USSR is a union of Soviet socialist republics. History of the USSR
| Founding states | States after collapse of the USSR |
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Background
February Revolution
“The decay of imperial Russia began a long time ago. By the time of the revolution, the old regime had completely disintegrated, was exhausted and exhausted. The war completed the process of decomposition. It cannot even be said that the February Revolution overthrew the monarchy in Russia, the monarchy itself fell, no one defended it... Bolshevism, long prepared by Lenin, turned out to be the only force that, on the one hand, could complete the decomposition of the old and, on the other hand, organize the new.” (Nikolai Berdyaev).
October Revolution
After the February Revolution of 1917, the new revolutionary Provisional Government failed to restore order in the country, which led to increasing political chaos, as a result of which the Bolshevik Party under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin, in alliance with the left Socialist Revolutionaries and anarchists, seized power in Russia (October Revolution 1917).
The Supreme body of power in Russia was declared to be the Congress of Soviets of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies; in the intervals between congresses, this role was played by the Central Executive Committee elected at the congresses. Local power was transferred to local Councils of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies. Executive power was exercised by the Council of People's Commissars, reporting to the Central Executive Committee.
The first and main reforms of the Soviet government consisted, first of all, in ending the war (Decree on Peace) and in transferring landowners' lands to peasants (Decree on Land).
Civil War
The Bolshevik Soviet government's dispersal of the Constituent Assembly and the split in the revolutionary movement led to a civil war, in which opponents of the Bolsheviks (the "Whites") fought against their supporters (the "Reds") throughout -1922. Without receiving widespread support, the white movement lost the war. The political power of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) was established in the country, which managed to create a capable centralized state apparatus that controlled most of the former Russian Empire.
During the October Revolution and the Civil War, several Soviet republics were formed on the territory of the former Russian Empire, formed on a national basis: RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, BSSR, ZSFSR. In all these states the Bolsheviks were in power, so there was no doubt about the need to unite states to fight a common enemy and to more successfully build a new society.
USSR in 1922-1953
In the Bolshevik Party there were different points of view on the issue of the principles of building a single multinational state.
A specially created Commission of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) put forward a unification plan prepared by J.V. Stalin, which provided for the entry of other republics into Russia as autonomous ones. However, V.I. Lenin sharply criticized the autonomization plan. He believed that the Soviet republics should unite into a single state union on the basis of equality and preservation of their sovereign rights. Each republic must receive the right to freely secede from the union. The Central Committee of the RCP(b) approved the Leninist principles of the national state structure.
Education USSR
Stalin, Zinoviev and Kamenev organized a “troika” based on opposition to Trotsky, whom they had a negative attitude towards since the Civil War (frictions between Trotsky and Stalin began over the defense of Tsaritsyn and between Trotsky and Zinoviev over the defense of Petrograd, Kamenev supported almost everything Zinoviev). Tomsky, being the leader of the trade unions, had a negative attitude towards Trotsky since the time of the so-called. "discussions about trade unions".
Trotsky began to resist. In October 1923, he sent a letter to the Central Committee and the Central Control Commission (Central Control Commission) demanding strengthening of democracy in the party. At the same time, his supporters sent the so-called Politburo. "Statement of the 46." The Troika then showed its power, mainly using the resource of the Central Committee apparatus, led by Stalin (the Central Committee apparatus could influence the selection of candidates for delegates to party congresses and conferences). At the XIII Conference of the RCP(b), Trotsky's supporters were condemned. Stalin's influence increased greatly.
Just two weeks after the congress, where Stalin's future victims Zinoviev and Kamenev used all their influence to keep him in office, Stalin opened fire on his own allies. First, he took advantage of a typo (“NEPman” instead of “NEP” in Kamenev’s quotation from Lenin:
...read in the newspaper the report of one of the comrades at the XIII Congress (Kamenev, it seems), where it is written in black and white that the next slogan of our party is supposedly the transformation of “Russia NEPMAN"to socialist Russia. Moreover - what's even worse - this strange slogan is attributed to none other than Lenin himself
In the same report, Stalin accused Zinoviev, without naming him, of the principle of “dictatorship of the party,” put forward at the XII Congress, and this thesis was recorded in the resolution of the congress and Stalin himself voted for it. Stalin’s main allies in the “seven” were Bukharin and Rykov.
A new split emerged in the Politburo in October, when Zinoviev, Kamenev, G. Ya. Sokolnikov and Krupskaya presented a document that criticized the party line from a “left” point of view. (Zinoviev led the Leningrad communists, Kamenev led the Moscow ones, and among the working class of large cities, which lived worse than before the First World War, there was strong dissatisfaction with low wages and rising prices for agricultural products, which led to the demand for pressure on the peasantry and especially on the kulaks ). The Seven broke up. At that moment, Stalin began to unite with the “right” Bukharin-Rykov-Tomsky, who expressed the interests primarily of the peasantry. In the internal party struggle that began between the “right” and “left,” he provided them with the forces of the party apparatus, and they (namely Bukharin) acted as theorists. The "new opposition" of Zinoviev and Kamenev was condemned at the XIV Congress.
By that time, the theory of the victory of socialism in one country had emerged. This view was developed by Stalin in the brochure “On Questions of Leninism” () and Bukharin. They divided the question of the victory of socialism into two parts - the question of the complete victory of socialism, that is, the possibility of building socialism and the complete impossibility of restoring capitalism by internal forces, and the question of the final victory, that is, the impossibility of restoration due to the intervention of Western powers, which would only be excluded by establishing a revolution in the West.
Trotsky, who did not believe in socialism in one country, joined Zinoviev and Kamenev. The so-called "United Opposition". It was finally crushed after a demonstration organized by Trotsky's supporters on November 7, 1927 in Leningrad.
In 1929, Stalin also got rid of his new comrades: Bukharin - chairman of the Comintern, Rykov - chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, Tomsky - trade union leader. Thus, Stalin excluded from the political struggle all those who, in his opinion, could challenge his leadership in the country, so we can talk about the onset of Stalin’s dictatorship during this period.
New Economic Policy
Stalin's methods of industrialization, collectivization in the countryside, and the elimination of the private trading system led to a significant decrease in the consumption fund and, as a consequence, the standard of living throughout the country. The rapid growth of the urban population has led to a deterioration in the housing situation; a period of “densification” passed again; workers arriving from the village were housed in barracks. By the end of 1929, the card system was extended to almost all food products, and then to industrial products. However, even with cards it was impossible to obtain the necessary rations, and in 1931 additional “warrants” were introduced. It was impossible to buy food without standing in huge lines.
According to data from the Smolensk party archive, in 1929 in Smolensk a worker received 600 g of bread per day, family members - 300, fat - from 200 g to a liter of vegetable oil per month, 1 kilogram of sugar per month; a worker received 30-36 meters of calico per year. Subsequently, the situation (until 1935) only worsened. The GPU noted acute discontent among the workers.
Collectivization
After the disruption of grain procurements in 1927, when it was necessary to take emergency measures (fixed prices, closing markets and even repression), and an even more catastrophic grain procurement campaign of 1928-1929. the issue had to be resolved urgently. Extraordinary measures during procurement in 1929, already perceived as something completely abnormal, caused about 1,300 riots. In 1929, bread cards were introduced in all cities (in 1928 - in some cities).
The path to creating farming through the stratification of the peasantry was incompatible with the Soviet project for ideological reasons. A course was set for collectivization. This also implied the liquidation of the kulaks “as a class.”
Cards for bread, cereals and pasta were abolished from January 1, 1935, and for other (including non-food) goods from January 1, 1936. This was accompanied by an increase in wages in the industrial sector and an even greater increase in state ration prices for all types of goods. Commenting on the abolition of cards, Stalin uttered what later became a catchphrase: “Life has become better, life has become more fun.”
Overall, per capita consumption increased by 22% between 1928 and 1938. However, this growth was greatest among the party and labor elite group and did not affect the vast majority of the rural population, or more than half of the country's population.
Terror and repression
In the 1920s, political repression continued against the Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks, who did not renounce their beliefs. Former nobles were also subjected to repression for real and false accusations.
After the start of forced collectivization of agriculture and accelerated industrialization in the late 1920s and early 1930s, the establishment, according to some historians, of Stalin's dictatorship and the completion of the creation of an authoritarian regime in the USSR during this period, political repressions became widespread.
The repressions that continued until Stalin’s death reached particular severity during the period of the “Great Terror” of 1937-1938, also called the “Yezhovshchina.” During this period, hundreds of thousands of people were shot and sent to Gulag camps on false charges of committing political crimes.
Foreign policy of the USSR in the 1930s
After Hitler came to power, Stalin sharply changed traditional Soviet policy: if previously it was aimed at an alliance with Germany against the Versailles system, and through the Comintern - at fighting the Social Democrats as the main enemy (the theory of “social fascism” is Stalin’s personal attitude ), now it consisted of creating a system of “collective security” within the USSR and the former Entente countries against Germany and an alliance of communists with all left forces against fascism (the “popular front” tactics). As part of this position, the Soviet-French Non-Aggression Pact was concluded on November 29, 1932. This position was initially not consistent: in 1935, Stalin, alarmed by the German-Polish rapprochement, secretly proposed a non-aggression pact to Hitler, but was refused. After this, the policy of “collective security”, defended by Litvinov, turns out to have no alternative. However, at the same time, Stalin demanded that diplomats not give any specific obligations to their partners. However, France and England were afraid of the USSR and hoped to “appease” Hitler, which was manifested in the history of the “Munich Agreement” and subsequently in the failure of negotiations between the USSR and England and France on military cooperation against Germany. Immediately after Munich, in the fall of 1938, Stalin made hints towards Germany about the desirability of improving mutual relations in terms of trade. On October 1, 1938, Poland, in the form of an ultimatum, demanded that the Czech Republic transfer to it the Cieszyn region, the subject of territorial disputes between it and Czechoslovakia in the years. And in March 1939, Germany occupied the remaining part of Czechoslovakia. On March 10, 1939, Stalin made a report at the XVIII Party Congress, in which he formulated the goals of Soviet policy as follows:
"1. Continue to pursue a policy of peace and strengthening business ties with all countries.
2. ...Do not allow war provocateurs, who are accustomed to raking in the heat with the hands of others, to drag our country into conflicts.”
This was noted by the German embassy as a hint of Moscow's reluctance to act as allies of England and France. In May, Litvinov, a Jew and an ardent supporter of the “collective security” course, was removed from his post as head of the NKID and replaced by Molotov. The German leadership also regarded this as a favorable sign.
By that time, the international situation was sharply aggravating due to German claims against Poland; England and France this time showed their readiness to go to war with Germany, trying to attract the USSR to the alliance. In the summer, Mr. Stalin, supporting negotiations on an alliance with England and France, simultaneously began negotiations with Germany. As historians note, Stalin's hints towards Germany intensified as relations between Germany and Poland deteriorated and strengthened between Britain, Poland and Japan. Hence the conclusion is drawn that Stalin’s policy was not so much pro-German as anti-British and anti-Polish in nature; Stalin was categorically not satisfied with the old status quo; in his own words, he did not believe in the possibility of a complete victory for Germany and the establishment of its hegemony in Europe.
Foreign policy of the USSR in 1939-1940
On October 5, 1939, the USSR also proposed to Finland, which, also according to the secret additional protocol to the Non-Aggression Treaty between Germany and the Soviet Union, was classified in the sphere of interests of the USSR, to consider the possibility of concluding a mutual assistance pact with the USSR. Negotiations began on October 11, but Finland rejected Soviet proposals both for a pact and for the lease and exchange of territories. On November 30, 1939, the USSR began a war with Finland. This war ended on March 12, 1940 with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty, which recorded a number of territorial concessions on the part of Finland. However, the initially intended goal - the complete defeat of Finland - was not achieved, and the losses of the Soviet troops were too great in comparison with the plans, which envisaged an easy and quick victory with small forces. The prestige of the Red Army as a strong enemy was undermined. This made a strong impression on Germany in particular and pushed Hitler to the idea of attacking the USSR.
In most states, as well as in the USSR before the war, they underestimated the Finnish army, and most importantly, the power of the fortifications of the “Mannerheim Line”, and believed that it could not provide serious resistance. Therefore, the “long fuss” with Finland was perceived as an indicator of the weakness and unpreparedness of the Red Army for war.
After the start of German aggression against the USSR in the summer of 1941, the dissatisfaction of the Baltic residents with the Soviet regime became the reason for their armed attacks on Soviet troops, which contributed to the German advance towards Leningrad.
The Great Patriotic War
In 1945, under an agreement with Czechoslovakia, Transcarpathia was transferred to the USSR. Under the agreement with Poland, the Soviet-Polish border was changed and some territories (in particular, the Bialystok region) were transferred to Poland. An agreement was also concluded on the exchange of populations between Poland and the USSR: persons of Polish and Jewish nationality who were citizens of pre-war Poland and living in the USSR received the right to travel to Poland, and persons of Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Ruthenian and Lithuanian nationalities living in Poland , had to move to the USSR. As of October 31, 1946, about 518 thousand people moved from Poland to the USSR, and about 1,090,000 people from the USSR to Poland. (according to other sources, 1,526,000 people)
After the war and famine of 1946, the card system was abolished in 1947, although many goods remained in short supply, in particular, there was a famine again in 1947. In addition, on the eve of the abolition of cards, prices for ration goods were raised. This allowed in 1948-1953. repeatedly reduce prices. Price reductions somewhat improved the standard of living of Soviet people. In 1952, the cost of bread was 39% of the price at the end of 1947, milk - 72%, meat - 42%, sugar - 49%, butter - 37%. As noted at the 19th Congress of the CPSU, at the same time the price of bread increased by 28% in the USA, by 90% in England, and more than doubled in France; the cost of meat in the USA increased by 26%, in England - by 35%, in France - by 88%. If in 1948 real wages were on average 20% lower than the pre-war level, then in 1952 they already exceeded the pre-war level by 25% and almost reached the level of 1928. However, among the peasantry, real incomes even in 1952 remained at 40% below the 1928 level.
USSR in 1953-1991
Khrushchev's thaw
The starting point of the Thaw was the death of Stalin in . At the 20th Congress of the CPSU in Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev made a speech in which Stalin’s personality cult and Stalin’s repressions were criticized. In general, Khrushchev’s course was supported at the top of the party and corresponded to its interests, since previously even the most prominent party functionaries, if they fell into disgrace, could fear for their lives.
The history of the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) reflects a period of change for Russia and the world. The original ideology of the USSR was based primarily on the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Essentially, Marx's theory states that economic and political systems have undergone an inevitable evolution into a form whereby the current capitalist system will be replaced by a socialist state until international cooperation and peace are achieved in a "worker's paradise", creating a system of what Marx called "pure communism" .
Flag of the USSR (1924–1991)
The history of the USSR began after the October Revolution of 1917. In Russia, a struggle for power began between the “Reds,” as the Bolsheviks were called, and the “Whites,” representatives of the previously privileged strata of society. The Soviet government dispersed the Constituent Assembly in January 1918, and the middle strata also joined the “white” movement. The Civil War began in the country (1918-1920). The uprising of the corps of Czechs and Slovaks who were captured during the First World War further tightened the course of the war. In Siberia, Admiral Kolchak was declared the “Supreme Ruler of Russia.” The military dictatorship of Denikin was established in the south. In the north, Miller organized a military governorship. On August 30, 1918, an assassination attempt was made on V.I. Lenin.
USSR coat of arms (1956–1991) Foreign countries, opponents of the Soviet regime, intervened in Russia: Germany - in Ukraine, England and France - in Arkhangelsk, England - in the South Caucasus, the Japanese and Americans - in the Far East. The interventionists sided with the whites. After the October coup, the Soviet government adopted the “Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia.” In accordance with it, in 1917 Poland and Finland gained independence. In 1918, the Mountain Republic was formed in the North Caucasus, the republics of Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia were formed in the South Caucasus, and the Far Eastern Republic arose in the Far East in 1920.
The Bolshevik Red Army defeated Kolchak in the east in 1919, Denikin in the south, Yudenich in the north in 1920, and Wrangel in the south. The war between Soviet Russia and Poland that began in 1920 ended with the Peace of Riga in 1921. Only the Japanese remained in the Far East until 1922. During the Civil War. During the war, the Bolsheviks used “red terror” against whites. After the attempt on V.I. Lenin, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR in September 1918 issued a decree on the “Red Terror”. The execution of Nikolai I’s family on June 16, 1918 in Yekaterinburg became one of the most terrible crimes of the “Red Terror”.
During the years gr. During the war, the Bolsheviks introduced the policy of war communism. This policy was announced in 1919 and its essence was:
1) all areas of production were concentrated in the hands of the state;
2) state control over production and distribution was established;
3) labor service and food appropriation were introduced (the peasant could keep grain for food and for sowing, the rest of the harvest was forcibly surrendered to the state;
4) payment for labor was given in kind; 5) transport and utilities were free.
After completing Civil. During the war, this policy began to cause discontent. The Tambov uprising (1920), nicknamed the “small civil war,” and the Kronstadt rebellion (1921) are the most striking manifestations of disagreement with Soviet power. To overcome economic backwardness and political differences, the Soviet government used the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921. Food appropriation was replaced by a food tax. Now the peasant was the owner of all food surpluses and could sell them on the market. The most important part of the NEP was freedom of trade. Self-supporting joint ventures arose, cooperation began to develop, etc. This contributed to the development of a market economy.
At this time, a one-party system emerged. The Russian Communist Party of Bolsheviks (RCP(b)) became the only political force in the country.
Education USSR
Gradually, other Soviet republics lost their independence and on December 30, 1922, at the First Congress of Soviets, the formation of the USSR was announced on the basis of the Treaty of the RSFSR, Ukraine, Belarus and the TSFSR (Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic). In January 1924, the Second All-Union Congress of Soviets approved the first Constitution of the USSR.
In the 20s of the 20th century, the USSR set a course for building socialism, which included industrialization, collectivization and a cultural revolution.
Industrialization was started as a priority at the end of 1925. Its goal was to eliminate technical and economic backwardness and economic dependence on foreign countries, create a powerful military industry, and develop basic industries. The first (1928-1932) and second (1933-1937) five-year plans for the development of the national economy played an important role in achieving this goal. The USSR transformed from an agricultural country into an industrial country. In terms of industrial output, the Soviet Union came out on top in Europe and second in the world.
One of the tragic pages of Stalin's socialist perestroika was the collectivization of agriculture. The forced unification of small peasant farms into collective and state farms began. In fact, this policy was aimed at destroying the kulaks as a social group. Collectivization began to be carried out in the second half of 1929 and had tragic results. Thousands of people were exiled to the Urals, Siberia, and Kazakhstan. By 1937, 93% of individual peasant farms became collective farm property.
In 1932, the distribution of passports began, but many peasants were not given passports so that peasants without passports could not leave their places of residence.
As a result of the construction of socialism, public (common) property was established. The social structure of society has changed. The basis of Soviet society was made up of two classes - workers and peasants. The stratum between them was made up of the intelligentsia who emerged from the working classes.
All this was reflected in the second Constitution of the USSR, adopted in 1936 - the Constitution of the victorious socialist society. As a result of the construction of socialism, power was concentrated in the hands of the Communist Party.
Brief history of the USSR
At the beginning of the 20th century, tsarist Russia found itself on the threshold of the February Revolution. The old regime had exhausted itself, and the revolution only completed the collapse of the monarchy. Moreover, the new government, represented by the Bolsheviks, was already ready to take control and oust the old government. Bolshevism was prudently prepared by V.I. Lenin and formed the core of the Provisional Government. However, the political chaos in the country could not be overcome, so a new wave of discontent broke out, namely the October Revolution 1917 of the year.
As a result, supreme power passed to the Council of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies, and executive power to the Council of People's Commissars. Also, the Decree on Peace (cessation of the war) and the Decree on Land (transfer of landowners' lands to peasants) were signed. TO 1918 In the same year, the ideas of the Bolsheviks met fierce resistance from the White movement, as a result of which a 4-year Civil War broke out. The “white” movement lost the war, and power passed entirely to the Communist Party, which created by the end 1922 year a single state mechanism - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
Most of the Russian Empire was now called the USSR. In addition to the RSFSR, it included Ukraine, Belarus and Transcaucasia. Before 1925 years, state power was regulated by the Communist Party of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). Subsequently, the party was called the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and the CPSU. The most important active body of the Central Committee was the Politburo. Its members included such people as Lenin, Stalin, Trotsky, Zinoviev. After the death of V.I. Lenin, power passed to I.V. Stalin, who by that time was already the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Party and remained in this position until 1953 of the year.
During 1920s gg. The Soviet state implemented the NEP policy, that is, it made the country's economy multi-structured. IN 1924 Lenin died and the internal political struggle began. At the end 1925 The industrialization of the country began, requiring large funds and new equipment. The main goal was to develop agriculture to the highest level. Out of necessity, basic branches of heavy industry were also created. During 1930s gg. general collectivization took place, i.e., the unification of peasant farms into collective farms. TO 1939 year, unstable relations between the powers led to insoluble conflicts.
In June 1941 The Great Patriotic War began as an integral and important part of the Second World War. The war ended with the victory of Soviet troops in May 1945 year and the annexation of new territories to the USSR, including Tuva, South Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, and Transcarpathia. The post-war period was marked by the Cold War with the West. It took years for the economy to recover. IN 1953 year I.V. Stalin died. Power temporarily passed to his comrade-in-arms G.M. Malenkov, and with 1958 year to N.S. Khrushchev. The reign of this chairman is called the Khrushchev Thaw, as the USSR aimed at rapprochement with the capitalist world.
WITH 1964 By 1982 gg. The period of stagnation began. Khrushchev was replaced in office by Leonid Brezhnev. At first there was an attempt to carry out economic reforms, but over time there was stagnation. According to some reports, this General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee had more than 100 state awards. During his reign, the so-called détente of international tension emerged. After Brezhnev's death there were two more general secretaries - Andropov and Chernenko. IN 1985 year, M. S. Gorbachev was appointed general secretary, and a few years later the first president of the USSR. During his reign, the process of perestroika began, and at the same time the collapse of the Soviet Union. At the end 1991 The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was formed.
Prerequisites for the formation of the USSR
Before the young state, torn apart by the consequences of the civil war, the problem of creating a unified administrative-territorial system became acute. At that time, the RSFSR accounted for 92% of the country's area, whose population later accounted for 70% of the newly formed USSR. The remaining 8% was shared among the Soviet republics: Ukraine, Belarus and the Transcaucasian Federation, which united Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia in 1922. Also in the east of the country, the Far Eastern Republic was created, which was administered from Chita. Central Asia at that time consisted of two people's republics - Khorezm and Bukhara.
In order to strengthen the centralization of control and concentration of resources on the fronts of the civil war, the RSFSR, Belarus and Ukraine united into an alliance in June 1919. This made it possible to unite the armed forces, with the introduction of a centralized command (the Revolutionary Military Council of the RSFSR and the Commander-in-Chief of the Red Army). Representatives from each republic were delegated to government bodies. The agreement also provided for the reassignment of some republican branches of industry, transport and finance to the corresponding People's Commissariats of the RSFSR. This new state formation went down in history under the name “contractual federation.” Its peculiarity was that Russian governing bodies were given the opportunity to function as the only representatives of the supreme power of the state. At the same time, the communist parties of the republics became part of the RCP (b) only as regional party organizations.
The emergence and escalation of confrontation.
All this soon led to disagreements between the republics and the control center in Moscow. After all, having delegated their main powers, the republics lost the opportunity to make decisions independently. At the same time, the independence of the republics in the sphere of governance was officially declared.
Uncertainty in defining the boundaries of the powers of the center and the republics contributed to the emergence of conflicts and confusion. Sometimes state authorities looked ridiculous, trying to bring to a common denominator nationalities whose traditions and culture they knew nothing about. For example, the need for the existence of a subject on the study of the Koran in the schools of Turkestan gave rise in October 1922 to an acute confrontation between the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the People's Commissariat for Nationalities Affairs.
Creation of a commission on relations between the RSFSR and independent republics.
The decisions of the central bodies in the economic sphere did not find proper understanding among the republican authorities and often led to sabotage. In August 1922, in order to radically change the current situation, the Politburo and the Organizing Bureau of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) considered the issue “On the relationship between the RSFSR and the independent republics”, creating a commission that included republican representatives. V.V. Kuibyshev was appointed chairman of the commission.
The commission instructed I.V. Stalin to develop a project for the “autonomization” of the republics. The presented decision proposed to include Ukraine, Belarus, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia in the RSFSR, with the rights of republican autonomy. The draft was sent to the Republican Central Committee of the party for consideration. However, this was done only to obtain formal approval of the decision. Considering the significant infringements on the rights of the republics provided for by this decision, J.V. Stalin insisted on not using the usual practice of publishing the decision of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) if it was adopted. But he demanded that the Republican Central Committees of parties be obliged to strictly implement it.
Creation by V.I. Lenin of the concept of a state based on the Federation.
Ignoring the independence and self-government of the country's constituent entities, while simultaneously tightening the role of the central authorities, was perceived by Lenin as a violation of the principle of proletarian internationalism. In September 1922, he proposed the idea of creating a state on the principles of a federation. Initially, the name was proposed - the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia, but was later changed to the USSR. Joining the union was supposed to be a conscious choice of each sovereign republic, based on the principle of equality and independence, with the general authorities of the federation. V.I. Lenin believed that a multinational state must be built based on the principles of good neighborliness, parity, openness, respect and mutual assistance.
"Georgian conflict". Strengthening separatism.
At the same time, in some republics there is a shift towards the isolation of autonomies, and separatist sentiments intensify. For example, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia flatly refused to remain part of the Transcaucasian Federation, demanding that the republic be accepted into the union as an independent entity. Fierce polemics on this issue between representatives of the Central Committee of the Georgian Party and the Chairman of the Transcaucasian Regional Committee G.K. Ordzhonikidze ended in mutual insults and even assault on the part of Ordzhonikidze. The result of the policy of strict centralization on the part of the central authorities was the voluntary resignation of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia in its entirety.
To investigate this conflict, a commission was created in Moscow, the chairman of which was F. E. Dzerzhinsky. The commission took the side of G.K. Ordzhonikidze and severely criticized the Central Committee of Georgia. This fact outraged V.I. Lenin. He repeatedly tried to condemn the perpetrators of the clash in order to exclude the possibility of infringement on the independence of the republics. However, progressive illness and civil strife in the Central Committee of the country's party did not allow him to complete the job.
Year of formation of the USSR
Officially date of formation of the USSR– this is December 30, 1922. On this day, at the first Congress of Soviets, the Declaration on the Creation of the USSR and the Union Treaty were signed. The Union included the RSFSR, the Ukrainian and Belarusian socialist republics, as well as the Transcaucasian Federation. The Declaration formulated the reasons and defined the principles for the unification of the republics. The agreement delimited the functions of republican and central government bodies. The state bodies of the Union were entrusted with foreign policy and trade, routes of communication, communications, as well as issues of organizing and controlling finance and defense.
Everything else belonged to the sphere of government of the republics.
The All-Union Congress of Soviets was proclaimed the highest body of the state. In the period between congresses, the leading role was assigned to the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, organized on the principle of bicameralism - the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities. M.I. Kalinin was elected chairman of the Central Election Commission, co-chairmen were G.I. Petrovsky, N.N. Narimanov, A.G. Chervyakov. The Government of the Union (Council of People's Commissars of the USSR) was headed by V.I. Lenin.
Financial and economic development
The unification of the republics into the Union made it possible to accumulate and direct all resources to eliminate the consequences of the civil war. This contributed to the development of the economy, cultural relations and made it possible to begin to get rid of distortions in the development of individual republics. A characteristic feature of the formation of a nationally oriented state was the government’s efforts in matters of the harmonious development of the republics. It was for this purpose that some industries were moved from the territory of the RSFSR to the republics of Central Asia and Transcaucasia, providing them with highly qualified labor resources. Funding was provided for work to provide the regions with communications, electricity, and water resources for irrigation in agriculture. The budgets of the remaining republics received subsidies from the state.
Social and cultural significance
The principle of building a multinational state based on uniform standards had a positive impact on the development of such spheres of life in the republics as culture, education and healthcare. In the 20-30s, schools were built throughout the republics, theaters were opened, and the media and literature were developed. Scientists have developed writing for some peoples. In healthcare, the emphasis is on developing a system of medical institutions. For example, if in 1917 there were 12 clinics and only 32 doctors in the entire North Caucasus, then in 1939 there were 335 doctors in Dagestan alone. Moreover, 14% of them were from the original nationality.
Reasons for the formation of the USSR
It happened not only thanks to the initiative of the leadership of the Communist Party. Over the course of many centuries, the prerequisites for the unification of peoples into a single state were formed. The harmony of the unification has deep historical, economic, military-political and cultural roots. The former Russian Empire united 185 nationalities and nationalities. They all went through a common historical path. During this time, a system of economic and economic ties was formed. They defended their freedom and absorbed the best of each other's cultural heritage. And, naturally, they did not feel hostility towards each other.
It is worth considering that at that time the entire territory of the country was surrounded by hostile states. This also had no less influence on the unification of peoples.
Talking briefly about the history of the USSR, we must first consider what reasons led to the formation of the Soviet Union, and under what conditions this happened.
During February Revolution and the uprising of 1917, the last Emperor of Russia, Nicholas II, first abdicated the throne, and then he and his family were shot. The Russian Empire ceased to exist and turned into many formally sovereign entities. Started then Civil War made the situation even worse.
Other countries did not fail to take advantage of the catastrophic situation of the former great empire. Under the pretext of helping the white movement in the fight against the Red Army, Russian intervention began with British, French, Japanese and American troops. Attempts to seize Russian territory were made by Germany and Türkiye.
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History of Education of the USSR - briefly aboutmyself important
Units of the Red Army, fighting on several fronts, already during the Civil War began to restore the integrity of the territory of the former Russian Empire. Several republics were created: the RSFSR, Ukraine, Belarus and the ZSFSR. The largest of them was the RSFSR, which occupied more than 90% of the entire territory. It was founded in 1918. In all four republics, power belonged to the Bolshevik Party, so there was no need to specifically negotiate an alliance against a common enemy. In 1922, the Treaty on the Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was signed between them. Briefly speaking, in the first version the state consisted of only a few republics. The rest joined the union later and in different ways. Many republics already had connections and agreements with others. For example, the RSFSR included the Khorezm and Bukhara people's republics. Later they were disbanded and new republics were formed in Central Asia.
Also, the Transcaucasian Federation of Republics was later disbanded. From its composition, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia received the status of separate autonomous entities.
Despite the common Bolshevik leadership of the republics, by 1922 disagreements had emerged in the process of forming the USSR. In short, they were connected with the amount of independence that they wanted 
give Lenin and Stalin. They had completely different points of view on this issue. Vladimir Ilyich wanted the republics to have the opportunity to secede from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics at any time. Stalin was categorically against this and agreed only to grant the republics autonomy.
Representatives of Georgia, which from the very beginning wanted to join the USSR only as a republic and not as an autonomy, were harshly criticized by Stalin.
The most difficult part of the creation of new republics of the USSR occurred in Central Asia. The final version of the Soviet state, which included 15 union republics, was formed in 1936.
Territory and population
The USSR, in short, was the largest state existing in the world. Consisted of a European and an Asian part. The first was more densely populated, while the Asian part had a much smaller population. The huge territory allowed it to accommodate five climatic zones. The population was approximately 280 million people. The most numerous nationalities were Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.
Having the longest border in the world, the Soviet Union bordered many countries.
The history of the USSR is a time of the formation of a new state, a difficult war, the restoration of a destroyed economy, as well as the development of science and culture, man's conquest of space and other great discoveries.
Development of the republics
The newly created republics were economically less developed than the RSFSR. This was especially true for the republics of Central Asia, where there was no infrastructure other than a traditional economy. Therefore, all conditions for development were created for them: plants and factories, roads, and social facilities were built. This was often done to the detriment of the residents of the RSFSR. While it created the most agricultural machinery, generated the most electricity, produced the most products, it received less as a result than others. 
At the same time, the standard of living of the Russian population who lived in the Union republics was higher than that of the population of the RSFSR. This happened because the capitals of the union republics, more than 50% of which were Russian population, were provided with high Moscow standards.
Politics of the USSR
From its very formation, the USSR was practically not recognized by the former allies of the Russian Empire - the Entente countries. They turned out to regard the Soviet Union as the successor to the empire and refused to recognize its legitimate existence. At first, recognition of itself as a state in the international arena was the main task of Soviet diplomacy.
Thanks to its favorable geopolitical location, as well as economic ties with European countries, by 1925 the USSR managed to gain recognition from most countries of the world. Although leading countries continued to view the Soviet Union primarily not as a full partner, but as a potential enemy. These countries had to become an ally of the USSR only with the beginning of World War II.
In 1991, as a result of many reasons, both economic and political, the USSR was liquidated after many union republics left it.