What are classical works? Classics of Russian literature

Classic literature- a body of works considered exemplary for a particular era.

The concept of classics in literature developed in the last three centuries of antiquity: it denoted a certain category of writers who, for reasons that are not always clear (due to antiquity or authority in the eyes of enlightened people) were considered worthy of serving as models and mentors in everything related to the mastery of words and the acquisition of knowledge . First classic author Homer was certainly considered. "Odyssey" and "Iliad" are already in classical period development of Greece (5th century BC) were considered an unattainable dramatic peak (the concept of “drama” among the ancient Greeks was almost identical to the concept of literature in general). In the V-VIII centuries AD. e. a canonical list has been formed auctores(literally: “guarantors”), having auctoritas, - texts that defined the norms and theories that were transmitted during the learning process. This canon was not absolutely unshakable; however, it varies minimally across schools and its core remains constant. As we get closer to XIV century there is a tendency to expand the list. Along with poets and prose writers of the Augustan era, these lists include writers more later eras, as well as representatives of paganism and Christianity of the 4th, 5th, and sometimes 6th and 8th centuries. All these “authors” serve as a common, as if impersonal property; they are constantly quoted<, им подражают, их разрезают на сентенции , к ним сочиняют глоссы .

The modern meaning of the concept of “classical literature” is rooted in the Renaissance, when, in the process of secularization of European culture, writers turned their attention to ancient authors. The result of this was the era of classicism in literature, during which writers imitated the Greek playwrights, most notably Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. The canon of classical drama is described in Nicolas Boileau's work The Poetic Art. Since then, in the narrow sense of the word, “classical literature” means all ancient literature. In the broadest sense of the word, the concept of “classical” began to be used in relation to any work that set the canon for its genre. This is how the classics of romanticism (Byron), the classics of modernism (Proust, Joyce), the classics of the mass novel (Dumas), and so on appeared.

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(Russian) is a broad concept, and everyone puts their own meaning into it. If you ask readers what associations it evokes in them, the answers will be different. For some, this is the basis of the library collection, others will say that works of classical Russian literature are a kind of example of high artistic merit. For schoolchildren, this is everything that is studied at school. And they will all be absolutely right in their own way. So what is classical literature? Russian literature, today we will talk only about it. We will talk about foreign classics in another article.

Russian literature

There is a generally accepted periodization of the formation and development of Russian literature. Its history is divided into the following time periods:

What works are called classics?

Many readers are sure that classical literature (Russian) is Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy - that is, the works of those writers who lived in the 19th century. It's not like that at all. It can be classic from both the Middle Ages and the 20th century. By what canons and principles can one determine whether a novel or story is a classic? Firstly, a classic work must have high artistic value and be a model for others. Secondly, it must have worldwide recognition, it must be included in the fund of world culture.

And you need to be able to distinguish between the concepts of classical and popular literature. A classic is something that has stood the test of time, but a popular work can be quickly forgotten. If its relevance remains for decades, perhaps it will also become a classic over time.

The origins of Russian classical literature

At the end of the 18th century, the newly established nobility of Russia split into two opposing camps: conservatives and reformers. This split was due to different attitudes towards the changes that took place in life: Peter’s reforms, understanding of the tasks of the Enlightenment, the painful peasant issue, attitude towards power. This struggle of extremes led to the rise of spirituality and self-awareness, which gave birth to Russian classics. We can say that it was forged during the dramatic processes in the country.

Classical literature (Russian), born in the complex and contradictory 18th century, was finally formed in the 19th century. Its main features: national identity, maturity, self-awareness.

Russian classical literature of the 19th century

The growth of national consciousness played a major role in the development of culture at that time. More and more educational institutions are opening, the social importance of literature is increasing, writers are beginning to pay a lot of attention to their native language. It made me think even more about what was happening in the country.

Karamzin's influence on the development of 19th-century literature

Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin, the greatest Russian historian, writer and journalist, was the most influential figure in Russian culture of the 18th-19th centuries. His historical stories and the monumental “History of the Russian State” had a huge influence on the work of subsequent writers and poets: Zhukovsky, Pushkin, Griboyedov. He is one of the great reformers of the Russian language. Karamzin introduced a large number of new words into use, without which we cannot imagine modern speech today.

Russian classical literature: list of the best works

Selecting and compiling a list of the best literary works is a difficult task, since each reader has his own preferences and tastes. A novel that will be a masterpiece for one may seem boring and uninteresting to another. How to create a list of classic Russian literature that would satisfy the majority of readers? One way is to conduct surveys. Based on them, one can draw conclusions about which work the readers themselves consider the best of the proposed options. These types of information collection methods are conducted regularly, although the data may change slightly over time.

The list of the best creations of Russian classics, according to versions of literary magazines and Internet portals, looks like this:

Under no circumstances should this list be considered a reference. In some ratings and polls, the first place may not be Bulgakov, but Leo Tolstoy or Alexander Pushkin, and some of the listed writers may not be at all. Ratings are an extremely subjective thing. It’s better to make a list of your favorite classics for yourself and focus on it.

The meaning of Russian classical literature

The creators of Russian classics have always had great social responsibility. They never acted as moralizers and did not give ready-made answers in their works. The writers presented the reader with a difficult task and forced him to think about its solution. They raised serious social and public problems in their works, which are still of great importance to us. Therefore, Russian classics remain just as relevant today.

Instructions

Elite culture includes works of various types of art: literature, theater, cinema, etc. Since its understanding requires a certain level of training, it has a very narrow circle of connoisseurs. Not everyone understands the paintings of Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse, the films of Andrei Tarkovsky and Alexander Sokurov. A special type of thinking is required to understand the works of Franz Kafka or James Joyce's Ulysses. Creators of elite culture, like , do not try to achieve high fees. Much more valuable for them is creative self-realization.

Consumers of elite culture are people with a high educational level and developed aesthetic taste. Many of them are creators of works of art themselves or professional researchers of them. First of all, we are talking about writers, artists, art historians, literary and art critics. This circle also includes connoisseurs and connoisseurs of art, regular visitors to museums, theaters and concert halls.

Moreover, works of the same types of art can belong to both elite and mass culture. For example, classical music belongs to elite culture, and popular music belongs to mass culture, Tarkovsky’s films belong to elite culture, and Indian melodramas belong to mass culture, etc. At the same time, there are literary genres that always belong to mass culture and are unlikely to ever become elite. Among them are detective stories, romance novels, humorous stories and feuilletons.

Sometimes interesting things happen about how works belonging to elite culture can, under certain conditions, become popular. For example, Bach's music is undoubtedly a phenomenon of elite culture, but if it is used as an accompaniment to a figure skating program, it automatically turns into a product of mass culture. Or the completely opposite: many of Mozart’s works were most likely “light music” for their time (i.e., they could be classified as mass culture). But now they are perceived rather as elitist.

Most works of elite culture are initially avant-garde or experimental in nature. They use means that will become clear to the mass consciousness several decades later. Sometimes experts even name the exact period – 50 years. In other words, examples of elite culture are half a century ahead of their time.

The term “classical music” is sometimes interpreted extremely broadly. It includes not only the creations of outstanding composers of past years, but also the world-famous hits of popular performers. However, there is a strictly authentic meaning of "classical" in music.

In the narrow sense, classical music refers to a rather short period in the history of this art, namely the 18th century. The first half of the eighteenth century was marked by the work of such outstanding composers as Bach and Handel. Bach developed the principles of classicism as the construction of a work in strict accordance with the canons in his works. His fugue has become a classical - that is, exemplary - form of musical creativity.

And after the death of Bach, a new stage opens in the history of music, associated with Haydn and Mozart. The rather complex and ponderous sound was replaced by lightness and harmony of melodies, grace and even some coquetry. And yet, it is still a classic: in his creative search, Mozart sought to find the ideal form.

Beethoven's works represent the junction of the classical and romantic traditions. In his music there is much more passion and feeling than rational canons. During this period of formation of the European musical tradition, the main genres were formed: opera, symphony, sonata.

A broad interpretation of the term “classical music” implies the work of composers of past eras, which has stood the test of time and has become a standard for other authors. Sometimes classical music means music for symphonic instruments. The most clear (although not widely used) can be considered classical music as authorial, clearly defined and implying performance within a given framework. However, some researchers urge not to confuse academic (that is, squeezed into certain frameworks and rules) and classical music.

In the evaluative approach to defining classics as the highest achievements in the history of music, there is a hidden possibility. Who is considered the best? Can the masters of jazz, The Beatles, The Rolling Stones and other recognized authors and performers be considered classics? On the one hand, yes. This is exactly what we do when we call them exemplary. But on the other hand, in pop-jazz music there is no rigor of the author's musical text, characteristic of classics. In it, on the contrary, everything is based on improvisation and original arrangements. This is where a fundamental difference lies between classical (academic) music and the modern post-jazz school.

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What is culture? Definition of the word culture. The meaning of the word culture and photo

There are several types of literature, each of which has its own characteristics. Thus, classical literature refers to works that are considered exemplary for a particular era.

History of the term

Classical is a rather broad concept, since this type includes works of different eras and genres. These are generally recognized works, considered exemplary for the eras in which they were written. Many of them are included in the mandatory program.

The concept of classics developed in the last three centuries of antiquity. Then it denoted certain writers who, for various reasons, were considered models and role models. One of the first such classics was the ancient Greek poet Homer, the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey.

In the 5th-8th centuries AD. There were authors of texts who determined the theories and norms transmitted in the learning process. This canon differed minimally in different schools. Gradually, this list was replenished with new names, among which were representatives of the pagan and Christian faiths. These authors became cultural treasures of the public, imitated and quoted.

Modern meaning of the concept

During the Renaissance, European writers turned their attention to the authors of antiquity, due to the liberation of secular culture from excessive pressure. The result of this in literature was an era in which it became fashionable to imitate ancient Greek playwrights such as Sophocles, Aeschylus, Euripides, and follow the canons of classical drama. Then the term “” in a narrow sense began to mean all ancient literature.

In a broad sense, any work that created a canon in its genre began to be called classical. For example, there are eras of modernism, eras, realism, etc. There is a concept of domestic and foreign, as well as world classics. Thus, the recognized classics of Russian literature in Russia are A.S. Pushkin, F.M. Dostoevsky, etc.

As a rule, in the history of literature of different countries and nations there is a century in which artistic literature gained its greatest influence, and such a century is called classical. There is an opinion that a work gains public recognition when it carries “eternal values”, something relevant for all times, and encourages the reader to think about some universal problems. Classics remain in history and are contrasted with ephemeral works that eventually fall into oblivion.

A person’s ability for emotional and sensory perception of reality and for artistic creativity prompted him to express his experiences figuratively, with the help of colors, lines, words, sounds, etc. This contributed to the emergence of artistic culture in a broad sense.

What is included in the concept

Artistic culture is one of the spheres of public culture. Its essence is the creative reflection of existence (, society and its life) in artistic images. It has important functions, such as the formation of aesthetic perception and consciousness of people, social values, norms, knowledge and experience, and a recreational function (rest and restoration of people).

As a system it includes:
- art as such (individual and group), works and artistic values;
- organizational infrastructure: institutions ensuring the development, preservation, dissemination of artistic culture, creative organizations, educational institutions, demonstration sites, etc.;
- spiritual atmosphere in society - perception, public interest in artistic and creative activities, art, public policy in this area.

Artistic culture includes mass, folk, artistic culture; artistic and aesthetic aspects of various types of activities (political, economic, legal); regional artistic subcultures; artistic subcultures of youth and professional associations, etc.

It manifests itself not only in art, but also in everyday life and in material production, when a person gives expressiveness to the practical and utilitarian objects he creates and, realizing his need for aesthetics and beauty, in creativity. In addition to the material sphere and physical objects, it also concerns the spiritual sphere.

Artistic culture in the narrow sense

The core of artistic culture is professional and everyday art. One of these includes the word “man”, the other is “art”. Already from the etymology of the word, you can guess that geishas are not Japanese courtesans. For the latter, there are separate words in Japanese - joro, yujo.

Geisha mastered being a woman perfectly. They lifted the spirits of men, creating an atmosphere of joy, ease and emancipation. This was achieved through songs, dances, jokes (often with erotic overtones), tea rooms, which were demonstrated by geishas in men's companies along with casual conversation.

Geishas entertained men both at social events and on personal dates. There was also no place for intimate relationships at the one-on-one meeting. A geisha can have sex with her patron, who took her virginity. For geisha, this is a ritual called mizu-age, which accompanies the transition from apprentice, maiko, to geisha.

If a geisha gets married, then she will leave the profession. Before leaving, she sends her clients, patron, and teachers with a treat - boiled rice, thereby informing them of the severance of communication with them.

In appearance, geisha are distinguished by their characteristic makeup with a thick layer of powder and bright red lips, which make the woman’s face look like a mask, as well as an old-fashioned high, fluffy hairstyle. The traditional geisha wears a kimono, the main colors of which are black, red and white.

Modern geisha

It is believed that geisha appeared in the city of Kyoto in the 17th century. The quarters of the city where geisha houses are located are called hanamachi (“flower streets”). There is a school here where, from the age of seven or eight, they are taught to sing, dance, conduct a tea ceremony, play the national Japanese instrument shamisen, conduct a conversation with a man, and are also taught to make up and put on a kimono - everything that a geisha should know and be able to do. .

When the capital of Japan was moved to Tokyo in the 70s of the 19th century, noble Japanese, who made up the bulk of the geisha's clients, also moved there. Geisha festivals, which are held regularly in Kyoto and have become its hallmark, were able to save their craft from the crisis.

After World War II, Japan was captured by mass culture, leaving Japanese national traditions on the margins. The number of geishas has decreased significantly, but those who have remained faithful to the profession consider themselves guardians of true Japanese culture. Many continue to fully follow the ancient way of life of the geisha, some only partially. But being in the company of a geisha still remains the prerogative of the elite segments of the population.

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Geisha world

Classic literature- a body of works considered exemplary for a particular era.

The concept of classics in literature evolved in the last three centuries of antiquity: it denoted a certain category of writers who, for reasons that are not always clear (due to antiquity or authority in the eyes of enlightened people) were considered worthy of serving as models and mentors in everything related to mastery of the word and the acquisition of knowledge . Homer was certainly considered the first classical author. “The Odyssey” and “Iliad” already in the classical period of the development of Greece (5th century BC) were considered an unattainable dramatic peak (the concept of “drama” among the ancient Greeks was almost identical to the concept of literature in general). In the V-VIII centuries AD. e. a canonical list has been formed auctores(literally: “guarantors”), having auctoritas, - texts that defined the norms and theories that were transmitted during the learning process. This canon was not absolutely unshakable; however, it varies minimally across schools and its core remains constant. As we approach the 14th century, there is a tendency to expand the list. Along with the poets and prose writers of the Augustan era, these lists include writers of later eras, as well as representatives of paganism and Christianity of the 4th, 5th, and sometimes 6th and 8th centuries. All these “authors” serve as a common, as if impersonal property; they are constantly quoted, imitated, they are cut into maxims, glosses are composed for them.

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Excerpt characterizing Classical literature

“It happens to you,” Natasha said to her brother when they sat down in the sofa, “it happens to you that it seems to you that nothing will happen - nothing; what was all that was good? And not just boring, but sad?
- And how! - he said. “It happened to me that everything was fine, everyone was cheerful, but it would come to my mind that I was already tired of all this and that everyone needed to die.” Once I didn’t go to the regiment for a walk, but there was music playing there... and so I suddenly became bored...
- Oh, I know that. I know, I know,” Natasha picked up. – I was still little, this happened to me. Do you remember, once I was punished for plums and you all danced, and I sat in the classroom and sobbed, I will never forget: I was sad and I felt sorry for everyone, and for myself, and I felt sorry for everyone. And, most importantly, it wasn’t my fault,” Natasha said, “do you remember?
“I remember,” said Nikolai. “I remember that I came to you later and I wanted to console you and, you know, I was ashamed. We were terribly funny. I had a bobblehead toy then and I wanted to give it to you. Do you remember?
“Do you remember,” Natasha said with a thoughtful smile, how long ago, long ago, we were still very little, an uncle called us into the office, back in the old house, and it was dark - we came and suddenly there was standing there...
“Arap,” Nikolai finished with a joyful smile, “how can I not remember?” Even now I don’t know that it was a blackamoor, or we saw it in a dream, or we were told.
- He was gray, remember, and had white teeth - he stood and looked at us...
– Do you remember, Sonya? - Nikolai asked...
“Yes, yes, I remember something too,” Sonya answered timidly...
“I asked my father and mother about this blackamoor,” said Natasha. - They say that there was no blackamoor. But you remember!
- Oh, how I remember his teeth now.
- How strange it is, it was like a dream. I like it.
“Do you remember how we were rolling eggs in the hall and suddenly two old women began to spin around on the carpet?” Was it or not? Do you remember how good it was?
- Yes. Do you remember how dad in a blue fur coat fired a gun on the porch? “They turned over, smiling with pleasure, memories, not sad old ones, but poetic youthful memories, those impressions from the most distant past, where dreams merge with reality, and laughed quietly, rejoicing at something.
Sonya, as always, lagged behind them, although their memories were common.