The history of GMOs. Myths of our time: genetically modified organisms
What is GMO? Genetically modified organism ( GMO) - a living organism, the genetic component of which has been artificially changed using genetic engineering methods. Typically, such changes are used for scientific or agricultural purposes. Genetic modification ( GM) differs from natural mutagenesis, characteristic of artificial and natural mutagenesis, by targeted intervention in a living organism.
The main type of production currently is the introduction of transgenes.
From the history.
Appearance GMO was due to the discovery and creation of the first recombinant bacteria in 1973. This led to controversy in the scientific community, to the emergence of potential risks posed by genetic engineering, which were discussed in detail at the 1975 Asilomar Conference. One of the main recommendations from this meeting was that government oversight of recombinant research should be established. DNA so that this technology can be considered safe. Herbert Boyer then founded the first company using recombinant technology DNA(Genentech) and in 1978 the company announced the creation of a product that produces human insulin.
In 1986, field tests on genetically engineered bacteria that would protect plants from frost developed by a small biotechnology company called Advanced Genetic Sciences of Oakland, California, were repeatedly delayed by biotechnology opponents.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, guidance for assessing the safety of genetically engineered plants and foods emerged from the FAO and WHO.
In the late 1980s, small-scale experimental production of genetically modified ( GM) plants. The first approvals for large-scale, commercial cultivation were given in the mid-1990s. Since that time, the number of farmers around the world using it has been increasing every year.
Problems solved by the emergence of GMOs.
Appearance GMO is considered by scientists as one of the species for plant and animal breeding. Other scientists believe that Genetic Engineering- a dead-end branch of classical selection, because GMO is not a product of artificial selection, namely the systematic and long-term cultivation of a new variety (species) of a living organism through natural reproduction, and in fact is a new one artificially created in the laboratory organism.
In most cases, use GMO significantly increases productivity. There is an opinion that at the current rate of growth of the world's population only GMO can cope with the threat of famine, because in this way the yield and quality of food can be significantly increased. Other scientists who are opponents of GMOs believe that the existing developed technologies for breeding new varieties of plants and animals and cultivating the land are capable of feeding the rapidly increasing population of the planet.
Methods for obtaining GMOs.
Sequence of creation of GM samples:
1. Growing the required gene.
2. Introduction of this gene into the DNA of the donor organism.
3. Transfer DNA with gene into projectable organism.
4. Engraftment of cells in the body.
5. Screening out modified organisms that have not undergone successful modification.
Now the gene production process is well established and in most cases automated. Special laboratories have been developed in which, using computer-controlled devices, the processes of synthesis of the necessary nucleotide sequences are controlled. Such devices reproduce segments DNA in length up to 100-120 nitrogenous bases (oligonucleotides).
To paste the received gene into the vector (donor organism), enzymes are used - ligases and restriction enzymes. Using restriction enzymes, the vector and gene can be cut into individual pieces. With the help of ligases, similar pieces can be “spliced”, combined in a completely different combination, thereby creating a completely new gene or introducing it into the donor organism.
The technique of introducing genes into bacteria was adopted by genetic engineering after a certain Frederick Griffith discovered bacterial transformation. This phenomenon is based on the usual sexual process, which is accompanied in bacteria by the exchange of a small number of fragments between plasmids and non-chromosomal DNA. Plasmid technology formed the basis for the introduction of artificial genes into bacterial cells.
To introduce the resulting gene into the genome of animal and plant cells, the process of transfection is used. After modification of unicellular or multicellular organisms, the cloning stage begins, that is, the process of selecting organisms and their descendants that have successfully undergone genetic modification. If it is necessary to obtain multicellular organisms, then the altered cells as a result of genetic modification are used in plants as vegetative propagation; in animals they are introduced into the blastocysts of a surrogate mother. As a result, offspring are born with a changed gene profile or not, those that have the expected characteristics are again selected and again crossed with each other until stable offspring appear.
Use of GMOs.
Application of GMOs in science.
Now genetically modified organisms are widely used in applied and fundamental scientific research. With their help, the patterns of occurrence and development of diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer's disease, regeneration and aging processes are studied, processes taking place in the nervous system are studied, and other problems that are relevant in medicine and biology are solved.
Application of GMOs in medicine.
Since 1982, genetically modified organisms have been used in applied medicine. This year, human insulin, produced using β-bacteria, was registered as a medicine.
Currently underway research upon receipt using GM- plant medicines and vaccines against diseases such as plague and HIV. Proinsulin obtained from GM safflower is being tested. A drug for thrombosis, obtained from the milk of genetically modified goats, has been successfully tested and approved for use. Such a branch of medicine as gene therapy has received very rapid development. This area of medicine is based on the modification of the genome of human somatic cells. Nowadays, gene therapy is the main method of combating a number of diseases. For example, back in 1999, every 4th child with severe combined immune deficiency was successfully treated with gene therapy. It is also planned to use gene therapy as one of the ways to combat the aging process.
Application of GMOs in agriculture.
In agriculture Genetic Engineering used to create new varieties of plants that tolerate drought, low temperatures, are resistant to pests, and have better taste and growth qualities. The resulting new breeds of animals are characterized by increased productivity and accelerated growth. At the moment, new varieties of plants have already been created that are distinguished by the highest calorie content and the content of the required amount of microelements for the human body. New breeds of genetically modified trees are being tested, which have a higher cellulose content and rapid growth.
Other uses of GMOs.
Plants are already being developed that could be used as biofuels.
At the beginning of 2003, the first genetically modified organism– GloFish, created for aesthetic purposes. Thanks only to genetic engineering, the extremely popular aquarium fish Danio rerio has acquired several stripes of fluorescent bright colors on its abdomen.
In 2009, a new variety of roses, “Applause” with blue petals, appeared on sale. With the advent of these roses, the dream of many breeders who unsuccessfully tried to breed roses with blue petals came true.
And it all started back in 1972. An American engineer, scientist Paul Berg, was able to combine two alien genes into one, which could not have been formed independently in nature. This gave the green light for experiments with various living organisms. The resulting transgenetic organisms began to be given various names: the already familiar ones - “GMO”, “recombinant”, “genetically engineered”, “living modified” and even “chimera”.
However, this discovery did not bring much joy to the scientific community. The experimenters began to think about the consequences. And quite rightly so. The level of danger of the created organisms was not fully clarified. How will they behave further in nature, exchanging “chimeric” genes? What could this lead to? The doubts were so serious that scientists, including the enterprising P. Berg, drew up a collective document asking to suspend transgenic development. The petition published in the media did its job, and the project was temporarily frozen. But the story of the creation of GMOs did not end there. For 3 whole years, scientists developed rules for safe work with transgenic organisms.
In 1976, the project was unfrozen and the team of researchers continued their scientific activities. Three decades have passed, the experiments have brought no harm and some precautions have been eliminated.
After 2 years, Herbert Boyer opens a company that creates a transgenic product that produces human insulin. 14 years later, in 1992, China began growing insect-resistant tobacco. Another 2 years passed and in 1994, thanks to the US company Monsanto, the first transgenic tomato appeared and was released to the masses. The vegetable was not afraid of transportation, could maintain a presentable appearance for 6 months and ripen indoors when the air temperature increased to +23-25 °C. It was 1994 that is considered the beginning of mass production of transgenic food products.
A year later, in 1995, the same Monsanto seriously began growing genetically modified soybeans that were not afraid of weeds. Then came the turn of corn, cotton, tobacco, rapeseed, potatoes and other crops. Now this company owns 50% of the transgenic seed market in the world.
After another 4 years, “chimeric” rice appeared. The number of farmers wanting to get their hands on “non-killable” vegetables has grown exponentially.
The first negative effects were made public in 1998 by the English scientist A. Pusztai. In a TV program, he found the courage to declare that rats that ate genetically modified potatoes showed irreversible changes in the body with damage to internal organs. He was fired. And a year later, an independent group of scientists, having studied his work, publicly confirmed the accuracy of the data presented by A. Pusztai. This forced the British authorities to ban the sale of GMOs without a license, which cannot be said about the United States.
As of 2014, of all the areas in the world allocated for crops, more than 15% is occupied by the cultivation of transgenic products. Naturally, the USA tops the list, followed by Argentina, Canada, Brazil, China and India.
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are now a favorite topic among journalists. The spread of GMOs and products made from genetically modified animals and plants in Russia is under the constant scrutiny of State Duma deputies. Every now and then some eagle-eyed legislator begins to sound the alarm that products made from genetically modified organisms will harm public health.
All this would be funny if it weren't so sad. Because those fears and horrors that are told about genetically modified organisms are a manipulation of public consciousness, which is carried out by interested parties, taking advantage of the fact that most people have a weak understanding of biology and genetics.
As you know, the basis of the cells that make up any living organism on our planet are DNA molecules, deoxyribonucleic acid. These polymer (that is, very long) molecules are two protein chains, each of which is folded into a spiral, located one relative to the other so that the helices are inserted into one another. Sections of such a DNA molecule contain combinations of proteins that determine all the individual characteristics of the organism. These regions are called genes. They determine the size, physical, physiological and functional characteristics of organisms. The sequence of genes in the DNA of any organism is called the genome. Currently, biologists have deciphered the genomes of many organisms, that is, they know which gene is responsible for which properties of the organism. Such knowledge in itself is a great achievement.
But geneticists went further and began to apply this knowledge in practice. A technique has been developed that allows, figuratively speaking, to perform operations on genes. Geneticists have learned to isolate certain genes and transplant them from one DNA molecule to another. Moreover, since the DNA molecules of all organisms consist of the same components, nucleotides, it is possible to take a gene from one organism and “graft” it into another organism, purposefully changing the properties of this organism. Precisely, this procedure of transgenic transplantation “boils the indignant mind” of the general public, who for some reason imagine that if a gene that was in the DNA of a sheep is transplanted into the hereditary apparatus of, say, wheat, then this wheat will not only increase productivity, but also will bleat. It won't bleat!
Meanwhile, genetic engineering, which deals with targeted changes in DNA, is no different from conventional selection. Humanity has used selection, that is, targeted artificial selection, since ancient times, changing the flora and fauna (as well as the genomes of plants and animals) towards the maximum development of beneficial properties. This is how new varieties of plants and new breeds of animals were developed. At the same time, for some reason, no one was indignant at the fact that man, with all this artificial and purposeful selection, was interfering with God’s plan.
Genetic engineering makes it possible to speed up the selection process and achieve results in a few years that previously took decades to achieve. By crossing genes of different species (and species very far apart from each other), biologists obtain new species with improved qualities.
Who is to blame for all this? The name of the “culprit” is known: American biochemist Paul Naim Berg.
He was born in 1926 in Brooklyn, one of the boroughs of New York. Paul wanted to become a scientist since childhood, but before that he took part in the Second World War. He served in the Navy and on submarines. After being discharged in 1946, he studied biochemistry at the University of Pennsylvania. Since 1959, P. Berg worked at the Department of Biochemistry at Stanford University in California. In the 1970s, he developed a technique for transplanting genes from the DNA of one bacterium into the DNA of another bacterium, thereby changing its genotype and essentially creating a new organism with the desired properties.
In 1977, there was a breakthrough in genetic engineering when, using the methods of Paul Berg, scientists learned to transfer parts of the genome of bacteria into plants and began to create plants with new, useful properties: quickly ripening, more productive, resistant to pests and diseases.
In 1980, Paul Berg, along with Walter Gilbert and Frederick Singer, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their fundamental research on nucleic acids, which became the basis of genetic engineering.
And in 1996, the first genetically modified plants with new, previously unseen properties appeared. Genetically modified soybeans, rice, cotton, corn and canola have ushered in an era of new varieties with increased yields. Then a larger potato was “made” that the Colorado potato beetle did not eat. All genetically modified products do not contain allergenic or toxic substances, they are distinguished by excellent taste and quality.
Those who are wary of genetically modified products and repeat fiction about “foreign genes” can be reassured by the fact that during the digestion process our body does not break down food to the level of genes, but consumes only proteins, fats and carbohydrates, the quality of which is the same , both in genetically modified and “natural” products. Which, as already mentioned, were also created not entirely naturally, but as a result of targeted selection.
Moreover, DNA molecules containing genes taken from different types of organisms (they are called recombinant DNA molecules) are also formed under “natural” conditions. They are found in some types of living organisms.
The rapidly increasing population of our planet has prompted scientists and producers not only to intensify the cultivation of crops and livestock, but also to begin searching for fundamentally new approaches to the development of the raw material base of the beginning of the century.The best find in solving this problem was the widespread use of genetic engineering, which ensured the creation of genetically modified food sources (GMI). Today, many plant varieties are known that have undergone genetic modification to increase resistance to herbicides and insects, increase oiliness, sugar content, iron and calcium content, increase volatility and reduce the rate of ripening.
GMOs are transgenic organisms, the hereditary material of which has been modified by genetic engineering in order to give them the desired properties.
Conflict between supporters and opponents of GMOs
Despite the enormous potential of genetic engineering and its already real achievements, the use of genetically modified food products is not perceived unambiguously in the world. Articles and reports regularly appear in the media about mutant products At the same time, the consumer does not have a complete picture of the problem; rather, a feeling of fear of ignorance and misunderstanding begins to prevail.There are two opposing sides. One of them is represented by a number of scientists and transnational corporations (TNCs) - manufacturers of GMF, which have their representative offices in many countries and sponsor expensive laboratories that receive commercial excess profits, operating in the most important areas of human life: food, pharmacology and agriculture. GMP is a large and promising business. In the world, more than 60 million hectares are occupied by transgenic crops: 66% of them in the USA, 22% in Argentina. Today, 63% of soybeans, 24% of corn, 64% of cotton are transgenic. Laboratory tests have shown that about 60-75% of all food products imported to the Russian Federation contain GMO components. According to forecasts, by 2005. The global market for transgenic products will reach $8 billion, and by 2010 – $25 billion.
But proponents of bioengineering prefer to cite noble incentives for their activities. Today, GMOs are the cheapest and most economically safe (as they believe) method for food production. New technologies will help solve the problem of food shortages, otherwise the world's population will not survive. Today there are already 6 billion of us, and in 2020. according to WHO estimates, there will be 7 billion. There are 800 million hungry people in the world and 20,000 people die from hunger every day. Over the past 20 years, we have lost more than 15% of the soil layer, and most of the cultivable soil is already involved in agricultural production. At the same time, humanity lacks protein; its global deficit is 35-40 million tons/year and increases annually by 2-3%.
One of the solutions to the current global problem is genetic engineering, whose successes open up fundamentally new opportunities for increasing production productivity and reducing economic losses.
On the other hand, numerous environmental organizations oppose GMOs., the association “Doctors and Scientists Against GMP”, a number of religious organizations, manufacturers of agricultural fertilizers and pest control products.
Development of biotechnology and genetic engineering
Biotechnology is a relatively young field of applied biology, studying the possibilities of application and developing specific recommendations for the use of biological objects, means and processes in practical activities, i.e. developing methods and schemes for obtaining practically valuable substances based on the cultivation of entire unicellular organisms and free-living cells, multicellular organisms (plants and animals).Historically, biotechnology arose on the basis of traditional medical and biological industries (baking, winemaking, brewing, fermented milk products, food vinegar). The particularly rapid development of biotechnology is associated with the era of antibiotics, which began in the 40-50s. The next milestone in development dates back to the 60s. – production of feed yeast and amino acids. Biotechnology received a new impetus in the early 70s. thanks to the emergence of such a field as genetic engineering. Advances in this area have not only expanded the spectrum of the microbiological industry, but have radically changed the very methodology of searching and selecting microbial producers. The first genetically engineered product was human insulin produced by E. coli bacteria, as well as the production of medicines, vitamins, enzymes, and vaccines. At the same time, cell engineering is vigorously developing. The microbial producer is replenished with a new source of useful substances - a culture of isolated cells and tissues of plants and animals. On this basis, fundamentally new methods of eukaryotic selection are being developed. Particularly great success has been achieved in the field of microclonal propagation of plants and the production of plants with new properties.
In fact, the use of mutations, i.e. people began to engage in selection long before Darwin and Mendel. In the second half of the 20th century, material for selection began to be prepared artificially, generating mutations specifically, exposing them to radiation or colchicine, and selecting randomly appearing positive traits.
In the 60-70s of the 20th century, the basic methods of genetic engineering were developed - a branch of molecular biology, the main task of which is the construction in vitro (outside a living organism) of new functionally active genetic structures (recombinant DNA) and the creation of organisms with new properties.
Genetic engineering, in addition to theoretical problems - the study of the structural and functional organization of the genome of various organisms - solves many practical problems. This is how bacterial yeast strains and animal cell cultures that produce biologically active human proteins were obtained. And transgenic animals and plants that contain and produce foreign genetic information.
In 1983 Scientists, studying a soil bacterium that forms growths on the trunks of trees and shrubs, discovered that it transfers a fragment of its own DNA into the nucleus of the plant cell, where it is integrated into the chromosome and is recognized as its own. From the moment of this discovery, the history of plant genetic engineering began. The first to result from artificial manipulation of genes was tobacco, invulnerable to pests, then a genetically modified tomato (in 1994 from Monsanto), then corn, soybeans, rapeseed, cucumber, potatoes, beets, apples and much more.
Nowadays, isolating and assembling genes into one construct and transferring them into the desired organism is routine work. This is the same selection, only more progressive and more elaborate. Scientists have learned to make the gene work in the right organs and tissues (roots, tubers, leaves, grains) and at the right time (in daylight); and a new transgenic variety can be obtained in 4-5 years, while breeding a new plant variety using the classical method (changing a wide group of genes using crossing, radiation or chemicals, hoping for random combinations of traits in the offspring and selecting plants with the desired properties) requires more than 10 years.
In general, the problem of transgenic products throughout the world remains very acute and Discussions around GMOs will not subside for a long time, because the advantages of their use are obvious, but the long-term consequences of their action, both on the environment and on human health, are less clear.
Produced using genetic engineering. The production of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) involves the “incorporation” of a foreign gene into the DNA of other plants or animals (transporting the gene, i.e. transgenization) in order to change the properties or parameters of the latter. As a result of this modification, new genes are artificially introduced into the genome of the organism.
The first GM product was obtained in 1972, when Stanford University scientist Paul Berg combined two genes isolated from different organisms into a single whole, creating a hybrid that does not occur in nature.
The first GM microorganism, Escherichia coli, with a human gene encoding insulin synthesis, was born in 1973. Due to the unpredictability of the results, the scientists who made this invention, Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer, appealed to the global scientific community to suspend research in the field of genetic engineering, writing a letter to Science magazine; Among others, Paul Berg himself signed it.
In February 1975, at a conference in Asilomar (California), leading experts in the field of genetic engineering decided to break the moratorium and continue research in compliance with specially developed rules.
It took seven years to develop the method for the industrial production of microbial-human insulin and test it with particular passion: only in 1980 the American company Genentech began selling the new drug.
In 1983, German geneticists at the Institute of Plant Science in Cologne developed GM tobacco that was resistant to insect pests. Five years later, in 1988, genetically modified corn was planted for the first time in history. After this, development began at a very rapid pace. In 1992, transgenic tobacco began to be grown in China.
In 1994, the American company Monsanto introduced its first development of genetic engineering - a tomato called Flavr Savr, which could be stored in a cool room for months in a semi-ripe state, but as soon as the fruits were warm, they immediately turned red. The modified tomatoes obtained these properties by combining them with flounder genes. Then scientists crossed soybeans with the genes of certain bacteria, and this crop became resistant to herbicides that are used to treat fields against pests.
Manufacturers began to pose very different tasks to scientists. Some wanted bananas not to turn black throughout their entire shelf life, others demanded that all apples and strawberries be the same size and not spoil for six months. In Israel, for example, they even developed cube-shaped tomatoes to make them easier to pack.
Subsequently, about a thousand genetically modified crops were developed in the world, but only 100 of them were allowed for industrial production. The most common are tomatoes, soybeans, corn, rice, wheat, peanuts, potatoes.
Today there is no uniform legislation on the use of GM products either in the USA or in Europe, so there is no accurate data on the turnover of such goods. The GMO market has not yet fully formed. In some countries these products are completely prohibited, in others they are partially prohibited, and in others they are generally allowed.
At the end of 2008, the area under GM crops exceeded 114.2 million hectares. Genetically modified crops are grown by about 10 million farmers in 21 countries around the world. The leader in the production of GM crops is the United States, followed by Argentina, Brazil, China and India. In Europe, genetically modified crops are treated with caution, and in Russia it is completely prohibited to plant GM plants, but in some regions this ban is circumvented - genetically modified wheat is planted in Kuban, Stavropol and Altai.
For the first time, the world community began to seriously think about the feasibility of using GMOs in 2000. Scientists have spoken loudly about the possible negative impact of such products on human health.
The technology for producing GMOs is relatively simple. Using special techniques, so-called “target genes” are introduced into the genome of the final organism - in fact, those features that need to be grafted into one organism from another. After this, several stages of selection are carried out under different conditions and the most viable GMO is selected, which will produce the necessary substances, for the production of which the modified genome is responsible.
The resulting GMO is then subjected to extensive testing for possible toxicity and allergenicity, and the GMO (and GMO products) is ready for sale.
Despite the harmlessness of GMOs, the technology contains several problems. One of the main concerns of specialists and the environmental community in connection with the use of GMOs in agriculture is the risk of destruction of natural ecosystems.
Among the environmental consequences of the use of GMOs, the most likely are the following: the manifestation of unpredictable new properties of a transgenic organism due to the multiple effects of foreign genes introduced into it; risks of delayed changes in properties (after several generations) associated with the adaptation of a new gene and the manifestation of both new properties of GMOs and changes in already declared ones; the emergence of unplanned mutant organisms (for example, weeds) with unpredictable properties; damage to non-target insects and other living organisms; the emergence of resistance to transgenic toxins in insects, bacteria, fungi and other organisms that feed on GM plants; influence on natural selection, etc.
Another problem arises from the lack of knowledge of the effects of GM crops on the human body. Scientists identify the following main risks of eating GM products: suppression of the immune system, the possibility of acute disturbances in the functioning of the body, such as allergic reactions and metabolic disorders, as a result of the direct action of transgenic proteins. The impact of the new proteins that the GMO-integrated genes produce is unknown. The person has never consumed them before, and therefore it is unclear whether they are allergens. In addition, there is scientific evidence that, in particular, Bt toxin, which is produced by many varieties of transgenic corn, potatoes, beets, etc., is destroyed in the digestive system more slowly than expected, which means it may be a potential allergen .
Resistance of the human intestinal microflora to antibiotics may also appear, since the production of GMOs still uses marker genes for antibiotic resistance, which can pass into the human intestinal microflora.
Among the possible dangers, the toxicity and carcinogenicity of GMOs (the ability to cause and promote the development of malignant tumors) are also mentioned.
At the same time, in 2005, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a report, the main conclusion of which can be formulated as follows: eating genetically modified plants is absolutely safe.
In an attempt to protect themselves from GM crops, many countries have introduced labeling on GMO products. There are different approaches to labeling GMO products around the world. Thus, in the USA, Canada, Argentina, these products are not labeled; in the EEC countries, a 0.9% threshold is adopted, in Japan and Australia - 5%.
In Russia, the first interdepartmental commission on problems of genetic engineering activities was created back in 1993. On December 12, 2007, amendments to the Federal Law “On the Protection of Consumer Rights” on mandatory labeling of food products containing genetically modified organisms came into force in the Russian Federation, according to which the consumer has the right to receive the necessary and reliable information about the composition of food products. The law obliges all manufacturers to inform consumers about the content of GMOs in a product if its share is more than 0.9%.
On April 1, 2008, new labeling of food products containing genetically modified microorganisms (GMM) was introduced in Russia. According to the decree of the chief sanitary doctor of Russia Gennady Onishchenko, GMM should be divided into living and non-living. Thus, on the labels of products containing living GMMs, it must be written: “The product contains living genetically engineered microorganisms.” And on the labels of products with non-viable GMMs - “The product is obtained using genetically engineered modified microorganisms.” The threshold for GMM content remains at the same level - 0.9%.
The document provides for mandatory state registration with Rospotrebnadzor of products with GMMs of plant origin, manufactured in Russia, as well as those imported into the Russian Federation for the first time. Products will be registered only if they pass a medical and biological assessment of their safety.
In case of violation of the rules for labeling goods in accordance with Article 14.8 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation (Administrative Offenses Code of the Russian Federation), violation of the consumer’s right to receive necessary and reliable information about the product (work, service) being sold entails the imposition of an administrative fine on officials in the amount of five hundred up to one thousand rubles; for legal entities - from five thousand to ten thousand rubles.
The material was prepared based on information from open sources