Methods for studying economic processes. Abstract: Methodology for studying economic processes and phenomena

Methods for studying economic processes

In economics, both in science and in the curriculum, methodology is necessarily present. Methodology- ϶ᴛᴏ the science of methods, the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge.

Economics as a science uses a variety of forms and methods of scientific knowledge, incl. observations; processing of the obtained material through synthesis and analysis; induction and deduction; systematic approach; developing hypotheses and testing them; conducting experiments; development of models in logical and mathematical forms.

Methods of economic science– a set of ways and techniques of cognition of economic relations and their reproduction in a system of categories and laws.

Considering the patterns of changes in economic processes, economic theory uses methods of economic and mathematical modeling (the study of processes and phenomena not directly, but through auxiliary objects), which appeared in the 20th century.

In economic science, methods of scientific abstraction, analysis and synthesis, a systems approach, and modeling methods (primarily graphic, mathematical and computer modeling) are widely used.

Method of scientific abstraction (abstraction) consists in abstracting in the process of cognition from external phenomena, unimportant details and highlighting the essence of an object or phenomenon. As a result of these assumptions, it is possible to develop, for example, scientific concepts that express the most general properties and connections of the phenomena of reality - categories. Thus, abstracting from the countless differences in the external properties of millions of different goods produced in the world, we unite them into one economic category - goods, fixing the main thing that unites various goods - these are products intended for sale.

Method of analysis and synthesis involves studying a phenomenon both in parts (analysis) and as a whole (synthesis). For example, by studying the main properties of money (money as a measure of value, as a means of circulation, payment, savings), we can, on this basis, try to put them together, generalize (synthesize) and conclude that money is a special commodity that serves as a universal equivalent. By combining analysis and synthesis, we provide systemic (integrated) approach to complex (multi-element) phenomena of economic life.

Also widely used induction and deduction.

Induction- ϶ᴛᴏ the process of creating a theory from a set of observations. Through induction, a transition is ensured from the study of individual facts to general provisions and conclusions.

Deduction– the process of predicting future events using theory. Deduction makes it possible to move from the most general conclusions to relatively specific ones.

The most important method is eq. theory is systems approach, exploring functional relationships - direct and inverse dependencies between variables. Its use has shown that eq. laws and categories are not absolute, but relative, which allows us to move away from one-sidedness and categorical judgments.

Economic model- ϶ᴛᴏ a formalized description of an economic process or phenomenon, the structure of which is determined both by its objective properties and the subjective target nature of the study.

A model in economics gives a simplified picture of reality and allows one to make generalizations and assumptions in an abstract form (graphical, mathematical).

Modeling,ᴛ.ᴇ. the construction of models reflects the main economic indicators (data, variables) of the objects under study and the connections between them (their interrelations). If the model contains only the most general description of indicators and their relationships, then this is a text model. If these indicators and relationships are given quantitative values, then on the basis of the text model it is possible to build graphical, mathematical and computer models that reflect how the indicators (data, variables) change.

Models are divided into static and dynamic.

Static models are designed to study a phenomenon at a certain point in time.

Dynamic models - a model illustrates changes in the phenomenon being studied over a certain period.

Economic and mathematical modeling, being one of the systematic research methods, makes it possible to determine the causes of changes in economic phenomena, the patterns of these changes, their consequences, opportunities and results of influencing the course of changes, and also makes forecasting economic processes realistic.

Also used graphic method– involves the use of graphs and tables to illustrate images.

Graphical method(graphical modeling method) is based on constructing models using various drawings - graphs, diagrams, diagrams. The interdependence of economic indicators is especially well demonstrated by graphs - images of the relationship between two or more variables.

The dependence must be linear (ᴛ.ᴇ. constant), then the graph is a straight line located at an angle between two axes - vertical (usually denoted by the letter Y) and horizontal (X).

If the graph line goes from left to right in a descending direction, then there is an inverse relationship between the two variables (for example, as the price of a product decreases, the volume of its sales usually increases - Fig. 1, a). If the graph line is ascending, then the relationship is direct (for example, as the production costs of a product increase, its prices usually increase - Fig. 1.6). The dependence must be nonlinear (ᴛ.ᴇ. changing), then the graph takes the form of a curved line (thus, as inflation decreases, unemployment tends to increase - the Phillips curve, Fig. 1, c).

Rice. 1. Main types of graphs: a - graph of inverse linear dependence; b - graph of direct linear dependence; c - graph of nonlinear dependence

Within the framework of the graphical approach, diagrams are widely used - drawings showing the relationship between indicators. Οʜᴎ can be circular, columnar, etc.
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(Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Examples of diagrams: a - pie; b - columnar

The diagrams clearly and graphically demonstrate the indicators of the models and their relationships. An example is economic circuit diagrams (see Fig. 4.1 and 4.2).

Mathematical modeling method is based on a description of an economic phenomenon in a formalized language using mathematical tools: functions, equations, inequalities, etc. At the same time, economic and mathematical models make it possible not only to formalize an economic phenomenon, but also to identify its features. For example, in accordance with the so-called Fisher formula, the economy’s need for money is expressed by the equation: MV = RT, where M is the volume of money supply; v - velocity of money circulation; P - the general level of prices for goods; T is the volume of current transactions for the purchase and sale of goods and services in the country. It follows that,

M = P × T ÷ V

ᴛ.ᴇ. The volume of money supply depends not only on the general price level in the country and the volume of transactions carried out in it, but also on the speed of circulation of money. If we further transform the Fisher formula:

P = M × V ÷ T

then we can conclude that the price level in the country depends on the volume of the money supply and the speed of circulation of money, as well as the volume of current transactions for the purchase and sale of goods and services.

Computer simulation method is based on economic and mathematical models and is used primarily in cases where the modeled economic phenomenon is described by a complex system of equations.

When studying economic life, economic experiments are possible, reasonable and necessary. But, of course, it is not always possible to predict their likely results. An economic experiment is an artificial reproduction of an economic phenomenon or process with the aim of studying it under the most favorable conditions and further critical changes (R. Owen, P. J. Proudhon).

Question 4

Methods for studying economic processes - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Methods for studying economic processes" 2017, 2018.

The specifics of the subject of economic theory presuppose the use of certain research methods. Method translated from Greek means the path to something. A method is a set of techniques, methods, principles with the help of which the subject of science is studied. The reality of the results depends on the correctly used method.
Typically, a research method is formed on the basis of a specific methodology. Methodology is a general approach to the study of economic phenomena, a system of methods and techniques of analysis with a certain philosophical approach.
The first way to study economic phenomena and processes was the empirical method, which consists of collecting and describing facts and events. This method is the main and indispensable way to obtain initial information about the economy. In this case, the identified and collected facts serve as the basis for scientific generalization.
In the 17th century, William Petty improved the empirical method and created the statistical method. A feature of the economic-statistical method is the collection and processing of quantitative data about economic phenomena and processes.
In a wide range of methods of scientific knowledge, the most important is the method of scientific abstraction, which was the first in economic science to clearly formulate David Ricardo. The abstraction method involves highlighting the most significant aspects of the phenomenon under study and abstracting (abstracting) from everything secondary and random. Using this method, economic categories are formulated that express the essential aspects of the objects under study, and economic models are built.
An equally important method of research in economic science is the method of materialist dialectics, the creator of which is Karl Marx. This method involves considering economic processes and phenomena in continuous movement, change, development, interconnection and interdependence. Contradiction acts as an internal source of development.
In economics, the methods of induction and deduction are widely used. The induction method is the derivation of theoretical positions and principles from facts, the movement of thought from the particular to the general. The method of deduction means the movement of knowledge from theory to facts, from the general to the particular. It allows facts to gain conceptual interpretation, and principles and hypotheses to be tested by facts.
Although induction and deduction are opposite ways of studying economic phenomena, in the actual cognitive process they are difficult to separate. They complement each other, thereby ensuring the effectiveness of these methods.
In the process of ascending from the general to the specific and vice versa, methods of analysis and synthesis are used. Analysis of economic phenomena involves dividing the phenomenon under study into its component parts, which are subject to detailed study. The results of studying individual parts are generalized (synthesized) and the internal relationships of the elements of the system as a whole are established.
One of the systematic research methods is economic and mathematical modeling. This method became widespread in the twentieth century. A model is a formalized description of an economic process or phenomenon. It allows you to determine the causes of changes in economic phenomena, the patterns of these changes, their consequences, and also makes it possible to predict economic processes. Despite the active use of this method, its capabilities have their limits, since not all phenomena and processes in the economy and society can be formalized and translated into functional mathematical language.
Experiment plays a special role among the methods used in economic science. Experiment – setting up and conducting a scientific experiment in practice under controlled conditions. For example, a new remuneration system is being developed within a group of employees. An experiment is an artificial reproduction of an economic phenomenon or process with the aim of studying it under the most favorable conditions and further practical application. Experiments can be carried out both at the micro and macro levels, both in a market economy and outside it. Economic experiments make it possible to test in practice the validity of certain economic recommendations and programs and to prevent major economic mistakes and failures.
However, it must be remembered that economics is social in nature, connected with the social behavior of people, which limits the possibility of conducting large-scale experiments and the possibility of thoughtlessly transferring the results of one experiment to other areas of people’s economic activity.
In economic theory, positive and normative approaches are distinguished in the interpretation of economic knowledge. Positive analysis is focused primarily on an objective interpretation, a scientific explanation of observed economic processes and phenomena, the construction of scientific hypotheses on their basis, and the identification of patterns in the functioning of the economic system. Positive analysis examines the relationships between economic phenomena as they exist. For example, the law of demand can serve as a positive judgment: an increase in the price of a product leads, other things being equal, to a decrease in the quantity demanded for it. There are no value judgments in this statement, it is simply a statement of fact.
The normative approach is based on the study of how things should be and what needs to be done to achieve certain results, that is, it involves value judgments. Regulatory analysis is very important in the formation of economic policy. It involves searching and choosing ways and means (tools, levers) to achieve set goals and obtain certain results given the available opportunities. Since the normative approach affects the interests of people, the most important problem becomes the correct choice of goal and means of achieving it.
Thanks to the combination of various methods, an integrated approach is provided to the study of complex processes and phenomena in the economy that affect the economic actions of numerous economic entities.

To study the mechanisms of the market system and test the validity of the theories put forward, an economic experiment is used, which in modern realities can be carried out not only on a limited scale. It allows you to obtain information about the typical behavior of economic agents under control conditions.

Founder of experimental economics

Vernon Smith, who was born into a family with socialist views on life, found active use of economic experiments. Therefore, one should not be surprised that this man began his research as an adherent of the state and social system. In his understanding, a structure was drawn in which literate people make decisions for other people.

The scientist's interest in economics came after his spiritual evolution, when he became a classical liberal. In 1952, he managed to obtain a master's degree, and three years later he defended his doctoral dissertation. Before that, he was educated as an electrical engineer.

Participation of the founder in the first scientific experiment

The not yet accomplished Nobel laureate observed the first economic experiment under the guidance of his teacher. It was dedicated to the formation of market equilibrium. Students were divided into sellers and buyers with budget constraints. For the first of them, an acceptable level of costs was established, and for the second, a monetary threshold was established.

As a result of the research, it turned out that when trading, persons who, in theory, could not carry out a transaction, under experimental conditions completed it with some benefit. Other bidders in the opposite situation were sometimes driven out of the market. And this was not some kind of accident, since such effects happened quite often (with a probability of up to 25 percent).

It turned out that the general equilibrium can be influenced by more factors than the theory assumed. Even the correct result can be arrived at in different ways. During the scientific experiment, methodological and technical difficulties arose. However, this economic experiment already predetermined two separate directions in the future discipline.

Purpose of the research

By now, the role of ongoing experiments has increased significantly, since more than one serious discipline without them is simply unthinkable. Initially, research was carried out at the micro level, when small economic structures were taken as a basis. However, over time the situation changed.

A large number of experiments in economic science began to be carried out at the macro level. They have to be carried out under certain conditions, which cannot be completely leveled out in the research process. Most often, scientific experiments in macroeconomics are field rather than laboratory. The differences from the micro level are quite significant.

Despite the different approaches, the main task of any research is to test the practical application of certain programs and tasks that will avoid major mistakes and failures in business activities. An economic experiment does not prove or disprove theoretical research, but it makes it possible to establish the probability of the occurrence of a particular event.

Experimental Process Methodology

Controlled studies have common features. All of them are designed to simulate ongoing dynamic processes. However, the system itself in this case is formed by the experimenter. People in it act as economic agents who were recruited taking into account some criteria. In reality, participants perform many functions from which they cannot completely abstract themselves. Therefore, the methods of economic experimentation must be different.

Formation of a model is associated with the loss of some part of the data. This provides the opportunity to abstract from less significant elements. In this case, attention is concentrated on the basic components of the system and mutual connections. Two types of quantities can be entered into the model:

Exogenous. Implemented ready-made.
Endogenous. They appear inside the model as a result of solving a specific problem.

Thus, it can be argued that an economic experiment is closely related to the creation of models that represent a formalized description of the economic process, the structure of which is determined by objective properties and subjective characteristics.

Main stages

Modern experiments take place in several stages:

A clear study of the system, the dynamics of which is supposed to be studied, is carried out in order to correctly select the required section of the theory, on the basis of which the specification of the model will be constructed.
A simulation model for the studied system is being developed. It should include a large number of descriptions for the main objects and conditions for transition from one state to another.
An experiment is carried out with a decision maker. During the process, he is asked to consider a certain situation. Some decision must be made there.
The specification of the basic rules is determined, and the basic parameters are assessed. The developed principles are introduced directly into the model, after which it becomes autonomous.
An independent prototype is tested, thanks to which it is possible to obtain a time frame for the behavior of the system under changing initial states. After this, static research methods are applied.
The ready-made one is used to improve the management efficiency of the system under consideration by predicting possible behavior over time.

The model takes into account various economic agents purchasing homogeneous products. The market in this case acts as the external environment of the presented product. Guided by the dynamics of price changes, consumers make a certain forecast.

Illustrative examples of economic experiments

One significant example of the problem associated with the role of the experimenter is a study conducted at Western Electric. At that time, it was planned to establish on what factors labor productivity depends. More than ten experiments were conducted regarding free breakfasts, increasing the number of breaks and other concessions for workers.

The result amazed everyone. After the abolition of workers' benefits, labor productivity at the factory began to increase. The experimenters made a mistake, which led to distortion of the indicators. The observer became The workers realized that the research being carried out was invaluable to the development of American society. It follows from this that the leader must remain in the shadows.

Henry Ford conducted a large number of economic experiments. To increase the enterprise's income, he offered workers to receive a percentage of the total profits. As a result, their labor productivity increased significantly, since it was beneficial for people to work efficiently.

Coordination games

Experienced economists, when considering such games, think about whether it is possible, if necessary, to coordinate laboratory elements at one of the equilibria. If this is possible, are there any general principles that can help in a specific prediction? It turns out that under certain conditions, test subjects can coordinate better equilibria, even ones that are not so obvious.

Deductive selection factors are those that allow making predictions based on the properties of the game. As for inductive principles, they make it possible to predict the result of characterization dynamics.

Market trading

The founder of experimental economics conducted a series of experiments on the consolidation of prices and volumes. He paid attention to theoretical equilibrium values directly in market conditions. In the course of research, the behavior of conditional sellers and buyers was studied. The economist found that in certain configurations of centralized trade, price indicators have a common line with sales volumes.

As a conclusion

Although the economic experiment does not prove any theoretical assumptions, it allows us to make a qualitative assessment of a certain situation in the economic activities of the state or any other association. Much depends on the parameters taken into account during the research.

Having understood the subject of economic science, one should answer the questions: how does it do it? using what techniques and means? that is, consider its methodology. The methodology of any science is the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge, and in relation to economic theory we are talking about the knowledge of economic phenomena and processes.

To do this, scientists use a whole system of methods, techniques, methods and means. The fundamental research method of economists continues to be the method of materialist dialectics. Its main provisions are as follows:

* primary, objectively existing is material life;
* any economic phenomenon must be considered in connection with others, both simultaneously occurring and previous and subsequent ones;
* economic life is in constant motion, change and development;
* the process of this development occurs on the basis of the laws of dialectics.

For representatives of Western economic theory, the fundamental principles for studying economics are the methods of subjective and objective idealism. Their main features are economic psychologism, technological determinism, etc.

Modern economic science uses a whole system of private methods to understand economic reality.

These include:

* a method of scientific abstraction, consisting in abstraction in the process of cognition from external phenomena, features, unimportant aspects and “immersion”, penetration into the essence of a phenomenon or object in order to understand its main connections. For example, when clarifying the law of demand, only the relationship between demand and price is analyzed while abstracting (distracting) from many other conditions (degree of market saturation, the effect of internal and external competition, etc.);
* induction and deduction. Induction is an inference that moves from facts to a hypothesis, a general statement, i.e. the study begins with the accumulation of facts, then they are systematized, analyzed and generalizations are derived. Deduction is the main method of proof; it is the purpose of inference. The beginning of deduction is axioms, or hypotheses, which have the nature of general statements, and the end of deduction is theorems, that is, consequences from initial premises;
* method of economic and mathematical modeling. This method is currently a powerful tool for studying and solving economic problems. Its essence comes down to the description of economic phenomena and processes using mathematical dependencies and algorithms. It expands the scope of knowledge and increases the visibility of complex economic problems. Economic connections are expressed in the form of functional dependencies; their mathematical representation gives a system of equations, which, in fact, is a mathematical model of an economic phenomenon;
* method of graphic images. It helps well to visually perceive the relationships between various economic indicators and evaluate their “behavior” under the influence of changes in the economic situation;
* methods such as the ascent from the simple to the complex, the unity of quantitative and qualitative analysis, historical and logical, the balance method, etc. are also widely used.

There are two fundamentally different methods (levels) of economic research (analysis) - based on the macro approach and the micro approach:

* The macroeconomic approach involves analyzing the patterns of functioning of the economy as a whole (macroeconomics). Macroeconomics operates with such integral indicators as, for example, gross domestic product (GDP), the overall level of employment, unemployment, inflation, etc. Regulation of macroeconomics is carried out through the market and the state;
* microeconomic approach involves studying the behavior of a firm, an individual enterprise (microeconomics) as the main production link. It operates with such concepts as revenue, income, profit of individual companies, family expenses, and the price of a specific product.

Regulation at the micro level is carried out through the development and implementation of a strategy for the behavior of a specific company.

In recent years, a mesoeconomic approach has also been developed (restored). It is used to analyze the “middle link” of the economy (mesoeconomics) - specialized industry and sub-industry complexes (with corresponding market segments). When considering the methods by which a scientist “works” in the process of understanding economic reality, the question arises: “What is the criterion for the correctness (truth) of the results of scientific analysis?” Practice has always been and continues to be the criterion for the truth of knowledge. Only it gives the final answer about the falsity or correctness of certain conclusions, conclusions, recommendations.

Goals of Economic Theory

Basic goals of economic theory:

meeting needs with limited resources;
find effective ways to use resources to achieve certain goals;

Economy(economics) is a science that studies the choices made by individuals, firms, and the state, using limited resources to satisfy their goals. Currently, economics is an independent science that studies human solutions to the problem of rare resources.

Economic theory includes two sections: microeconomics and macroeconomics.

Microeconomics examines the behavior of individual households and firms; economic patterns of the formation of entrepreneurial capital and the competitive environment. The center of her analysis is the prices of individual goods, costs, the mechanism of functioning of the company, and labor motivation.
The main principle of microeconomics: the optimal decision is made by comparing marginal benefits And marginal cost.
Macroeconomics studies the functioning of the national economy on the basis of emerging microproportions. The objects of her research are national product and income, the general price level, inflation, employment, economic growth and world problems.

If microeconomics explains the structure and location of production, then macroeconomics explains its volume.

Subject of economic theory

The subject of economic theory is considered to be the analysis of a market economy.
Economics studies the impact of scarcity on social behavior.

Methods of economic theory

Method- this is a set of techniques, methods, principles with the help of which ways to achieve research goals are determined.

General scientific methods research ( formal logic- is the study of a phenomenon from the perspective of its structure (form)):

method of scientific abstraction: highlighting the most significant aspects of the phenomenon being studied and abstracting from everything random;
analysis: the phenomenon under study is divided into its component elements;
synthesis: the dismembered and analyzed elements are combined into a single whole, the internal connection between the elements is revealed, the contradictions between them are clarified;
positive analysis: examines the interrelationships of economic phenomena as they exist (what are the consequences of a particular event already implemented in the economic field);
normative analysis: based on a study of how it should be (the question: should certain economic activities be carried out);
induction: the movement of thought from the particular to the general, on the basis of which general provisions are logically deduced;
deduction: the movement of thought from the general to the specific;
comparison: determining the similarity or difference between phenomena and processes;
analogy: based on the transfer of properties of a known phenomenon to an unknown one;

Private Methods research:

use of graphs;
use of statistical, mathematical data;
economic experiment - a scientifically conducted experiment in the economic field with the aim of testing the effectiveness of planned economic activities;

Dialectical method knowledge was the main tool of Marxist political economy.

System method based on economic modeling.
Microeconomic models are formalized descriptions of economic phenomena and processes in order to clarify the functional dependencies between them.

Scientific method: formulation of objective laws and theories in order to be able to explain and predict events of interest to the researcher on their basis.

Functions of economic theory

Economic theory performs the following functions: theoretical, methodological, practical.

Theoretical function: Economic theory is common to all sciences; it clarifies the essence of processes and phenomena.
Methodological function:Economic theory acts as a theoretical foundation for specific branch sciences.
Practical function: allows you to analyze accumulated problems and draw conclusions for the correct solution of problems facing society, thereby ensuring economic policy.

Methods for researching economic phenomena

Levels of research into economic phenomena

microeconomic analysis: research of consumers and firms at the microeconomic level;
Advantages: This approach can be attributed to its relative simplicity, accessibility and clarity. Flaws: neglect of the general economic equilibrium and macroeconomic effects.
macroeconomic analysis: studying aggregated values;
mesoeconomic analysis: research of consumers and firms taking into account macroeconomic influences (inflation, industry, region, state economic policy);

Mesoeconomics explores traditional microeconomic problems, taking into account the influence on the behavior of economic agents of macroeconomic variables: aggregate demand, inflation expectations, cyclicality, economic growth, etc.

ECONOMIC LAW is understood as a stable, repeating cause-and-effect relationship between economic processes, manifested as an objective necessity.

ECONOMIC LAWS are the laws of the development of production relations (or property relations) in their relationship with the development of productive forces.

Economic laws, like the laws of nature, are objective in nature. However, they differ significantly from the laws of nature, because arise, develop and act only in the process of human economic activity - in production, distribution, exchange and consumption. Moreover, unlike the laws of nature, economic laws are not eternal.

4.2. Systematization of economic laws.
The system of economic laws includes four types.

1. These are GENERAL economic laws, i.e. laws inherent in all social methods of production (the law of growth of labor productivity, the law of saving time, etc.)
2. SPECIAL - laws that operate in several socio-economic formations (the law of value, the law of supply and demand).
3. SPECIFIC economic laws that operate under the conditions of one social mode of production. The most important of them is the basic economic law, which expresses the connections in the process of interaction between productive forces and property relations.
4. PRIVATE - laws that operate only at one stage of the social mode of production. For example, the law of monopoly formation by concentration of production, which operates at the highest stage of development of capitalism, i.e. since the beginning of the 20th century.

4.3. Economic categories.
ECONOMIC CATEGORIES are theoretical expressions, mental forms of production relations, economic phenomena and processes that actually exist. These are specific concepts that reflect the economic characteristics of objects, phenomena, and processes.

They theoretically reflect, first of all, property relations in their interaction with the development of the system of productive forces. Since the content of the latter is the interaction of man with nature in the labor process, one side of the economic category is the individual areas of this interaction. Such categories, in particular, are labor, objects of labor, methods of labor, consumer value, product of labor, etc. The other side of the economic category is the relationship between people regarding the appropriation of various objects of property and the results of labor. Individual sections of these relationships are expressed in categories: money, price, value, salary, profit, rent, etc.

In addition, each law groups around itself a certain number of economic categories. For example, the law of value is revealed through categories such as required labor time, market value, price, etc.

Since economic categories are a theoretical expression of individual aspects of property relations in their interaction with the development of productive forces, the emergence of new forms of ownership is characterized by the emergence of new economic categories

TICKET 4. Property as an economic concept. private property as the basis of a market economy. Forms of ownership.

Property in the ECONOMIC MEANING is economic relations between people that exist in production. After all, all production is property in the economic sense

The ownership of material goods is nothing more than the appropriation by people of the substance of nature and energy for the benefit of people. In this regard, the system of property relations has the following STRUCTURE: relations of appropriation, relations of economic use of property and relations of economic sale of property.

1) APPROPRIATION v is an economic connection between people that establishes their relationship to things as their own. Those. when someone says, “this garden plot is mine,” he thereby characterizes the existing economic ties: who can and who does not have the right to lay claim to his property.

The opposite of appropriation is the relationship of ALIENATION. They arise if some part of society seizes all the means of production, leaving other people without sources of livelihood. Or the products produced by some are appropriated by others. This was the relationship between slave owners and slaves in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

2) Sometimes the owner of the means of production does not himself engage in creative activities. He allows others to own his things under certain conditions. Then a relationship of ECONOMIC USE OF PROPERTY arises between the owner and the entrepreneur. The latter temporarily receives the legal right to own and use someone else's property (eg, lease, concession).

3) Property is ECONOMICALLY SALE when it generates income for its owner. This could be profit, taxes, various payments.

As you can see, property relations from beginning to end cover the entire economic process and permeate all relations in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of useful goods.

Rights are determined by PROPERTY SUBJECTS - that is, legal and natural persons who have the right to own, use and dispose of property; and PROPERTY OBJECTS are production resources, material goods (means of production, securities, consumer goods, etc.).

If resources are in the hands of individuals (natural persons) or firms (legal entities), then this is private property.

Institute private property is the basis of a market economy. It is supported by the right of ownership, appropriation, disposal and use, including will, i.e. the right of the owner property appoint a successor after death.

Private own can come in different forms: How individual, owned by an individual, collective, owned by a small group of individuals united in a partnership or joint stock company.

Hence the shareholder own? this is also collective own, but uniting the overwhelming number of individual (individuals) persons. Joint Stock own develops into a corporate own, uniting companies (free market economy)(legal entities).There are broad legal restrictions on the right private property. For example, it is prohibited by law to use any resources for drug production. IN market economy there is also a state own on some resources to ensure the effective functioning of the entire economy. Even in pure capitalism, it is recognized that government can play an important role in making better use of resources. own on some “natural monopolies”: post office, railway transport, public utilities.

Interaction private and state property leads to the formation of mixed property, property which is recognized as dominant in economy developed and developing countries. The main forms of ownership are: private, collective (group) and public.

Private property occurs where the means and results of production belong to individuals. It generates among these individuals a material interest in the rational use of material factors of production in order to achieve maximum economic effect.

Collective (group) property characterizes the ownership of the means and results of production by a separate group of persons. Each member of this group is a co-owner of the factors of production and the products produced. Group property includes communal, family, cooperative, labor collective property, etc.

Public property is a shared property, i.e., the ownership of certain objects by the entire society. This form of ownership functions as state property.

Based on the basic forms of ownership (private, collective and public), its derivative forms arise - joint stock, cooperative, ownership of the work collective, joint, etc. The property of such enterprises is formed on a share (equity) basis at the expense of funds and other contributions from individuals and legal entities who act as joint owners. Their income depends on the size of the contributed share and the results of economic activity. This is where personal and collective interests come together.

TICKET 5. Social production: concept, types, phases, factors, results.