Jacques-Louis David: Self-Portrait, 1791
64x53
Uffizi Gallery, Florence (Galleria degli Uffizi, Firenze).

Jacques Louis David is considered to be the founder of French neoclassicism. In fact, his painting style combined three trends: Rococo, Neoclassicism and Romanticism. Already in his youth, the artist received the honor of being placed next to the outstanding French artist of the Rococo era, Francois Boucher, the creator of an elegant style. Echoes of Boucher's sensual and frivolous painting are clearly visible in David's early works, such as "The Battle of Mars with Minerva" (1771). Here the battle scene is overloaded with figures of naked goddesses and plump cherubs, out of place on the battlefield.

Battle of Minerva and Mars Louvre, Paris (Musée du Louvre, Paris).1771, 114x140

Neoclassicism was a reaction to the then dominant Baroque style. Increasingly, critics and philosophers urged artists to turn to heroic and moral subjects from ancient history, displacing frivolous, lightweight mythological scenes with them.

There was nothing new or unusual in the revival of interest in classical culture. Classicism dominated French painting in the 17th century; the founder of this movement is considered to be Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665), from whom David borrowed a lot. Compositionally, his painting “Saint Roch praying to the Virgin Mary for the healing of the plague-stricken” (1780) resembles Poussin’s painting “The Appearance of the Virgin Mary to Saint James,” and “The Death of Socrates” (1787) resembles Poussin’s painting “The Testament of Eudemidas.”

"Saint Roch praying to the Mother of God for the healing of the plague-stricken" (1780)

Historical subjects
Many canvases by neoclassical artists were painted on subjects taken from the history of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. All historical paintings of David can be divided into three categories: oaths, deathbed scenes (for example, "The Death of Socrates") and battle scenes (for example, "Leonidas at Thermopylae", 1814). Oaths and deaths enjoyed particular success in the 1780s, when these subjects were widely interpreted in the light of contemporary political events. Such paintings were examples of devotion, self-sacrifice, heroism and high morality and thus provided ideal material for revolutionary propagandists. True, in those years David sometimes wrote historical scenes imbued with a romantic spirit, such as “The Love of Paris and Helen”, 1788

Paris and Helen Louvre, Paris (Musée du Louvre, Paris).1788. 144x180

Neoclassicism owed its appearance largely to the archaeological excavations of the 1740s in the destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum. The household items and decorations preserved here revealed the ancient world to artists. The enthusiasm of creative people was fueled even more strongly by the books that soon appeared by the German archaeologist and expert on ancient antiquities Johann Winckelmann (1717-1768): the multi-volume work “Antiquities of Herculaneum,” published from 1755 to 1792, and “The History of Ancient Art” (1764). In his research, Winckelmann encouraged artists to strive to create an ideal of beauty, relying on surviving examples of ancient art. These books have become iconic throughout Europe.

“The whole of Paris is playing at Greece,” noted one traveler who visited the French capital in those years. “The ladies have Greek hairstyles on their heads. Even the smallest veil cannot afford that his snuff-box is not “antique”.”

As the “Portrait of Madame Recamier”, painted by David in 1800, shows, the fashion for the “Greek style” persisted until the end of the 18th century and served as a source for the creation of another style - the Empire style, which flourished during the reign of Napoleon.

In the paintings of adherents of the “Greek style”, the new fashion was manifested in not always appropriate architectural details, painted as if “antique” still lifes. Even an inveterate supporter of Winckelmann's theories, David's teacher Joseph-Marie Vien, did not escape this temptation. Similar elements can be found in early paintings of David - for example, on the canvas "Antiochus and Stratonice" (1774) or "Belisarius" (1781). The viewer's gaze is continually distracted from the main plot by the numerous details with which the composition is saturated.

David Jacques Louis - Antiochus and Stratonica 1774. School of Fine Arts, Paris.

But after a few years everything changes. If you look at the artist’s paintings such as, say, “The Oath of the Horatii” (1784) or “The Death of Socrates” (1787), you will notice that the composition has become lighter and more restrained.

This is David's most famous painting. It reflects all the stylistic features of the artist. There are traces of Poussin's classical style with his predilection for expressive theatrical gestures, and the recreation of an ancient atmosphere. The plot of the picture is taken from an ancient legend dating back to the 7th century BC. At that time, Rome was at war against the neighboring city of Alba Longa, and it was announced that the conflict should be resolved by a duel between three Roman brothers from the Horatii family and three Curiati brothers from Alba Longa. These families were to become related, so it was initially clear that there could be no winners in such a battle. After the battle, only one of the Horatii brothers remained alive, but, returning home in triumph, he was cursed by his own sister for the murder of her fiancé, one of the Curiatius brothers. Enraged, he stabbed his sister, for which he was sentenced to death (but later pardoned).
Initially, David's source of inspiration was Corneille's play "Horace", but there was no oath scene in it. David borrowed the details of the military oath from Poussin, and the idea of ​​the oath itself was, apparently, taken by the artist from the legend of Brutus.

The change occurred after David’s stay in Italy (1775-80), it was then that the artist decided to get rid of the details that interfered with the main idea. As he later told his students, “in my taste, thoughts, even behavior, sometimes something barbaric broke through, something that I had to give up if I wanted to achieve depth and transparency in my paintings.” A big role here was played not only by familiarity with ancient art, but also by the artist’s study of the works of Italian masters of the Renaissance, primarily Raphael and Caravaggio. "I feel as if I had a cataract removed. The scales have fallen from my eyes, and I now realize how weak and imperfect my style is, based on false principles, and how much I have to do to get closer to the shining truth. Blind copying nature seems to me an unworthy, vulgar occupation, we need to strive higher, to the level of ancient masters and Raphael..."

The achievement of Jacques Louis David can be considered that he managed to convey in his works the very essence of the ethical ideals of Ancient Greece and Rome - virtue, heroism, self-sacrifice. To highlight the idea, the artist abandoned complex angles and various tricks with perspective, an excess of architectural details and furniture. Gradually, David reduced the number of figures in his compositions to a minimum and abandoned the picturesque background. He enclosed what was happening in the picture in a kind of theatrical box, and seemed to lead the characters to the ramp.

David's most famous masterpieces, related to the neoclassical movement, were written by him in the 1780s. Winckelmann noted that a great picture can only be painted in peace and quiet, away from the bustle of the world. It was under such conditions that David worked on The Death of Socrates and The Oath of the Horatii.

With the beginning of the Great French Revolution, the artist turned to turbulent events, which radically affected his style. Now, having plunged headlong into politics, David wrote hastily, excitedly, elements appeared in his works that made the artist’s canvases related to the emerging movement in painting, which would later be called romanticism.

Signs of Romanticism are particularly evident in Napoleon at the Pass St. Bernard (1800), where the conqueror's cloak flutters in the wind, and in the preliminary pen-and-ink drawing for the Oath in the Ballroom (1791), where the curtains billowing from the wind emphasize the excited state of the revolutionary rebels.

The neoclassical style that glorified David very quickly went out of fashion with the fall of Napoleon - obviously, it was too strongly associated with the bloody events of the revolution. It was replaced by a softer style that met the needs of the general public, Ingres, a student of David.

Revolutionary
David's views on painting were as fickle as his political preferences. Starting as a follower of the Rococo style, after five years spent in Italy, he took the position of a new movement called neoclassicism. Towards the end of his life, the former revolutionary artist again returned to the sugary scenes with which he began his creative career. But after such paintings as “The Oath of the Horatii” or “The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Executed Sons,” which glorified David, his last paintings seemed ridiculous.

This picture continues the theme begun by David in the Oath of the Horatii - the conflict between public and personal interests. Brutus, the founder of the Roman Republic, decided to expel the royal family from Rome, but his sons took the side of the royal power. Brutus made a difficult choice - he condemned his children to death. In those years when David painted this picture, such a scene was not considered otherwise than a call for the overthrow of the monarchy.

David's work is characterized by realistic foundations, dramatic force, ideological determination, which was especially evident during the years of the Great French Revolution, as well as the desire to capture current events of our time. He passed on his skills to a huge number of students, so that Delacroix, paying tribute to David, called him the founder of the entire new school of painting and sculpture.

This painter is called a “witness of the era,” since, having reflected in his art various stages of the political life of France - the time of the “old regime” (the reign of Louis XVI until 1789), the revolution, the consulate, the empire, the Bourbon restoration - he was not only an artist, but also a famous public figure. David is one of the greatest masters of neoclassicism, and his art consistently evolved along with his style, expressing the aesthetic ideals of early, mature and late neoclassicism of the Empire era (1804-1814).

David began his activities in the 1760s, when neoclassicism began to spread in France and other European countries. In an effort to get a good painting school, in 1766 David became a student at the Paris Academy of Arts. The pedagogical system of his teacher, the famous historical painter J.M. Vienna - was based on the requirement to achieve “truth and greatness” based on the study of antiquity, the painting of Raphael and the masters of the Bolognese school, and the sculpture of Michelangelo. The first prize David received at the Rome competition at the Academy gave him the right to improve his skills in Italy as a pensioner of the French Academy in Rome. The first independent historical painting, “The Physician Erasistratus Discovers the Causes of Antiochus’ Disease” (Paris, School of Fine Arts), was written in the spirit of Vienne’s graceful interpretation of the ancient plot, with a slight taste of acceptable frivolity.

David spent 1775-1780 at the French Academy in Rome. Here he falls into the circle of experts and lovers of antiquity; together with the French scientist and critic A.K. Quatrmer de Quincey, whose authority in the study of antiquity was very great, made a trip to Naples, Herculaneum, Pompeii, Portici, where new monuments were brought to the royal villa. “And the scales fell from my eyes,” the artist will say his famous phrase about the originals he saw. David studies ancient sculpture at the newly opened Pio Clementino Museum in the Vatican. His reference books include illustrated collections - sources of inspiration for the masters of neoclassicism, and the history of ancient art by I.Y. Winkelman.

Evidence of painstaking drawing and admiration for the ancient heritage is the huge hand-drawn frieze “The Funeral of Patroclus” (1780, USA, private collection). The drawing technique with deep shadows and light areas covered with white creates the impression of a Roman bas-relief with solemn, majestic figures on a smooth background. According to David, his teachers in Rome were "Raphael and Antiquity."

Upon returning to Paris in 1780, his goal was to gain access to the Academy, which opened the way to success and the opportunity to periodically exhibit at the Louvre Salons twice a year. For the presented canvas “Belisarius” (1781, Lille, Museum of Fine Arts), David was unanimously accepted as a member of the Academy. The ancient plot from Marmontel's novella (1767) about the famous ancient Roman commander, doomed to poverty and wandering due to a false accusation, was popular in the era of early neoclassicism. David interprets it with sentimental sensitivity in the tradition of Vienne, demonstrating excellent mastery of the rendering of a classically harmonious composition, mastery of clear drawing, noble coloring, based on the development of red and brown colors. The strict critic Diderot spoke with admiration about this painting at the Salon of 1781. As a special privilege, David receives an apartment in the Louvre, and students of J.J. begin to work in his workshop. Drouet, A.L. Girodet, J.B. Vikar, who later became famous masters.

The painting “The Sorrow of Andromache at the Body of Hector” (1783, Paris, Louvre) also received a favorable reception at the Salon. A dramatic scene from Homer's Iliad is depicted against the backdrop of elements of antique decor - an antique massive bed, Doric columns, a candelabra known from Piranesi's engravings, Hector's spear and shield, borrowed from Poussin. The composition of the painting with Andromache sitting at her husband’s deathbed repeats the scene reproduced in the ancient relief “The Death of Meleager,” which was often copied by the masters of neoclassicism.

In accordance with the program drawn up in 1776 by the Count of Anjivillier, director of the Office of Royal Buildings, it was planned to create a series of large historical canvases “designed to revive virtues and patriotic feelings.” David was commissioned to paint a painting based on a plot from Rollin’s Roman history “The Oath of the Horatii” (1784, Paris, Louvre). The theme was also in consonance with the tragedy of P. Corneille. David decided to paint the picture in Rome, and its showing here caused a real sensation. The “heroic” style of the canvas depicting the figures of the three Horace brothers frozen in an oath of unity against the background of a Doric colonnade caused many imitations among the masters of neoclassicism in the era of pre-revolutionary sentiments in France. Contemporaries will attribute his Oath of the Horatii to the revolutionary work of the artist, calling him the harbinger of the revolution.

The line of David’s “heroic” classicism was continued by the painting “The Death of Socrates” (1787, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art). The chosen subject, recommended to Diderot's artists to glorify virtue, courage, and morality, met the tastes of the Enlightenment. To execute the painting, David used drawings from Roman sculptures.

A completely different, idyllic, elegant antiquity appears in the painting “The Love of Paris and Helen” (1788, Paris, Louvre). It glorifies love, enjoyment of the earthly joys of life. Smooth flexible contours outline the figures of two lovers, depicted in lush antique decor, reproduced with archaeological precision. Shades of sharply contrasting green and purple-red are fused into a vibrant color scheme.

Having met the revolutionary events of 1789 with enthusiasm, David begins to play a leading role in the leadership of art; in 1792, he became a member of the Convention, took part in the conduct and decoration of revolutionary festivities, was in charge of the installation of historical monuments to revolutionary figures, and was involved in the design of costumes for officials of the Republic; in 1791 - he led the artists’ speech for the revision of the Academy’s undemocratic regulations on admission to participation in competitions and salons.

His painting “The Oath in the Ballroom” (1789, Versailles, National Museum; pen drawing - Louvre), which remained unfinished, caused a great public outcry. For the first time, an event in modern national history became the subject of a “grand style” historical canvas. In the park pavilion of the palace in Marly on June 20, 1789, some of the deputies of the States General, representing the third estate, declared themselves the National Assembly. The artist depicted the pathetic moment when deputies take an oath to fight for the ideals of Freedom, Equality and Fraternity. While working on the canvas, David created many drawings and sketches, which are examples of his high skill as a portraitist.

The artist considers it his duty to “glorify revolutionary martyrs with his brush,” devoting the paintings “The Death of Marat” (1793, Brussels, Royal Museums) and “The Death of Joseph Bar” (1793, Avignon, Calvet Museum) to this theme. The majestic image of Marat, killed by C. Corday, was created on the basis of a pen drawing (Versailles, National Museum) made from the head of the dead hero of the revolution. His figure is depicted sculpturally, and in the composition elements of classical ancient and Christian iconography are combined to reveal a plot from modern history.

After 9 Thermidor, due to contacts with Robespierre’s entourage and participation in the Committee of Public Safety associated with the signing of arrest warrants, David was accused of supporting the “Robespierre conspiracy” and imprisoned in the Luxembourg Palace prison, from which he was released in 1795 with the advent of directory government powers. After Napoleon Bonaparte declared himself heir to the revolution, David became his unconditional adherent, and in 1804 received the title of “first painter of the Emperor.” In his honor, the artist creates an equestrian portrait against the background of a fictional landscape “Bonaparte’s Crossing of the Saint-Bernard Pass” (1801, Malmaison, National Museum), a large historical canvas “The Coronation of Emperor Napoleon I and Empress Josephine in the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris on December 2, 1806” ( 1805-1807, Paris, Louvre), portrait “Napoleon in his study” (1812, Washington, National Gallery of Art), allegorical painting “Leonidas at Thermopylae” (1814, Paris, Louvre), glorifying the campaigns of the “Grand Army”.

The canvas “Coronation..,” consisting of portraits of famous historical figures (here depicts members of Napoleon’s large family, Talleyrand holding the robe, Eugene Beauharnais - the stepson of the future emperor, Pope Pius VII blessing Napoleon and Josephine), was a great success at the Louvre Salon of 1808 of the year. David thoroughly and truthfully conveyed the solemn ceremony, in the costumes and attributes of which the continuity of Napoleon's empire in relation to the empire of Charlemagne was emphasized. For this painting, David was awarded the Legion of Honor by Napoleon, and it is known that the emperor, taking off his hat, bowed to the artist.

In the portrait of Napoleon in his study in the Tuileries, according to contemporaries, the most truthful image of the emperor was created. He is depicted in the modest blue suit of a colonel of the Grenadiers of the Guards Infantry, standing at a gilded massive table and chair, against a background of scrolls and folios, a clock showing the early time when the work of the Emperor of the French begins. David did not flatter the model: although the image looks spectacular, the artist emphasized Bonaparte’s small stature, sparse hair, and flabby face.

Portrait work has always been a significant aspect of David's work. The first experiments in the 1780s (“Madame Pécoul” and “Mr. Pécoul” - paired portraits of the artist’s mother-in-law and father-in-law, 1784, Paris, Louvre) were continued by a large series of portraits in the 1790s. Subtle observation of the individual qualities of the model is always combined with deep psychological generalization, giving each image a vivid vitality. The models are depicted either as if likened to an antique statue ("Madame de Verkinac", 1799, Louvre), or in a free, involuntary pose, resting in the open air ("Portrait of Madame Ceresia" - the sister of David's wife; "Portrait of Pierre Ceresia", both - 1795, all - Paris, Louvre).

The personification of the Napoleonic era was the “Portrait of Madame Recamier” (1800, Paris, Louvre). David created not just the image of a pretty, flirty lady, but a female type, an image of the era, captivating with its persuasiveness.

After the fall of the empire, David lived in Brussels, although he was not persecuted - during the restoration years the new government made an exception for him. He left a memory of himself as an outstanding painter of the neoclassical era, whose most talented masters were able to create something new within the framework of the style. His students were many artists of outstanding talent, including Zh.O.D. Ingres, J.A. Gro, P.P. Proudhon and others.

Elena Fedotova

Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) - famous French artist who had a great influence on the development of classicism.

Jacques-Louis David was born into a wealthy Parisian family. When he was about nine years old, his father was killed in a duel. His mother provided him with an excellent education in one of the best schools, but David studied poorly: he was always more absorbed in drawing. His uncle (a famous architect) and mother wanted him to be an architect, but Jacques-Louis wanted to be an artist. David insisted on his own and turned for help to Francois Boucher, a famous artist and adherent of the Rococo style. David enters the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture (modern Louvre) to study.

Subsequently, David applied for a grant five times in order to go to Rome. But each time the Academy commission refused him a scholarship. Once he even went on a hunger strike in protest. And finally, in 1774, David received this grant and in 1775 he went to Italy.

During the time that he lived in Italy, David studied the ruins of Ancient Rome and ancient works of art. Jacques-Louis made 12 sketchbooks; he would use this material throughout his creative life. In Rome he met the magnificent artists of early classicism (it is worth noting the special influence). In 1779, David visited the ruins of ancient Pompeii, which impressed him greatly: after that, he set out to revolutionize the world of art, introducing undying principles.

Death of Seneca

Antiochus and Stratonika

Belisarius begging

After five years working in Rome, Jacques-Louis David returned to Paris, where he became a member of the Royal Academy. He presented two paintings, and both were included in the exhibition in 1781, which was a great honor for any artist. His contemporaries admired his innovative ideas, but members of the Royal Academy considered him an upstart.

Later, the famous French artist married Marguerite-Charlotte Picol. This marriage brought him a small fortune. Despite the demand for his works in Paris, David strives to go to Rome, believing that only there he can fully develop as an artist.

In 1784, in Rome, David painted his famous painting “The Oath of the Horatii.” An oath between three sons and a father is an act of unity of the people in order to strengthen the state. Republican folk ideas become the semantic center of the canvas. The painting is divided into two parts, where the depiction of women strongly contrasts with the depiction of men: soft female figures are smaller in size in comparison with male figures, personifying strength and absolute discipline. This clear gender division was characteristic of the social doctrine of the time.

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Oath of the Horatii

In 1787, Jacques-Louis David applied for the position of director of the French Academy in Rome, but did not receive it.

In the same year, David presented the painting “The Death of Socrates,” who was sentenced to death, but was calm, discussing the immortality of the soul. Famous artists of that time appreciated the work, comparing the accuracy of its images with images on ancient bas-reliefs. The picture was very consonant with the emerging political trends.

While the French Revolution began in 1789, the National Assembly was striving for power, and the Bastille fell, Jacques-Louis David creates the painting “The Lictors Bring the Bodies of His Sons to Brutus.”

Royal censorship carefully selected paintings for exhibitions in order to avoid popular rebellion. “Portrait of Lavoisier” by David, who was not only a chemist and physicist, but also an active member of the Jacobin movement, was banned by the authorities from being shown. “Lictors bring the bodies of his sons to Brutus” was also prohibited. All the images in this painting are a kind of republican symbol, and, obviously, were of great importance for France. The painting depicts Lucius Junius Brutus, a Roman ruler in deep anguish for his sons. They sought to seize power to restore the monarchy. The father himself sentenced them to death in order to protect the Republic, even at the cost of the lives of his own sons. Brutus sits alone, apart from his wife and daughters, knowing that what he did was the best he could do for his country, yet his tense legs and toes betray his inner turmoil. When it was reported that the government would not allow the film to be shown, people were outraged and the royals relented. The painting was shown at the exhibition.

Death of Socrates

Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and his wife

The lictors bring the bodies of his sons to Brutus

Jacques-Louis David was a devoted supporter of the revolution, a friend of Robespierre and a member of the Jacobin Club. Jacques-Louis David, unlike those who left the country from the fire of the revolution, remained to help destroy the old government, he voted for the execution of King Louis XVI of France (this was the reason for the divorce from his wife, who held different views). Some believe that David created his best works in the classical style during this period. His personality played an important role here: ebullient temperament, emotionality, irrepressible enthusiasm, desire for independence - all this was turned against the existing regime, as well as against the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture, whose members did not approve of his works and republican positions (it was abolished at the initiative of the artist).

Portrait of Count Stanislav Potocki

Andromache at Hector's body

Portrait of Doctor Alfonso Leroy

The love of Paris and Helen

In 1789, Jacques-Louis David painted the painting “The Oath on the Ball Field” (only a sketch of this painting has survived) - a symbol of national unity against the old regime - this was an attempt to capture a historical moment in the history of the future republic.

But the heroes of 1789 became enemies in 1792 - a split occurred between conservatives and radical Jacobins. The artist renounces the oath taken on the tennis court. From now on, David abandons radical methods of expressing his views and strives for metaphor.

Oath on the ball field

In 1793, Jacques-Louis David painted the painting “The Death of Marat”. Marat, a member of the National Assembly, a journalist, a friend of David, was killed by a supporter of the opposition party, Charlotte Corday, with a knife. The artist completed this painting quickly enough, but the image of the murdered republican turned out to be simple and powerful.

Death of Marat

After the execution of the French king, war broke out, the revolution was quite bloody. Jacques-Louis David was arrested and placed in prison. It was there that he conceived his painting “The Sobinyan women stopping the battle between the Romans and the Sobinyan women” (or “The Intervention of the Sobinyan women”) - this is the idea of ​​​​the predominance of love over social armed conflicts. David intended to create a new style for this painting - the "Greek style", as opposed to the "Roman style" of his earlier history paintings.

Sabine women stopping the battle between the Romans and the Sabines (Intervention of the Sabine Women)

At the end of the revolutionary movement, his ex-wife managed to secure David's release from prison. He married her again in 1796. From that time on, he spent quite a lot of time in his workshop, taught students and, for the most part, left politics.

Portrait of the Marquise de Sorsy de Tolluson

Portrait of Pierre Cerisia

Portrait of Madame Adelaide Pastore

Portrait of a Jailer

Portrait of the Dutch envoy to Paris, Jacobus Blaeuw

Portrait of Jean Bon Saint-André

Portrait of Madame Emilie Cerisia and her son

Portrait of Madame de Verninac

Portrait of Georges Rouget

Portrait of Madame Recamier

A separate chapter of David’s work was his attitude towards Napoleon Bonaparte - the artist was his fan from their first meeting. After the proclamation of the Empire in 1804, Jacques-Louis David became the official court painter.

Napoleon at the Saint Bernard Pass

Emperor Napoleon in his study in the Tuileries

Zinaida and Charlotte Bonaparte

Consecration of Emperor Napoleon I and coronation of Empress Josephine at Notre Dame Cathedral on December 2, 1804

Marina FROLOVA,
MHC teacher,
Khodyzhensk, Krasnodar Territory

The works of Jacques Louis David

Target: trace how ideas are reflected in various types of art.

Tasks:

• Education of citizenship.
• Development of reader's interest.
• Formation of a moral position.
• Development of communication abilities.
• Self-determination on the subject of personal values.
• Aesthetic development of students.
• Speech development of students.

During the classes

1. Generalization of previously studied material

The teacher invites students to look at the table.

Baroque	Classicism
Common features
Both styles are rhetorical. A writer, an artist influence the viewer, convincing him. General system of genres. General aesthetic categories (category of taste, educational function of art, desire to combine business with pleasure)
Differences
Opposite ideas, themes, things, phenomena, concepts coexist. Comic and tragic, high and low styles side by side, paired	Removing one thing from a pair (the contrast “high - low”). Classicism abandoned the inconsistency of the Baroque, stretched its bizarre forms into a straight line, and became the logical conclusion, but only of one part of it, which was now not opposed to anything
Mixes styles, is amazed by contradictions, admires them. The artist is not only a master, the idea of ​​divine inspiration, divine madness is alive	He does not mix styles, is not amazed by contradictions, but accepts them as a given. The idea of ​​divine inspiration disappeared. The master of the era of classicism continued only one tradition - the attitude towards art as a craft
	The imitation of nature continued. Imitating nature, the classicist sought to surpass it, focusing on a generalized image of beauty. The aesthetics of the ugly, which was in Baroque art, has disappeared. Classicism chose the “right” material from nature
The spiritual world of man is complex and tragic	Classicism recognized only harmony. The inner world of man ceased to be perceived tragically, the conflict from the internal (the struggle between sin and virtue) was transferred externally (feeling - duty)
Art is polysemantic, symbolic, every phenomenon of the world is connected with many others by a network of secret meanings. Nothing exists on its own, everything is a mystery, a mystery.	An unambiguous relationship between sign and meaning. There is no place for mystery - only reason
He who has not broken the rules is not a poet	Art no longer flows imperceptibly into life, and life no longer strives to resemble art. Everything was given a complete, strict form, and this was done according to strict rules.

2. The conflict of the individual with the whole that embraces it in classical tragedy. Conversation

Teacher. At all times, people have been concerned about the place of the individual within the framework of the whole that embraces it. Antiquity has already recognized the right of an individual to his own voice, to his own truth. The Renaissance brought the idea of ​​the absolute self-worth of the individual. The value of an individual has finally ceased to be correlated with the position of this individual in society. But as time passed, the Renaissance idea of ​​the individual’s right to unlimited freedom also revealed its limitations. It turned out that due to the imperfection of human nature, unlimited freedom for one becomes unlimited unfreedom for another.

And so the 18th century brought to the world a system of values ​​that was reflected in art through the aesthetics of classicism. One of its central ideas is “the mind has only one road.” You just need to find this best road of all possible. Fundamental to this system is the idea of ​​the absolute priority of the general over the particular. A hierarchy arose that claimed to be inviolable: above all, the state, then the clan, at the very bottom - the individual, who in himself is petty and pathetic, but is capable of acquiring some meaning only as a particle of a great whole. And what kind of person he is can be judged first of all by what kind of subject he is.

The basis of a classic tragedy is, as a rule, an insoluble conflict between feeling and duty. The stronger the suppressed feeling, the more honorable the victory over it.

Consider the tragedy of Pierre Corneille “The Cid”.

Exercise : retell the work based on the text.

Students. Before us is a Spanish city. Two lovers live in it: Rodrigo Diaz and Jimena. Everything goes to a happy ending. And suddenly - a conflict between the fathers of the heroes: Father Rodrigo Don Diego was granted the position of mentor to the royal son. Jimena's father, Count Gormas, is unhappy with this:

No matter how exalted the throne is, people are all alike,
Even kings are capable of making mistakes,
And this choice is completely proven,
That real labor is at a low price...

As a result, Jimena's father slaps Rodrigo's father and then says:

Goodbye! Let the young prince, looking for an example in his homeland,
Reads the chronicle of your high life.
This is the price to pay for the insolence of a chatterbox
It will be decorated to a large extent.

Young Rodrigo faces a choice: on the one hand, passionate love for Jimena, on the other, the duty of revenge on her father:

I'm committed to an internal war
My love and honor in an irreconcilable struggle,
Stand up for your father, renounce your beloved!
He calls for courage, she holds my hand.
But no matter what I choose - to replace love with grief
Or vegetate in shame, -
Both there and here there is no end to the torment.
O evil destinies of treason!
Should I forget about the execution of the insolent?
Should I execute my Jimena's father?

But in the end, he makes the only right choice for the hero of a classic tragedy:

I owe it to my father more than to my beloved.
Will I die in battle, will I die, tormented by melancholy,
I will die with pure blood, just as I was born.
My already excessive carelessness.
We run to take revenge.
And putting an end to the hesitation,
Let's not commit treason:
Does it matter if the father is insulted?
What an insult was Jimena's father!

Rodrigo passionately loves Ximena, and this feeling is not at all destroyed by the decision made to take revenge. Victory over him is not at all a victory of the high over the low, but a victory of the high over the high.

Rodrigo eventually takes revenge and kills the offender. And now Ximena is faced with a choice: she has love for Rodrigo, but her duty to her father forces her to demand the death penalty. Finally she decides:

To save your honor and find peace,
Send him to execution and die herself.

And only at the behest of the king the execution is not carried out.

Exercise

The tragic plot that formed the basis of Corneille’s tragedy “The Cid” has deep roots in world culture. In this regard, we can recall Shakespeare's tragedy Romeo and Juliet. Compare these tragedies. What do you find in common between them? Why such different outcomes? How can this be explained? What is the difference between the moral concepts of classicism and the Renaissance?

3. David. "Oath of the Horatii"

Work with text

Teacher. Let us turn to the work of the great French artist Jacques Louis David, and in particular to his famous painting “The Oath of the Horatii”. It was created under the impression of the tragedies of Corneille. This is no coincidence: we have already said that in the Age of Enlightenment the theater played the role of a tribune and had a huge influence on minds.

The artist worked on the painting in Rome, the city where the events depicted took place. It was in Rome, as David later wrote, that “an inspiration came to him,” and he felt that “the very foundations of his manner were wrong.” It was in Rome that “the first steps along a new path” were taken. David studies the great heritage of the old masters, discovers the beauty of the lines and forms of their incomparable masterpieces.

But he still had a lot to change his mind, a lot to learn before “developing his own view of things,” before moving away from academic traditions and understanding that works of art must conceal “feelings and thoughts, strict and moral,” before finding own style of writing and go off the beaten path.

Did the great Italian painting, and primarily Raphael, influence the artist’s work? Yes, no doubt. Was he fascinated by the art of the ancients? Of course, especially since relatively recently, before the astonished eyes of David’s contemporaries, the quarters of Herculaneum and Pompeii, awakened from a centuries-old sleep, appeared and all of Europe was reading Winckelmann’s book dedicated to the treasures of ancient art. In ancient history, in ancient art, artists were now increasingly finding themes and actions consonant with modernity. David studied ancient architecture and ancient plastic arts with delight.

Exercise: read an excerpt from A. Varshavsky’s text “Pelik with a Swallow.”

Text

(reworked for lesson)

...The Roman consul Junius Brutus, having learned that his sons had entered into a conspiracy against the republic, demanded their execution. He signed the death warrant with his own hand.

“The lictors bring the bodies of his sons to the house of consul Brutus” was the title of David’s painting.

In deep and sorrowful thoughtfulness, it depicted Junius Brutus, the republican Brutus, the one “whose firmness is indestructible,” as the poet Andre Chénier would later write about the image created by David, “who is more a consul than a father.” He fulfilled his duty, he severely punished those who planned evil against the fatherland. But he is also a father... After all, these are his sons, his flesh and blood...

The wife, who was unable to get him to cancel the sentence, is overcome with grief, and her daughter is in despair.

As if petrified, completely in the grip of the unfolding tragedy, Brutus sits, a man who remained faithful to high principles to the end. And the bodies of his dead sons are brought into the house for the last farewell.

Things from days gone by? Glorification of the distant past? But the pathos of the paintings was in love for the motherland, in the readiness to sacrifice personal feelings in the name of civic duty - everyone understood this. David addressed the minds and hearts of his compatriots, and something completely different from the conflict between Brutus and his sons arose in the minds of those who saw his work. Freedom, homeland, the fight against tyrants - this was the life of France, which rose from its knees, and the courageous painting of David told people a lot.

But there is no doubt that David was familiar with the books of the encyclopedists, which sounded like an alarm bell in the dark night of the absolutist monarchy throughout France. By birth, connected by blood with the bourgeoisie, striving for political power, leading the struggle against autocracy and class privileges, the artist could not help but sympathize with this struggle.

Freedom-loving ideas, no matter how hard the absolutist government of Louis XVI tried to destroy them, gained more and more supporters, and fewer and fewer defenders remained with the old order.

...He paid tribute to both mythology and classicism in his early works.

But already in 1781, David brought the painting “Belisarius Begging Alms” from Rome. The drama of its content made a strong impression. Civil motives permeated this canvas, dedicated to the commander, slandered, demoted and blinded by his emperor.

In antiquity, David looked for his heroes, but his creations were inspired by modern ideas.

So, a year later it was the turn of the “Oath of the Horatii.” As a matter of fact, it all began with the presentation of Corneille's tragedy about the heroic Romans. The last scene of the play - the old father appeals to the people with a request to protect his son, who defended the honor and freedom of his native city - made a strong impression on the artist. Immediately, without delay, he made a pencil sketch.

Paris applauded the Horaces, and applauded the one about whom Voltaire said: “Cornel, the ancient Roman among the French, created the school of greatness of soul.”

And it was true.

At first, David decided to depict the final scene of the play that amazed him, but then abandoned this plan. For it was not at all the main thing in the history of the Horatii that she revealed. He saw something more important, more significant. He wanted to talk about actions that were in tune with his rebellious and turbulent era, to remind that people should be faithful to public duty, to find - even in antiquity - role models.

Did he already know at that time the words of Diderot addressed to contemporary artists: “You must glorify and immortalize great and beautiful deeds, honor virtue, stigmatize vice ...” - words that awakened hope and called for struggle? There is no direct data on this matter. But the idea that art does not exist for the entertainment of the nobility, the ideas about the social purpose of art, undoubtedly, were already close to him in those days.

...The legend said: in a difficult moment, when the fatherland was in danger and the question of whether Rome should be free or enslaved was being decided, three young heroes, three sons of Horace, entered into a mortal duel with the enemy.

Three for three. Against your friends, against your relatives. And they won, although the two Horaces were not destined to return home.

The most highly moral moment of this legend, told by the Roman historian Titus Livius, is chosen by David: the oath of the heroes before the battle, the oath to the father, the oath to the homeland. However, to be precise, he is speculating. For Livy does not have a word about the oath in the house of the Horatii. But is it really that important? Doesn’t the artist have the right to generalize and think out things?

Nothing superfluous, nothing distracting, dissipating attention, leading away from the main thing - this is how David saw the composition. The stern simplicity of feelings and the greatness of the moment must be matched by the stern simplicity of the design, reminiscent of antique designs.

He carefully studies costumes, hairstyles, weapons. He is looking for the most accurate solution: he is not satisfied with the initial sketch, in which the old father hands swords to his eldest son - both of them have their hands down, and it turns out that only the younger and middle brothers take the oath.

In Italy, in Rome he completes the picture.

And when David exhibited it in 1785 at the Salon, Paris gasped. She immediately became famous.

Three people - and a single impulse. Three people - and one will. In the name of their homeland they swear to win or die. Their faces are decisive and courageous, their arms are strong and muscular, and the defenders of freedom bring their faithful and valiant hearts to the altar of the fatherland.

Neither the tears of a mother mourning her sons going to mortal combat, nor the sadness of a sister engaged to one of the opponents, nor the grief of the wife of one of the brothers, the sister of the Curinatii, bending over her little daughter - nothing can turn the Horatii from their decision. And the old father raised their military weapons high, as if blessing his sons for a feat of arms.

Freedom or death! Win or die!

In the appearance of his heroes there was an all-conquering and all-pervasive faith in man. Their impulse was pure and noble.

Little did David imagine then that just a few years later the battle cry would be “Freedom or Death!” - will sound over the entire rebellious France? That participants in revolutionary battles would be inspired by the images created by his inspiration? That before going to the front, the soldiers will look at the Horatii in excitement"? That, along with the Marseillaise, his painting will become one of the symbols of France rebelling against autocracy?

Assignments to the text

1. What legend formed the basis of the plot of the picture?
2. Which artist’s work prompted David to paint the picture?
3. How would you formulate the main idea of ​​the picture? Define ideological
the relationship between the works of Corneille and David.
4. What kind of response did the picture receive in society?

Working with illustrations

Prove that David’s painting “The Oath of the Horatii” belongs to classicism. ( Strict compliance with the genre - a historical picture, allegorical and edifying plot, strict trinity of the composition: three groups of heroes, space broken up by three arches, balance of the composition with the central figure of the father, antique paraphernalia.)

5. “The Death of Marat.”

Conversation

Teacher. So, let's turn to the last words of Varshavsky's text: “Could David have imagined then that just a few years later the battle cry would be “Freedom or death!” - will sound over the entire rebellious France? That participants in revolutionary battles would be inspired by the images created by his inspiration? That before going to the front, soldiers will look at the Horatii in excitement? That, along with the Marseillaise, his painting will become one of the symbols of France rebelling against autocracy?

He saw it with his own eyes.

What events happened in France in the second half of the 18th century that were a direct continuation of Enlightenment philosophical views? ( I asked the guys to prepare messages on this topic in advance.)

Students.

- Since 1774, France was led by King Louis XVI, who had absolute power. He was not a tyrant. He was strongly influenced by the idea of ​​an “enlightened monarchy,” according to which the ruler must first of all take care of the interests of the state and the welfare of the people. He tried to do it as best he could. France was a prosperous state. The entire population of the country was divided into three classes. The first two - the clergy and the nobility - were considered privileged. The third group included most of the population: peasants, artisans, workers, entrepreneurs. It was the third estate that paid most of the taxes. At the end of the 18th century, taxes became a real disaster for the country's working population. In addition, the peasantry still had to bear many duties that had survived from the Middle Ages. His situation was dire.

On July 14, 1789, the rebel Paris besieged and took the famous royal prison, the Bastille. It was a revolution in which the decisive role was played by the very third estate to which David belonged. On August 26, 1789, the Constituent Assembly adopted the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.” It said, in particular: “People are born and remain free and equal in rights.” Thus, the third estate secured political rights for itself.

The situation in the country became tense. The Constituent Assembly was split into various political factions. Austria and Prussia moved their troops to Paris. On January 21, 1793, the guillotine knife cut off the king's head. The chronology and names of the months were changed. A dictatorship was established inside the country, which faced fierce resistance. Many of the French, who sincerely welcomed the revolution of 1789, did not want to tolerate a revolutionary dictatorship. In July 1793, Charlotte Corday stabbed Marat with a dagger, considering him the main culprit in reprisals against opponents of the dictatorship.

Teacher. Who is Marat and what is his role and position in revolutionary Paris?

Students.

- Marat published the newspaper “Friend of the People.” In one of his articles, he wrote: “Start by capturing the king, the dauphin and the royal family, put them under strong guard, and let them answer for everything with their own heads. Then, without any hesitation, cut off the heads of the counter-revolutionary generals, ministers and former ministers... Now that you have unwisely allowed your inexorable enemies to plot and accumulate their forces, it may be necessary to cut off five to six thousand heads. But even if you had to cut off twenty thousand, you cannot hesitate for a single minute.”

Marat was treated differently. On the one hand, he was devoted to the cause of the revolution. On the other hand, it was with his name that all the horrors of revolutionary terror were associated.

Teacher. Marat called for terror during his lifetime, but his death served as the impetus for the “great terror.” The term “enemies of the people” appeared. The vague definition of “enemies of the people” was used to destroy not only the conspirators, but also popular politicians, everyone who threatened the new government. Look at David's painting "The Death of Marat". Describe what you see.

Students. Marat lies back on the back of the bathtub covered with a white sheet, completely defeated. His right hand hangs lifelessly, and a quill quill is still clutched in his fingers, the tip stuck into the floor. In his left he holds a piece of paper - a letter from Charlotte Corday, with which she came to him. A strand of black hair escapes from under the towel with which he tied his head. Mouth half open. The face expresses suffering.

Teacher. Why did Marat receive a visitor in the bathroom?

Students. He was seriously ill, a bath eased his condition, so he worked in the bathroom.

Teacher. The artist painted this picture on behalf of the Convention. Subsequently he will say: “I heard the voice of the people, I obeyed.” A friend of the people who died for their happiness - this was Marat for David, who actively participated in the revolution. It takes him three months to paint his picture. It's almost document-accurate. Everything was as it was - the bath, and the mortally wounded Marat, and the piece of paper in his hand, and the wooden block next to the bath, and the inkwell, and the papers. And at the same time, the mournful grandeur of the scene shook hearts. The solemn requiem resembled a painting, stern and heroic. The picture deeply expresses the ideas of civic courage, selfless service to the cause, and love of freedom. Strict and simple colors. “Whoever dies for the fatherland has nothing to reproach himself with.” The paintings “The Death of Marat” and “The Oath of the Horatii” are connected with this idea.

Did David think that he captured the tragedy of the entire people on this canvas? Tragic events await the French ahead: brutal terror, then the execution of those who unleashed this terror. Before his execution, Robespierre will say: “The revolution devours its children.” Then Napoleon's empire, defeat in the war with Russia.

Such is the power of a true artist - in his work he always says more than is revealed to his contemporaries.

6. Generalization and conclusion

David's creativity belongs to two directions. If its first part is given to classicism, then the second is the beginning of a new direction, romanticism. It is closely connected with the era of the French Revolution, to which he remained faithful to the end: after the Bourbon restoration, the artist went into exile. He died abroad in 1825, and the French government flatly refused to allow David's body to be transported to his homeland. Only his heart was taken to Paris.

David Jacques Louis(David, Jacques-Louis)

David Jacques Louis(David, Jacques-Louis) (1748-1825), French painter, an outstanding representative of neoclassicism.

David was brought to fame by the painting “The Oath of the Horatii” (1784), depicting three twin brothers who, according to legend, won a duel with the three twin brothers Curiatius in a dispute about the power of Rome. David shared the ideals of the French Revolution and took an active part in political life. He was an active figure in the revolution, a member of the Convention (1789-1794), organized mass public festivals, and created the National Museum in the Louvre.

In 1804 Napoleon appointed David "first artist".

David glorified Napoleon's deeds in a number of paintings that signal David's transition from strict classicism to romanticism.

After the restoration of Bourbon power in 1815, David was forced to leave for Brussels. Since that time he has withdrawn from public life. David had many students, the most famous of them being Ingres. David's work had a huge influence on the subsequent development of European painting.

Paintings by Jacques Louis David: