regions of Asia and Africa.
Arabic philosophy was directly related to Muslim theology and originated in disputes about divine attributes, predestination, free will, etc. The Mutazillites, representatives of rational theology (kalam), allowed an allegorical interpretation of the Koran, considered reason the only measure of truth and denied the possibility of the Almighty changing the world . In contrast to them, the Ash'arites believed that any object in the world, consisting of atoms constantly reproduced by the creator, could be changed by him. The followers of the ancient philosopher Aristotle and the Neoplatonists were al-Kindi (about 800-879) and al-Farabi (873-950). A separate mystical-religious movement in Arab philosophy is Sufism, whose representatives sought direct communication with the Almighty and contemplation of Him by overcoming worldly passions. The largest representatives of Sufism were al-Ghazali(1059-1111) and Ibn al-Arabi (1165-1240). In Muslim Spain, the philosophical ideas of Aristotle became widespread, the largest follower of which in this region was Ibn Rushd(1126-1198), who created an independent philosophical doctrine. His ideas were adopted by the Averroists - followers of Ibn Rushd in Europe.
The first Arabic historical works date back to the end of the 7th century. Initially, these were legends about the pre-Islamic period, about the spread of Islam, the biography of the Prophet Muhammad and his companions. The Arab authors' ideas about world history were connected with the history of the creation of the world and the history of the prophets set out in the Koran. Muslim theologians described the history of the Arabs and biblical peoples within the framework of a single continuity. Medieval Arab historiography viewed the historical process as the implementation of a divine plan, recognizing, however, man's responsibility for his actions and seeing the role of history in teaching based on accumulated experience. The first great historical work was the treatise Ibn Ishaq(c. 704-768 or 767) about the history of the prophets and the life of the prophet Muhammad. The writings of al-Baladhuri (c. 820 - c. 892), Abu Hanifa ad-Dinawari (d. c. 895) and al-Yaqub, usually compiled in the form of annals, introduced the classical scheme of Arabic historiographical narrative from the creation of the world, formation and life Muslim community to modern political events. The most famous and major historical work of the heyday of A.K. was the “History of Prophets and Kings” by at-Tabari (838 or 839-923), the general history of al-Masudi (d. 956/957/), Hamza al-Isfahani(died in the second half of the 10th century), Ibn al-Athir (1160-1233/1234/), Ibn Khaldun and others. From the second half of the 10th century. among Arab historical works local and dynastic chronicles, biographies and history of cities predominated. Nevertheless, the general histories of Abu-l-Fida (1273-1331), az-Zahabi (1274-1353/1347/), Ibn Kathir (c. 1300-1373), and others are also known. In the 15th-16th centuries. Egypt became the center of Arab historical science - works were created here on the history of this country, as well as historical encyclopedias and chronicles on general history. The most important authors of this era were Ibn al-Furat (1334-1405), al- Makrizi(1364-1442), al-Aini (1361-1451), al-Suyuti (1445-1505). Among Arabic historical works, the biographies and biographical dictionaries of Ibn Khallikan (1211-1282), al-Safadi (1296/97-1363), Ibn al-Qifti (1172-1248), Ibn Abu Usaybi (1203-1270) and etc. During the era of Ottoman rule, mainly local chronicles and history were compiled. The most valuable of them are the history of Andalusia by al-Makkari (1591/92-1632) and the history of Egypt by al-Jabarti (1753-1825/1826/) (see. Jabarti).
Arabic literature originated on the Arabian Peninsula even before the adoption of Islam: the poets Imru-l-Qays, Tarafa, Antr ibn Shadad, the poetess Hansa and other pre-Islamic authors made a significant contribution to its development, the formation of canons and genres, which became elegy (“rice "), boasting ("fahr"), songs of revenge ("sar"), love lyrics, etc. At the Umayyad court, the poets al-Akhtal (c. 640 - c. 710), al-Jarir, al-Farazdak (c. 641 - between 728 and 732), who became famous panegyrists of their time. Although their work was significantly influenced by pre-Islamic poets, their poetry already reflected the beliefs of Islam. Love lyrics became widespread during the Caliphate period, the development of which is associated with the names of Omar ibn Abi Rabia from Mecca (641 - ca. 712/718/), the poets of the Abbasid court Muti ibn Iyas, Waliba ibn Khubab and others. Abu became innovators in Arabic poetry -Nuwas (762-815) and others, who departed from pre-Islamic classical norms and developed new themes and plots. The new norms of Arabic poetry were finally formulated in the treatise of the poet and philologist Ibn al-Mutazz (861-908), although there were also poets who adhered to the old canons. With the collapse of the caliphate, Arabic literature continued to develop - this period is associated with the names of the brilliant poets al-Mutanabbi (915-965) and Abu-l-Ala al-Ma'arri (973-1057). Prose writer Badi al-Zaman al-Hamadani (d. 1007) created a new genre - maqama, considered the highest achievement of Arabic prose. Distinct literary styles appeared in Muslim Spain. Here the folk poetic strophic forms muwashshah and zajal were created, which then spread to the territories of many Arab countries. Andalusian poetry is associated with the names of al-Ghazal (770-864), Ibn Abd Rabbihi (860-940), Ibn Kuzman (about 1080-1160), al-Mu'tadid (1012-1069), Ibn Zaydun (1003-1071), etc. From the second half of the 11th century. Arabic literature enters a period of decline: poetry acquires a mystical connotation, and prose a didactic one. In the XIII-XV centuries. The most striking achievements of Arabic literature are associated with the influence of folk art: by the end of the 15th century. The collection of fairy tales “One Thousand and One Nights” was finally formed, and folk genres also became widespread in poetry. From the beginning of the 19th century. along with the state and national upsurge, a period of revival begins in literature, which further develops within the framework of individual Arab states.


Arabic architecture is closely related to the religion of Islam—mosques have become the most widespread and sought-after buildings. The first of them, with a fenced courtyard and colonnade, were created in Basra (635), Kufa (638) and Fustat (40th 7th century). The Umayyad mosque in Damascus (beginning of the 8th century) with beautiful mosaics became a real masterpiece. The most widespread type of mosque was the columnar type, but there were also domed mosques. Under the Umayyads, secular construction of palaces and castles (Mshatta, Quseir Amra, Qasr al-Kheir al-Gharbi and Qasr al-Kheir al-Sharqi, Khirbet al-Mafjar) was actively carried out; under the Abassids, urban planning work was carried out in Baghdad and Samarra. A special school of Arab architecture developed in Fatimid Cairo (founded 969), which largely determined the face of the city: the grandiose al-Azhar mosque (10th century), powerful fortress walls, palaces, caravanserais, shops and houses. In the XIII-XVI centuries. large fortification construction was carried out (the citadels of Cairo and Aleppo) and the construction of mausoleums (Mamluk Cemetery in Cairo, XV-XVI centuries), inlay was widespread architectural structures stones. Religious architecture was dominated by a majestic style with large volumes and domes (the 14th-century Hassan Mosque in Cairo, mosques and madrassas in Damascus). The architecture of the Maghreb and Spain flourished in the 10th-15th centuries. (monumental and richly decorated mosques in Tlemcen and Taza, Cordoba, gateway to Toledo, Alhambra Palace in Granada). With the Turkish conquest of the 16th century. Arab architecture included elements of Ottoman architecture, but local forms were also preserved. A new period of the rise of Arab architecture began in the 19th century.
Arabic arts and crafts are characterized by rich ornamental patterns and calligraphy. Arabic book miniatures in Syria and Egypt in the 9th-12th centuries deserve special attention. and in Iraq XII-XIII centuries.
Arabic music was formed as a result of interaction musical traditions Arabs and peoples of conquered territories. At the early stage of its development, it was inseparable from poetry - there were professional poet-singers (shairs) and various song genres. From the end of the 7th century. Arabic music began to flourish. Since it was closely connected with vocals, works performed by singers and musicians with the leading role of the former became widespread. The most famous of them in the Umayyad era were Ibn Musajih, Muslim ibn Mukhriz, singer Jamile; in the Abassid era - Ibrahim al-Mausili (742-804), Ishaq al-Mausili (767-850), Mansur Zalzal. Arab authors al-Kindi, al-Farabi, al-Isfahani, Safi ad-din Urmavi created numerous works on musical topics. Traditional Arabic musical instruments are the duff (a small square tambourine), the mizhar (a primitive lute with a leather soundboard), the rebab (a type of single-string violin), and the oud (a type of lute).

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