What is the genre of chronicle in Old Russian? Chronicle
Among the genres of the ancient chronicle, the chronicle occupied a central place. The purpose of the chronicle is the desire to tell about the past of the Russian land and leave a memory. Initially, the first chronicles were created as historical encyclopedias for the Kyiv nobility. The creation of chronicles is a state matter. Scientists define the time of creation in different ways: B.A Rybakov linked the temporal beginnings of chronicles with the moment of the birth of the state, but most researchers believe that chronicles appeared only in the 11th century. The 11th century is the beginning of chronicles, which will be kept systematically until the 18th century.
Basically, chronicles were compiled at monasteries and at the courts of princes. Almost always, chronicles were written by monks - the most educated people of their time. Chronicles were created on a special assignment. The basis of the chronicle narrative is the arrangement of historical material by year/year. This principle was suggested by the Paschals. Chroniclers told all the historical events of Rus', arranging the material by year. The chronicler sought to show the continuous flow of life itself. The ancient Russian scribe knew that history has its beginning and its end (the Last Judgment). Old Russian chronicles also reflected these eschatological thoughts.
Sources of Russian chronicles are divided into 2 types:
Oral sources: family legends, squad poetry, local legends related to the origin of villages and cities.
Written sources: sacred scriptures (New Testament, Old Testament), translated Byzantine chronicles, various historical documents and charters.
Very often in the scientific literature, chronicles are called chronicle collections, since the chronicles combined the chronicles of the previous time and chronicle records about events that were recent or contemporary to the chronicler. Many scientists write about the fragmentation of the chronicle. The weather principle of the arrangement of material led to the fact that the chronicle was made into many articles and fragments. Hence such features as the fragmentary and episodic nature of the chronicle style.
“The Tale of Bygone Years” is a work under development
more than one generation of Russian chroniclers worked, this is a monument to the collection
creative creativity.In the beginning, in the first half of the 40s. XI century, a complex of articles was compiled, which Academician D.S. Likhachev suggested calling it “The Legend of the Spread of Christianity in Rus'.” It included stories about the baptism and death of Princess Olga, a story about the first Russian martyrs - the Varangian Christians, a story about the baptism of Rus', a story about princes Boris and Gleb and extensive praise for Yaroslav the Wise. The next stage in the development of Russian chronicles occurred in the 60-70s gg. XI century and is associated with the activities of the monk of Kiev-Pechersk
Nikon monastery. Nikon added to the “Tale of the Spread of Christianity in Rus'” legends about the first Russian princes and stories about their campaigns against Constantinople, the so-called “Varangian legend”, according to which the Kyiv princes descend from the Varangian prince Rurik, invited to Rus', so that the internecine strife of the Slavs ceases. The inclusion of this legend in the chronicle had its own meaning: Nikon tried to convince his contemporaries of the unnaturalness of internecine wars, of the need for all princes to obey the Grand Duke of Kyiv - the heir and descendant of Rurik. Finally, according to researchers, it was Nikon who gave the chronicle the form of weather records.
Around 1095, a new chronicle was created, which A.A. Shakhmatov suggested calling it “Initial”. The compiler of this collection continued the chronicle with a description of the events of 1073–1095, giving his work, especially in this part he added, a clearly journalistic character: he reproached the princes for internecine wars, for not caring about the defense of the Russian land.
The chronicle is a collection: apparently, its creator skillfully worked with a rich arsenal of sources (Byzantine chronicles, Holy Scripture, historical documents, etc.), moreover, later scribes could make their own changes to the created text, making its structure even more heterogeneous . For this reason, many researchers call the chronicle a compilation, and compilability is considered a distinctive feature of chronicle texts. D.S. Likhachev accompanies his literary translation of PVL with the names of chronicle passages, in which, along with names of an eventful nature (the reign of Oleg, the second campaign of Prince Igor against the Greeks, the revenge of Princess Olga, the beginning of the reign of Yaroslav in Kyiv, etc.), proper genre names are found (the legend of the founding of Kyiv , the parable of the Obra, the legend of Belgorod jelly, the story of the blinding of Vasilko Terebovlsky, etc.)
From the point of view of the forms of chronicle writing, Eremin divided all chronicle material into 5 groups: weather record (a small documentary record, devoid of artistic form and emotionality), chronicle legend (oral historical tradition in the literary processing of the chronicler), chronicle story (factual narration, in which the author’s personality is manifested: in the assessment of events, attempts to characterize the characters, comments, individual manner of presentation), chronicle story (narrative of the death of the prince, which gives a hagiographically enlightened image of the ideal ruler), documents (agreements and charters).
Tvorogov criticized the classification developed by Eremin, based on the nature of the combination of opposing methods of depicting reality, as not confirmed by chronicle material, and proposed a typology by the nature of the story.
The first type of narration is weather records (only informing about events), the other is chronicle stories (telling about events using a plot narrative).
Tvorogov distinguishes 2 types of plot narration: chronicle legends and chronicle stories characteristic of “PVL”. A distinctive feature of the first is the depiction of a legendary event. Chronicle stories are devoted to depicting events contemporary to the chronicler. They are more extensive. They combine factual records, sketches of episodes, and religious reasoning of the author.
The plot narration of “PVL” is constructed using art. Techniques: emphasizing strong details, evoking visual ideas, characterizing characters, direct speech of characters.
Plot stories are common in PVL, but chronicle writing in general is characterized by the style of monumental historicism.
Thus, based on the theoretical study of the works of researchers, we received a number of genres (forms of narration) with characteristic features assigned to them, which became the basis for identifying types of presentation in Russian chronicles. To date, we have identified the following types within the PVL: hagiographic, military, business, didactic, documenting, folk-poetic, reference. 1. Hagiographic: the main subject of the image is the actions of the saint or his life path as a whole; involves the use of certain motives, for example, motives of teaching (mentoring), prophecy.
Example: fragment about Theodosius of Pechersk (ll. 61 volume - 63 volume).
2. Military: depiction of a historical event associated with the struggle of the Russian people against external enemies (mainly the Pechenegs and Polovtsians), as well as with princely strife; the central character is usually a real historical figure, usually a prince.
Example: fragment about the captivity of Thrace and Macedonia by Semeon (l. 10).
3. Business: texts of documents included in the PVL.
Example: a fragment containing the text of the agreement between the Russians and the Greeks (ll. 11-14).
4. Didactic: contains edification, i.e. moral teaching (teaching) moral/religious.
Example: a fragment about the unrighteous life of Prince Vladimir before his adoption of Christianity (l. 25).
5. Documenting: a statement of the fact of a particular event that deserves mention, but does not require detailed presentation; fragments of this type are distinguished by the protocol nature of the image, the lack of artistic form and emotionality.
Example: fragment about the reign of Leon and his brother Alexander (fol. 8 vol.).
6. Folk poetic: a narrative about real or possible events, usually based on one vivid episode, may contain fiction.
Example: fragment about the revenge of Princess Olga (ll. 14v.-16).
7. Referential: fragments taken from authoritative sources (Byzantine chronicles, biblical texts, etc.).
Old Russian literature - what is it? Works of the 11th-17th centuries include not only literary works, but also historical texts (chronicle stories and annals), descriptions of travel (which were called walks), lives (narratives of the lives of saints), teachings, epistles, examples of the oratorical genre, as well as some texts of business content. The themes of ancient Russian literature, as you can see, are very rich. All works contain elements of emotional illumination of life and artistic creativity.
Authorship
At school, students study what ancient Russian literature is and take notes on basic concepts. They probably know that most works dating back to this period did not retain their author's names. Rus' is mostly anonymous and therefore similar to oral folk art. The texts were handwritten and circulated through correspondence - copying, and as a result were often revised to suit new literary tastes, the political situation, and the literary abilities and personal preferences of the copyists. Therefore, the works have come to us in different editions and versions. Their comparative analysis helps researchers restore the history of a particular monument and draw a conclusion about which option is closest to the original source, the author’s text, and also trace the history of its changes.
Sometimes, in very rare cases, we have the author’s version, and often in later lists we can find the monuments of ancient Russian literature closest to the original. Therefore, they should be studied on the basis of all available versions of the works. They are available in large city libraries, museums, and archives. Many texts survive in a large number of lists, some in a limited number. The only option is presented, for example, “The Tale of Misfortune”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”.
"Etiquette" and repeatability
It is necessary to note such a feature of Old Russian literature as the repetition in different texts belonging to different eras of certain characteristics, situations, epithets, metaphors, comparisons. The works are characterized by so-called etiquette: the hero behaves or acts in one way or another, since he follows the concepts of his time about how to behave in various circumstances. And events (for example, battles) are described using constant forms and images.
10th century literature
We continue to talk about what ancient Russian literature is. Take notes on the main points if you are afraid of forgetting something. majestic, solemn, traditional. Its origin dates back to the 10th century, or more precisely to its end, when, after the adoption of Christianity as the state religion in Rus', historical and official texts written in Church Slavonic began to appear. Through the mediation of Bulgaria (which was the source of these works), Ancient Rus' joined the developed literature of Byzantium and the South Slavs. To realize its interests, the feudal state led by Kiev needed to create its own texts and introduce new genres. With the help of literature, it was planned to instill patriotism, establish the political and historical unity of the people and ancient Russian princes, and expose their strife.
Literature of the 11th - early 13th centuries.
The themes and objectives of the literature of this period (the fight against the Polovtsians and Pechenegs - external enemies, questions of the connection between Russian history and world history, the struggle for the Kiev throne of princes, the history of the emergence of the state) determined the nature of the style of this time, which D. S. Likhachev called monumental historicism. The emergence of chronicle writing in our country is associated with the beginning of domestic literature.
11th century
The first lives of Theodosius of Pechersk, Boris and Gleb date back to this century. They are distinguished by their attention to contemporary problems, literary excellence, and vitality.
Patriotism, maturity of socio-political thought, journalisticism and high skill are marked by the monuments of oratory "The Sermon on Law and Grace", written by Hilarion in the first half of the 11th century, and "Words and Teachings" (1130-1182). The “teaching” of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir Monomakh, who lived from 1053 to 1125, is imbued with deep humanity and concern for the fate of the state.
"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"
It is impossible to avoid mentioning this work when the topic of the article is ancient Russian literature. What is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign"? This is the greatest work of Ancient Rus', created by an unknown author in the 80s of the 12th century. The text is devoted to a specific topic - the unsuccessful campaign in the Polovtsian steppe in 1185 by Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich. The author is interested not only in the fate of the Russian land, he also recalls the events of the present and the distant past, therefore the true heroes of “The Lay” are not Igor or Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, who also receives a lot of attention in the work, but the Russian land, the people are what it is based on Old Russian literature. “The Word” is connected in many ways with the narrative traditions of its time. But, as in any work of genius, it also contains original features, manifested in rhythmic sophistication, linguistic richness, the use of techniques characteristic of oral folk art, and their reinterpretation, civic pathos and lyricism.
National patriotic theme
It is raised during the period of the Horde yoke (from 1243 to the end of the 15th century) by ancient Russian literature. in the works of this time? Let's try to answer this question. The style of monumental historicism acquires a certain expressive connotation: the texts are lyrical and have tragic pathos. The idea of a strong centralized princely power acquired great importance at this time. Some stories and chronicles (for example, “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”) report on the horrors of the enemy’s invasion and the brave struggle against the enslavers of the Russian people. This is where patriotism comes into play. The image of the defender of the land, the ideal prince, was reflected most clearly in the work “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky” written in the 70s of the 13th century.
The reader of “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” is presented with a picture of the greatness of nature and the power of princes. This work is only an excerpt from an incomplete text that has reached us. It is dedicated to the events of the first half of the 13th century - the difficult time of the Horde yoke.
New style: expressive-emotional
In the period 14-50s. In the 15th century, ancient Russian literature changed. What is the expressive-emotional style that emerged at this time? It reflects the ideology and events of the period of unification of northeastern Rus' around Moscow and the formation of a centralized Russian state. Then interest in personality, human psychology, and his inner spiritual world began to appear in literature (although still only within the framework of religious consciousness). This led to an increase in the subjective nature of works.
And so a new style appeared - expressive-emotional, in which verbal sophistication and “weaving of words” (that is, the use of ornamental prose) should be noted. These new techniques were intended to reflect the desire to depict the feelings of an individual person.
In the second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries. stories arise that go back in their plot to the novelistic nature of oral stories ("The Tale of the Merchant Basarga", "The Tale of Dracula" and others). The number of translated works of a fictional nature is noticeably increasing; the legend genre was widespread at that time (for example, “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”).
"The Tale of Peter and Fevronia"
As mentioned above, works of ancient Russian literature also borrow some features of legends. In the mid-16th century, Ermolai-Erasmus, an ancient Russian publicist and writer, created the famous “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia,” which is one of the most significant texts of Russian literature. It is based on the legend of how, thanks to her intelligence, a peasant girl became a princess. Fairy-tale techniques are widely used in the work, and social motives are also heard.
Characteristics of 16th century literature
In the 16th century, the official nature of the texts intensified, and solemnity and pomp became a distinctive feature of literature. Such works are widely distributed, the purpose of which is to regulate political, spiritual, everyday and legal life. A striking example is "The Great Ones", which are a set of texts consisting of 12 volumes, which were intended for home reading for every month. At the same time, "Domostroy" was created, which sets out the rules of behavior in the family, gives advice on housekeeping, as well as on relationships between people. Fiction is increasingly penetrating historical works of that period in order to make the narrative entertaining.
17th century
Works of ancient Russian literature of the 17th century are noticeably transformed. The art of the so-called new era begins to take shape. The process of democratization is underway, the themes of works are expanding. The role of the individual in history is changing due to the events of the Peasant War (late 16th - early 17th centuries), as well as the Time of Troubles. The actions of Boris Godunov, Ivan the Terrible, Vasily Shuisky and other historical characters are now explained not only by divine will, but also by the personality traits of each of them. A special genre appears - democratic satire, where church and state orders, legal proceedings (for example, "The Tale of the Shemyakin Court"), and clerical practice ("Kalyazin Petition") are ridiculed.
"Life" of Avvakum, everyday stories
In the 17th century, an autobiographical work was written by those who lived from 1620 to 1682. Archpriest Avvakum - "Life". It is presented in the textbook "Old Russian Literature" (grade 9). The peculiarity of the text is its rich, lively language, either colloquial and everyday, or lofty bookish.
During this period, everyday stories about Frol Skobeev, Savva Grudtsyn and others were also created, reflecting the original character of Old Russian literature. Translated collections of short stories appear and poetry develops (famous authors - Sylvester Medvedev, Simeon Polotskits, Karion Istomin).
The history of ancient Russian literature ends with the 17th century, and the next stage begins - the literature of modern times.
- What was the genre of chronicle in ancient Russian literature?
- How was the chronicle created?
- What is The Tale of Bygone Years about?
- Retell an excerpt from the chronicle from the perspective of Prince Oleg.
- What can attract a modern reader in the chronicle narrative?
The chronicle genre is a type of narrative literature in Russia of the 11th-17th centuries. These were weather (by year) records or a collection of various works, both all-Russian and local. The word summer (year) determined the sequence of records. Having recorded the events of one year, the chronicler designated this year and moved on to the next. Thus, a consistent picture of life events ended up in the hands of descendants. “The Tale of Bygone Years” is an all-Russian chronicle.
The chronicler monk wrote down the most important events day by day, indicating when they happened. Thus, history with its troubles and joys left its mark in the monastery cells.
Unnamed chroniclers help us imagine the past: the chronicles include the lives of saints, texts of treaties, and teachings. The chronicle collection turned into a kind of textbook of wisdom.
A special place in Russian chronicles is occupied by the “Tale of Bygone Years,” created in the 10s of the 12th century by the monk of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery Nestor.
Nestor defined his tasks as follows: “...where did the Russian land come from, who became the first to reign in Kyiv, and how did the Russian land come into being.” In “The Tale...” the main theme is the theme of the Motherland. It is she who dictates the chronicler’s assessment of events: the need for harmony between the princes is affirmed, the discord between them is condemned, and a call is made for unity in the fight against external enemies. The events of history follow each other. The history of the reign of all rulers contains both a description of events and an assessment of their actions.
In the textbook there is a story about the death of Prince Oleg from his horse. It is impossible to retell it entirely on behalf of the prince, but up to the point where he dies from a snake bite, it is possible. Material from the site
“For many years I lived in peace with my neighbors, and for many years my beloved horse carried me along the roads of my homeland. But one day the magicians predicted my death from this horse, and I decided to part with it. I regretted that I would never sit on it again or even see it again. When, after a long hike, I returned home and found out that my horse had died long ago, I laughed at the words of the magician. Then I decided to see the bones of the horse.” We can finish our story here, since it is impossible to continue it further from Oleg’s point of view - we know that the prince died from the bite of a snake that crawled out of the skull of his horse.
The chronicle attracts readers with the perfection of its form, which conveys to us the style of narration of a distant era, but even more so because it tells us about the events of a distant time, about people and their actions.
One of the leading genres of ancient Russian literature was the chronicle. This is an original Russian genre, unknown to Byzantine literature; its structure and principles were developed gradually by Russian scribes and finally took shape in the second half of the 11th - early 12th centuries.
The content of the chronicle, its main topic is the history of the Russian land in the broadest sense of the word. The chronicle tells about campaigns and battles, about the military exploits of the princes and their activities in organizing the Russian land, about princely feuds and diplomatic relations with other countries, about the founding of monasteries and the lives of saints. The chronicle also tells about the construction of cities, the construction of fortress walls, churches and princely chambers. The chronicler notes the most significant natural phenomena: prolonged rains and droughts, eclipses of the sun and moon, the appearance of comets. Such thematic breadth involves the use of sources of different content and origin - oral tales and legends, literary works (lives of saints, military stories, princely biographies, walks, etc.), business documents.
Each chronicle is a kind of “collection” of numerous historical sources and literary texts. The chronicler arranges all this heterogeneous material in strict order - according to annual articles, each of which begins with the words “In the summer...” and the date from the creation of the world. Creating a new chronicle is a creative process, not a mechanical connection of different materials. When compiling a new chronicle, the chronicler uses, first of all, previously created chronicles, he supplements them with new messages, edits, omits something, changes something according to his views on historical events. The chronicler strives for completeness of presentation, accuracy, and specificity; he conducts the narration calmly and unhurriedly, trying to be objective and impartial.
A great many chronicles were kept in Ancient Rus'. There were grand ducal and metropolitan chronicles, monastic and church chronicles, chronicles of individual cities and princes, many of them have survived to this day. Let us name only the most ancient manuscripts that have reached us, in which chronicle texts are read: the Synodal copy of the Novgorod Noah Chronicle (XIII century), the Laurentian Chronicle (1377), the Ipatiev Chronicle (beginning of the 15th century). Most of the lists of Russian chronicles are from a later time, the end of the 15th-18th centuries.
There is much that is unclear in the initial, ancient period of Russian chronicles. This is due to the fact that the texts of the first Russian chronicles did not reach us or were preserved not in their original form, but as part of later chronicle collections, where they were revised and supplemented. Most scientists (A. A. Shakhmatov, M. D. Priselkov, D. S. Likhachev and others) believe that the first Russian chronicles began to be created in the middle of the 11th century, but they disagree about what their texts were, about what they said.
The Kiev-Pechersk Monastery became one of the centers of chronicle writing in the second half of the 11th century. Scientists suggest that in the 60-70s one of the oldest chronicle codes was created here, the author of which is considered to be the monk Nikon. Nikon collected legends about the first Russian princes, recorded historical information and stories about events of our time and the recent past.
In the 90s of the 11th century (about 1095), a new chronicle vault, conventionally called the “Initial” one, was created within the walls of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. The compiler of the “Initial Code” supplemented Nikon’s work with notes about the events of the 70s-90s, giving the entire narrative a journalistic character: he reproaches the contemporary princes for destroying the Russian land in internecine wars and being unable to protect it from the ruinous Polovtsian raids. Like Nikon’s code, the text of the “Initial Code” has not reached us; in a revised form, it became part of the 1st Novgorod Chronicle.
The oldest chronicle, the text of which has survived to this day, is the Tale of Bygone Years, created by the scribe of the same Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor no later than 1115.
Okhotnikova V.I. Old Russian literature: Textbook for grades 5-9 / Ed. O.V. Tvorogova. - M.: Education, 1997