Chapter 1
Troekurov is a rich landowner, Dubrovsky lives next door to him, they were good friends. At one of Troekurov’s dinners, Dubrovsky learns that their family’s forest is being stolen (everything that grows there). After this situation, Dubrovsky orders the thieves to be whipped and the horses taken away. Having learned about this, Troekurov focuses on revenge, conspiring with assessor Shabashkin.
Chapter 2. The beginning of the trial where Dudrovsky was unable to defend his rights. A certain Spitsyn assures that Dubrovsky’s estates are illegal and Troekurov signs papers that confirm his right to the Dubrovskys’ estate, Dubrovsky is offered to sign the same document, but he falls into shock and is taken home.
Chapter 3. After everything, Dubrovsky is very bad, the nanny sends a letter to his son, he immediately goes to his father.
Chapter 4. The old master’s illness did not allow him to talk about the seriousness of the matter. In the meantime, the deadline for filing an appeal expires and Kistenevka passes into the hands of Troekurov. In turn, Troekurov is not happy about such a victory; his conscience torments him. Troekurov decides to take a step toward peace, but Dubrovsky kicks him out, not wanting to listen. Due to nerves, Dubrovsky dies.
Chapter 5. After the funeral, the officials of the shabashnik go to Kistenevka to prepare the possessions for transfer to Troekurov. But the peasants rebel and build various obstacles for them. Vladimir D. finds an approach to them and calms their anxiety. He allows officials to stay overnight in the house.
Chapter 6. At night, the Dubrovsky house is set on fire on Vladimir’s instructions.
Chapter 7. Case investigation. fire.
Chapter 8. The story about Mashenka Troekurova
Chapter 9. Description of the temple holiday that Troekurov holds in his estate. During the feast, there is a discussion about the robbers of V. Dubrovsky, some claim that he robs selectively. Troekurov declares that he is not afraid of the gang and will be able to cope with it if necessary.
Chapter 10. Spitsyn is not so sure of the harmlessness of the robbers and asks the Frenchman Deforge to stay with him for the night. The turn of events is unusual, it turns out that Deforge is in league with Dubrovsky, they take away Spitsyn’s money and threaten him to keep silent.
Chapter 11. In this chapter. Pushkin talks about Dubrovsky’s acquaintance with Deforge. He quickly became loved by everyone in the house. (Dubrovsky is a Frenchman).
Chapter 12. Dubrovsky’s date with Masha. The Frenchman suspects that this is Dubrovsky. Chapter 13. Arrival of Prince Vereisky. Troekurov's daughter is very attractive to him and he tries in every possible way to look after the girl.
Chapter 14. Through definition. Vereisky proposes to Mashenka. Troekurov accepts his proposal and prepares everything for the wedding. On the same day, Masha receives a letter from Dubrovsky, in which he asks her to come on a date with him.
Chapter 15. Masha agrees to Dubrovsky’s proposal. Dubrovsky offers her his help, but she stops him, hoping to convince her father about marriage. Dubrovsky puts a ring on her finger and asks if he can. the danger of putting the ring in a hollow oak tree (it was there that they exchanged information with each other)
Chapter 16. Masha decides to write. There is a letter to Vereisky telling him to refuse to marry her, but he gives the letter to her father. The Troekurovs are rushing the wedding, and Masha is locked up.
Chapter 17. Masha asks Sasha to put the ring in the hollow of the oak tree to give a sign to Dubrovsky. It is impossible to put down the ring, as a noise arises, during which the correspondence of the lovers is discovered.
Chapter 18. Masha is dressed in wedding clothes. outfit and delivered to the church. She is married to Vereisky. On the way back, Dubrovsky, at the head of his robbers, attacks the crew. During the shootout, Vereisky wounds Dubrovsky. As a result, Masha refuses salvation, citing the fact that she has already gotten married.
Chapter 19. The battles begin. All forces are directed against the robbers. Dubrovsky understands that his people are doomed to death and therefore disbands the gang, and he goes into the forest. Nobody saw him again.

Introduction

little man ostrovsky literature

The concept of “little man” was introduced by Belinsky (1840 article “Woe from Wit”).

"Little Man" - who is this? This concept refers to the literary hero of the era of realism, who usually occupies a fairly low place in the social hierarchy. A "little man" could be anyone from a minor official to a tradesman or even a poor nobleman. The more democratic literature became, the more relevant the “little man” became.

Appealing to the image of the “little man” was very important even at that time. More than that, this image was relevant because its task is to show the life of a simple person with all his problems, experiences, failures, troubles and even small joys. It is very hard work to explain, to show the life of ordinary people. To convey to the reader all the subtleties of his life, all the depths of his soul. This is difficult, because the “little man” is a representative of the entire people.

This topic is still relevant today, because even in our time there are people who have such a shallow soul behind which you cannot hide either deception or a mask. It is these people who can be called “little people.” And there are simply people who are small only in their status, but are great, showing us their pure soul, unspoiled by wealth and prosperity, who know how to rejoice, love, suffer, worry, dream, simply live and be happy. These are small birds in the endless sky, but they are big-hearted people.

The history of the image of the “little man” in world literature and its writers

Many writers raise the theme of the “little man.” And each of them does it in his own way. Some present him accurately and clearly, while others hide his inner world so that readers can think about his worldview and somewhere in depth, compare with your own. Ask yourself the question: Who am I? Am I a small person?

The first image of a little man was Samson Vyrin from the story “The Station Warden” by A.S. Pushkin. Pushkin, in the early stages of his work, as one of the first classics to describe the image of the “little man,” tried to show the high spirituality of the characters. Pushkin also considers the eternal relationship between the “little man” and unlimited power - “Arap of Peter the Great”, “Poltava”.

Pushkin was characterized by a deep penetration into the character of each hero - the “little man”.

The evolution of the little man in Pushkin himself is explained by constant social changes and the variability of life itself. Each era has its own “little man”.

But, since the beginning of the 20th century, the image of the “little man” in Russian literature has disappeared, giving way to other heroes.

Gogol continues the traditions of Pushkin in the story “The Overcoat”. A “little man” is a person of low social status and origin, without any abilities, not distinguished by strength of character, but at the same time kind, harmless and does no harm to the people around him. Both Pushkin and Gogol, creating the image of a little man, wanted to remind readers that the most ordinary person is also a person worthy of sympathy, attention and support.

The hero of “The Overcoat” Akaki Akakievich is an official of the lowest class - a person who is constantly made fun of and mocked. He was so accustomed to his humiliated position that even his speech became defective - he could not fully finish his sentences. And this made him humiliated in front of everyone else, even his equals in class. Akaki Akakievich cannot even defend himself in front of people equal to him, despite opposing the state (as Evgeniy tried to do).

It was in this way that Gogol showed the circumstances that make people “small”!

Another writer who touched on the theme of the “little man” was F.M. Dostoevsky. He shows the “little man” as a personality more deeply than Pushkin and Gogol, but it was Dostoevsky who writes: we all came out of Gogol’s “The Overcoat.”

His main goal was to convey all the internal movements of his hero. He feels to experience everything with him, and concludes that “little people” are individuals, and their personal sense is valued much more than that of people with a position in society. Dostoevsky’s “little man” is vulnerable; one of the values ​​of his life is that others can see in him a spiritually rich personality. And your own self-awareness plays a huge role.

In the work “Poor People” by F.M. Dostoevsky's main character, copyist Makar Devushkin, is also a minor official. He was also bullied at work, but he is a completely different person by nature. The ego is concerned with problems of human dignity, he reflects on his position in society. Makar, having read “The Overcoat,” was outraged that Gogol portrayed the official as an insignificant person, because he recognized himself in Akaki Akakievich. He differed from Akaki Akakievich in that he was capable of deeply loving and feeling, which means he was not insignificant. He is a person, although low in his position.

Dostoevsky strove for his character to realize that he was a person, a personality.

Makar is a person who knows how to empathize, feel, think and reason, and according to Dostoevsky, these are the best qualities of a “little man”.

F.M. Dostoevsky becomes the author of one of the leading themes - the theme of “humiliated and insulted”, “poor people”. Dostoevsky emphasizes that every person, no matter who he is, no matter how low he stands, always has the right to compassion and sympathy.

For a poor person, the basis in life is honor and respect, but for the heroes of the novel “Poor People” this is almost impossible to achieve: “And everyone knows, Varenka, that a poor person is worse than a rag and cannot receive any respect from anyone, so what?” do not write".

According to Dostoevsky, the “little man” himself is aware of himself as “small”: “I’m used to it, because I get used to everything, because I’m a humble person, because I’m a small person; but, however, what is this all for?...” “Little Man” is a so-called microworld, and in this world there are many protests, attempts to escape from a difficult situation. This world is rich in positive qualities and bright feelings, but it is subject to humiliation and oppression. The “little man” is thrown out onto the street by life itself. “Little people” according to Dostoevsky are small only in social status, and their inner world is rich and kind.

The main feature of Dostoevsky is his love of humanity, paying attention to the nature of a person, his soul, and not to the person’s position on the social ladder. It is the soul that is the main quality by which a person must be judged.

F.M. Dostoevsky wanted a better life for the poor, defenseless, “humiliated and insulted,” “little man.” But at the same time, pure, noble, kind, selfless, sincere, honest, thinking, sensitive, spiritually exalted and trying to protest against injustice.

"Small man"- a type of literary hero that arose in Russian literature with the advent of realism, that is, in the 20-30s of the 19th century.

The theme of the “little man” is one of the cross-cutting themes of Russian literature, to which writers of the 19th century constantly turned. It was first touched upon by A.S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Warden.” This theme was continued by N.V. Gogol, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov and many others.

This person is small precisely in social terms, since he occupies one of the lower steps of the hierarchical ladder. His place in society is small or completely unnoticeable. A person is considered “small” also because the world of his spiritual life and aspirations is also extremely narrow, impoverished, filled with all kinds of prohibitions. For him there are no historical and philosophical problems.

He remains in a narrow and closed circle of his life interests.

The best humanistic traditions are associated with the theme of the “little man” in Russian literature. Writers invite people to think about the fact that every person has the right to happiness, to their own view of life.

Examples of “little people”: 1) Yes, Gogol in the story “The Overcoat” characterizes the main character as a poor, ordinary, insignificant and unnoticed person. In life, he was assigned an insignificant role as a copyist of departmental documents. Brought up in the field of subordination and execution of orders from superiors, Akaki Akakievich Bashmachkin

I’m not used to thinking about the meaning of my work. That is why, when he is offered a task that requires the manifestation of elementary intelligence, he begins to worry, worry and ultimately comes to the conclusion: “No, it’s better to let me rewrite something.”

Bashmachkin's spiritual life is in tune with his inner aspirations. Accumulating money to buy a new overcoat becomes the goal and meaning of life for him. The theft of a long-awaited new thing, which was acquired through hardship and suffering, becomes a disaster for him. And yet Akaki Akakievich does not look like an empty, uninteresting person in the reader’s mind. We imagine that there were a great many such small, humiliated people. Gogol called on society to look at them with understanding and pity. This is indirectly demonstrated by the name of the main character: diminutive

suffix -chk- (Bashmachkin) gives it the appropriate shade. “Mother, save your poor son!” - the author will write. Calling for justice the author raises the question of the need to punish the inhumanity of society. we see the slave soul of an official whose understanding of the world is completely distorted. There is no need to talk about human dignity here. The author gives his hero a wonderful surname: Chervyakov. Describing the small, insignificant events of his life, Chekhov seems to look at the world through the eyes of a worm, and these events become huge. So, Chervyakov was at the performance and “felt at the height of bliss. But suddenly... he sneezed.” Looking around like a “polite man,” the hero discovered with horror that he had sprayed a civilian general. Chervyakov begins to apologize, but this seemed not enough to him, and the hero asks for forgiveness again and again, day after day... There are a lot of such small officials who know only their own little world and it is not surprising that their experiences consist of such small situations. The author conveys the entire essence of the official’s soul, as if examining it under a microscope. Unable to bear the scream in response to the apology, Chervyakov goes home and dies. This terrible catastrophe of his life is the catastrophe of his limitations. 3) In addition to these writers, Dostoevsky also addressed the theme of the “little man” in his work. The main characters of the novel “Poor People” - Makar Devushkin- a semi-impoverished official, oppressed by grief, poverty and social lack of rights, and Varenka– a girl who became a victim of social disadvantage. Like Gogol in The Overcoat, Dostoevsky turned to the theme of the powerless, immensely humiliated “little man” living his inner life in conditions that violate human dignity. The author sympathizes with his poor heroes, shows the beauty of their soul. 4) Theme "poor people" develops by the writer and in the novel "Crime and Punishment". One after another, the writer reveals to us pictures of terrible poverty that degrades human dignity. The setting of the work is St. Petersburg, and the poorest district of the city. Dostoevsky creates a canvas of immeasurable human torment, suffering and grief, keenly peers into the soul of the “little man”, discovers in him deposits of enormous spiritual wealth. Family life unfolds before us Marmeladovs. These are people crushed by reality. The official Marmeladov, who has “nowhere else to go,” drinks himself to death out of grief and loses his human appearance. Exhausted by poverty, his wife Ekaterina Ivanovna dies of consumption. Sonya is released onto the streets to sell her body in order to save her family from starvation. The fate of the Raskolnikov family is also difficult. His sister Dunya, wanting to help her brother, is ready to sacrifice herself and marry the rich Luzhin, whom she feels disgusted with. Raskolnikov himself conceives a crime, the roots of which, in part, lie in the sphere of social relations in society. The images of “little people” created by Dostoevsky are imbued with the spirit of protest against social injustice, against the humiliation of man and faith in his high calling. The souls of the “poor” can be beautiful, full of spiritual generosity and beauty, but broken by the most difficult living conditions.

Russian world in prose of the 19th century.

By lectures:

Depiction of reality in Russian literature of the 19th century.

Scenery. Functions and types.

Interior: problem of detailing.

Depiction of time in literary text.

The road motif as a form of artistic development of the national picture of the world.

Scenery - not necessarily an image of nature; in literature it can involve a description of any open space. This definition corresponds to the semantics of the term. From French - country, locality. In French art theory, landscape description includes both the image of wild nature and the image of objects created by man.

The well-known typology of landscapes is based on the specific functioning of this text component.

Firstly, the landscapes that form the background of the story stand out. These landscapes usually indicate the place and time against which the events depicted take place.

Second type of landscape- landscape creating a lyrical background. Most often, when creating such a landscape, the artist pays attention to meteorological conditions, because this landscape should first of all influence the emotional state of the reader.

Third type- a landscape that creates/becomes the psychological background of existence and becomes one of the means of revealing the psychology of the character.

Fourth type- a landscape that becomes a symbolic background, a means of symbolically reflecting the reality depicted in an artistic text.

Landscape can be used as a means of depicting a special artistic time or as a form of the author’s presence.

This typology is not the only one. The landscape can be expositional, dual, etc. Modern critics isolate Goncharov’s landscapes; It is believed that Goncharov used the landscape for an ideal idea of ​​the world. For a person who writes, the evolution of the landscape skills of Russian writers is fundamentally important. There are two main periods:

Dopushkinsky, during this period landscapes were characterized by the completeness and concreteness of the surrounding nature;

In the post-Pushkin period, the idea of ​​the ideal landscape changed.

It assumes a parsimony of details, economy of image and precision in the selection of parts. Accuracy, according to Pushkin, involves identifying the most significant feature perceived in a certain way of feelings. This Pushkin idea will later be used by Bunin. Second level. Interior

- image of the interior. The main unit of an interior image is a detail (detail), attention to which was first demonstrated by Pushkin. Literary tests of the 19th century did not demonstrate a clear boundary between interior and landscape.

Time in a literary text in the 19th century becomes discrete and intermittent. The characters easily retreat into memories and their fantasies rush into the future. A selectivity of attitude towards time appears, which is explained by dynamics. Time in a literary text in the 19th century is conventional. Time in a lyrical work is as conventional as possible, with the predominance of present tense grammar; lyricism is especially characterized by the interaction of different time layers. Artistic time is not necessarily concrete; it is abstract. In the 19th century, the depiction of historical color became a special means of concretizing artistic time.

One of the most effective means of depicting reality in the 19th century was the road motif, which became part of the plot formula, a narrative unit. Initially, this motif dominated the travel genre. In the 11th-18th centuries, in the travel genre, the road motif was used primarily to expand ideas about the surrounding space (cognitive function). In sentimentalist prose, the cognitive function of this motive is complicated by evaluativeness. Gogol uses travel to explore the surrounding space. The update of the functions of the road motif is associated with the name of Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov. "Silence" 1858

The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin. But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” in 1920. And his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin’s “The Bronze Horseman” (1833), “The Bakhchisarai Fountain”, and “The Gypsies” ushered in the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A.S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem “Mtsyri” is well known. the poetic story “The Demon”, many romantic poems.Interestingly, Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely related with the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets called on the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin “The Prophet”, ode “Liberty”, “Poet and the Crowd”, poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “On the Death of a Poet” and many others. Prose writers at the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, the translations of which were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates story "The Captain's Daughter" where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin produced a colossal work,. This work was largely political in nature and was aimed at those in power. A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main art types , which would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of “superfluous man”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called “little man” type, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Agent”. Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In a prose poem N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" the writer, in a sharp satirical manner, shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices(the influence of classicism is evident). The comedy is based on the same plan "Inspector". The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol “The Nose”, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Gentlemen Golovlevs”, “The History of a City”. Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis is brewing in the serf system, and there are strong contradictions between the authorities and the common people. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the paths of historical development of Russia. Writers appeal The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism. people. The literary process of the late 19th century revealed the names of N.S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved himself to be a master of the small literary genre - the story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.

The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments.

The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the distinctive features of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.

7. Literary situation at the end of the 19th century. Realism The 2nd half of the 19th century is characterized by the undivided dominance of the realistic trend in Russian literature. Basis

realism as an artistic method is socio-historical and psychological determinism. The personality and fate of the person depicted appears as the result of the interaction of his character (or, more deeply, universal human nature) with the circumstances and laws of social life (or, more broadly, history, culture - as can be observed in the works of A.S. Pushkin). Realism of the 2nd half of the 19th century. often call critical, or socially accusatory. realism, about its non-delimitation from the romantic direction. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. the realism of Russian literature not only opposes, but also interacts in its own way with the emerging symbolism. The realism of Russian classics is universal, it is not limited to the reproduction of empirical reality, it includes universal human content, a “mysterious plan”, which brings realists closer to the quests of romantics and symbolists.

Socially accusatory pathos in its pure form appears most in the works of second-line writers - F.M. Reshetnikova, V.A. Sleptsova, G.I. Uspensky; even N.A. Nekrasov and M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, despite their closeness to the aesthetics of revolutionary democracy, are not limited in their creativity posing purely social, topical issues. Nevertheless, a critical orientation towards any form of social and spiritual enslavement of a person unites all realist writers of the 2nd half of the 19th century.

The 19th century revealed the basic aesthetic principles and typological properties of realism. In Russian literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century. Conditionally, several directions within the framework of realism can be distinguished.

1. The work of realist writers who strive for the artistic recreation of life in the “forms of life itself.” The image often acquires such a degree of authenticity that literary heroes are spoken of as living people. I.S. belong to this direction. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, partly N.A. Nekrasov, A.N. Ostrovsky, partly L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov.

2. The 60s and 70s are bright the philosophical-religious, ethical-psychological direction in Russian literature is outlined(L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky). Dostoevsky and Tolstoy have stunning pictures of social reality, depicted in the “forms of life itself.” But at the same time, writers always start from certain religious and philosophical doctrines.

3. Satirical, grotesque realism(in the 1st half of the 19th century it was partly represented in the works of N.V. Gogol, in the 60-70s it unfolded with all its might in the prose of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin). The grotesque does not act as hyperbole or fantasy, it characterizes the writer’s method; it combines in images, types, plots what is unnatural and absent in life, but is possible in the world created by the artist’s creative imagination; similar grotesque, hyperbolic images emphasize certain patterns that dominate life.

4. Completely unique realism, “heartened” (Belinsky’s word) with humanistic thought, represented in creativity A.I. Herzen. Belinsky noted the “Voltairean” nature of his talent: “the talent went into the mind,” which turns out to be a generator of images, details, plots, and personal biographies.

Along with the dominant realistic trend in Russian literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century. The direction of so-called “pure art” also developed - it is both romantic and realistic. Its representatives avoided “damned questions” (What to do? Who is to blame?), but not real reality, by which they meant the world of nature and the subjective feelings of man, the life of his heart. They were excited by the beauty of existence itself, the fate of the world. A.A. Fet and F.I. Tyutchev can be directly comparable to I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky. The poetry of Fet and Tyutchev had a direct influence on Tolstoy’s work during the Anna Karenina era. It is no coincidence that Nekrasov revealed F.I. Tyutchev to the Russian public as a great poet in 1850.

Problematics and poetics

Russian prose, with all the flourishing of poetry and drama (A.N. Ostrovsky), occupies a central place in the literary process of the 2nd half of the 19th century. It develops in line with the realistic direction, preparing, in the diversity of genre quests of Russian writers, an artistic synthesis - the novel, the pinnacle of world literary development of the 19th century.

Search for new artistic techniques images of man in his connections with the world appeared not only in the genres story, story or novel (I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.F. Pisemsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, D. Grigorovich). The quest for an accurate recreation of life in the literature of the late 40-50s begins to look for a way out memoir-autobiographical genres, with their focus on documentary. At this time they begin to work on creating their autobiographical books A.I. Herzen and S.T. Aksakov; The trilogy partly adheres to this genre tradition L.N. Tolstoy (“Childhood”, “Adolescence”, “Youth”).

Another documentary genre goes back to the aesthetics of the “natural school”, this is feature article. In its purest form it is presented in the works of democratic writers N.V. Uspensky, V.A. Sleptsova, A.I. Levitova, N.G. Pomyalovsky (“Essays on the Bursa”); in revised and largely transformed - in Turgenev's "Notes of a Hunter" and Saltykov-Shchedrin's "Provincial Sketches", Dostoevsky's "Notes from the House of the Dead". Here there is a complex interpenetration of artistic and documentary elements, fundamentally new forms of narrative prose are created, combining the features of a novel , essays, autobiographical notes.

The desire for epicness is a characteristic feature of the Russian literary process of the 1860s; it captures both poetry (N. Nekrasov) and drama (A.N. Ostrovsky).

The epic picture of the world is felt as a deep subtext in the novels I.A. Goncharova(1812-1891) “Oblomov” and “Breakthrough”. Thus, in the novel “Oblomov” the depiction of typical character traits and way of life subtly turns into an image of the universal content of life, its eternal states, collisions, situations. Showing the destructiveness of “all-Russian stagnation”, that , which has firmly entered the Russian public consciousness under the name “Oblomovism,” Goncharov contrasts it with the preaching of action (the image of the Russian German Andrei Stoltz) - and at the same time shows the limitations of this preaching. Oblomov's inertia appears in unity with true humanity. The composition of “Oblomovism” also includes the poetry of a noble estate, the generosity of Russian hospitality, the touching nature of Russian holidays, the beauty of Central Russian nature - Goncharov traces the primordial connection of noble culture, noble consciousness with the people's soil. The very inertia of Oblomov’s existence is rooted in the depths of centuries, in the distant recesses of our national memory. Ilya Oblomov is in some ways akin to Ilya Muromets, who spent 30 years sitting on the stove, or the fabulous simpleton Emelya, who achieved his goals without applying his own efforts - “at the behest of a pike, according to my desire.” “Oblomovshchina” is a phenomenon of not just noble, but Russian national culture, and as such it is not idealized by Goncharov at all - the artist explores both its strong and weak features. In the same way, strong and weak features are revealed by purely European pragmatism, opposed to Russian Oblomovism. The novel reveals on a philosophical level the inferiority, insufficiency of both opposites and the impossibility of their harmonious union.

The literature of the 1870s is dominated by the same prose genres as in the literature of the previous century, but new trends appear in them. Epic tendencies in narrative literature are weakening, and there is an outflow of literary forces from the novel to small genres - stories, essays, short stories. Dissatisfaction with the traditional novel was a characteristic phenomenon in literature and criticism in the 1870s. It would be wrong, however, to consider that the genre of the novel entered a period of crisis during these years. The works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Saltykov-Shchedrin serve as an eloquent refutation of this opinion. However, in the 70s the novel experienced an internal restructuring: the tragic beginning sharply intensified; this trend is associated with a keen interest in the spiritual problems of the individual and its internal conflicts. Novelists pay special attention to the individual who has reached his full development, but is faced with the fundamental problems of existence, deprived of support, experiencing a deep discord with people and himself (“Anna Karenina” by L. Tolstoy, “Demons” and “The Brothers Karamazov” by Dostoevsky ).

In the short prose of the 1870s, a craving for allegorical and parable forms is revealed. Particularly indicative in this regard is the prose of N.S. Leskov, whose creativity flourished precisely in this decade. He acted as an innovative artist who combined into a single whole the principles of realistic writing with the conventions of traditional folk poetic techniques, with an appeal to the style and genres of ancient Russian books. Leskov’s skill was compared to icon painting and ancient architecture, the writer was called an “isographer” - and not without reason. Gorky called the gallery of original folk types painted by Leskov “the iconostasis of the righteous and saints” of Russia. Leskov introduced into the sphere of artistic representation such layers of folk life that before him were almost not touched upon in Russian literature (the life of the clergy, the philistinism, the Old Believers and other layers of the Russian province). In depicting various social strata, Leskov masterfully used skaz forms, intricately mixing the author’s and folk points of view.

The literary movement of the 1870s and important changes in the style and poetics of prose genres necessarily prepared a new period in the development of Russian realistic prose.

The 1880s are a strange, intermediate time in the history of Russian literature and Russian social thought. On the one hand, they were marked by a complete crisis of populist ideology and the resulting moods of pessimism and the absence of a common idea; “dream and darkness reigned in our hearts,” as A.A. later said. Blok in the poem "Retribution". However, it was precisely the exhaustion of the revolutionary ideology of the 1860-1870s that led to the formation of a new attitude to reality. The 80s were a time of radical revaluation of the history and culture of the past. Fundamentally new for Russian culture was the orientation toward the calm, peaceful development of society; For the first time, conservatism became an important part of the national consciousness. In society, an attitude began to form not towards remaking the world (prevailing in the 1860s-70s), but towards changing (self-change) a person (F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy, Vl.S. Solovyov and K. agreed on this N. Leontiev, N.S. Leskov and V.M. Korolenko and A.P.

The 1880s were perceived by contemporaries as an independent period, contrasted in their minds with the sixties and seventies. The specificity of the period was associated with the idea of ​​the end of the era of Russian “classics”, with a feeling of milestones, the transition of time. The eighties summed up the development of Russian classical realism. The end of the period does not coincide with 1889; it should rather be attributed to the mid-1890s, when a new generation of writers declared themselves and trends associated with the emergence of symbolism appeared. As a literary event that completed the 1880s, we can consider the publication in 1893 of D.S.’s pamphlet. Merezhkovsky “On the causes of decline and new trends in modern Russian literature”, which became a programmatic document of literature and criticism at the turn of the century. At the same time, this document is the starting point of a new era in the history of Russian literature. We can say that Russian literature of the 19th century. ends in 1893, its last period chronologically covering the years 1880-1893.

Russian literature of the 1880s is a literature of realism, but qualitatively changed. Classical realism of the 1830s-70s strived for synthesis in artistic research and depiction of life, focused on understanding the whole, the universe in all its diversity and inconsistency. Realism in the 80s was unable to provide a clear and meaningful picture of existence from the point of view of some general universal idea. But at the same time, in Russian literature there is an intense search for a new generalized view of life. Russian literature of the 1880s interacts with religious, philosophical and ethical concepts; Writers appear in whose works philosophical ideas find their expression in artistic, literary form (Vl. Solovyov, K.N. Leontiev, early V.V. Rozanov). The realistic attitude in the works of the classics of Russian realism is changing; prose by I.S. Turgenev is saturated with mysterious, irrational motives; in the works of L.N. Tolstoy's realism is gradually but steadily transformed into a different kind of realism, tightly surrounded by moralistic and preachy journalism. The most characteristic feature of the literary process of the 80-90s is the almost complete disappearance of the genre form of the novel and the flourishing of small epic genres: short story, essay, novella. The novel presupposes a generalizing view of life, and in the 80s, the empiricity of life, the fact of reality, came to the fore. Hence the emergence of naturalistic tendencies in Russian prose - in the work of second-tier fiction writers (P.D. Boborykin, D.N. Mamin-Sibiryak), partly even A.P. Chekhov, who is included in the literature of the 1880s as the author of humorous stories, skits and parodies. Chekhov, perhaps more acutely than any other artist, feels the exhaustion of previous artistic forms - and subsequently it was he who was destined to become a true innovator in the field of new means of artistic expression.

Simultaneously with the naturalistic tendencies in the prose of the 1880s, the desire for expressiveness and the search for more capacious forms of artistic expression intensified. The desire for expressiveness leads to the predominance of the subjective principle not only in lyric poetry, which experienced a new heyday in the 80-90s, but also in narrative prose genres (V.M. Garshin, V.G. Korolenko). A distinctive feature of the prose of the 80s is the vigorous development of mass fiction and mass drama. However, in these same years A.N. created his last plays. Ostrovsky: “sad” comedies “Slaves”, “Talents and Admirers”, “Handsome Man”, “Guilty Without Guilt” and L.N. Tolstoy (folk drama “The Power of Darkness”, satirical comedy “Fruits of Enlightenment”). Finally, at the end of the 1880s, Chekhov began to reform the dramatic genre (the plays “Ivanov”, “The Leshy”, later reworked into the play “Uncle Vanya”).

Poetry of the 80s occupies a more modest place in the general literary process than prose and drama. It is dominated by pessimistic or even tragic notes. However, it was in the poetry of the 80s that the artistic trends of the new era most clearly emerged, leading to the formation of the aesthetics of symbolism.

By lectures:

Ivan Alekseevich Bunin (1870-1953) is the last Russian classic, but new Russian literature begins with him.

Received the Pushkin Prize for translating the text of “The Song of Goevat”.

“Antonov Apples” 1900, “Mr. from San Francisco”, “Easy Breathing” - Bunin’s trilogy about the meaning of existence. Innovation is determined by the fact that the artist moves away from the study of class contradictions. The focus is on the civilizational conflict, the world of people in general. Bunin believed that in Antonov Apples he presented new principles for creating a literary image. The ideological and artistic space allows us to pose completely different problems. "Antonov apples" are expressed:

plotless plot;

in this story Bunin has the opportunity to describe “crystal” silence; a special subject of study was the state of sadness, “great and hopeless”;

the unique rhythm of Bunin's prose;

“brocaded” tongue.

Bunin connected the mystery of life with the motive of love and with the motive of death, but he sees the ideal solution to the problems of love and death in the past (peace, harmony, when a person felt himself a part of nature).

In the 20th century, Bunin in “The Gentleman from San Francisco” reveals the topic of death, which he began to think about since childhood. I express the idea that money gives only the illusion of life.

8. The literary situation of the early twentieth century.

Modern (General name for different movements in art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, which proclaimed a break with realism, rejection of old forms and the search for new aesthetic principles.) - interpretation of existence

Lyric poetry (Sensitivity in experiences, in moods; softness and subtlety of the emotional beginning)

The idea of ​​art synthesis

Russian literature of the late XIX - early XX centuries. (1893 -1917) - quite short, but a very important period of independent significance in the history of Russian literature. In October 1917 Russian culture has undergone a tragic cataclysm. The literary process of that time is characterized by unprecedented tension, inconsistency, and the clash of various artistic trends. Not only in Russia, but throughout the world culture, a new modernist aesthetics, which sharply contrasted its philosophical and artistic program, its new worldview with the aesthetics of the past, which essentially included the entire classical heritage of world culture.

A distinctive feature of the culture of the 1st quarter of the 20th century - unprecedented since Pushkin’s times the flowering of poetry, and above all - lyric poetry, development of a completely new poetic language, new artistic imagery. The very concept of the “Silver Age” owes its emergence to a new rise in poetic art. This rise is a direct consequence of the general process associated with searching for more capacious means of artistic expression. The literature of the beginning of the century as a whole is characterized by the style of lyricism. At the turn of the century, lyricism became one of the effective means of revealing the worldview of the author and the person of modern times he portrays. The flourishing of poetry during this period is a natural consequence of deep processes in the history of Russian literature and culture; it is associated primarily with modernism as the leading artistic movement of the era.

Article by V.I. Lenin “Party organization and party literature” (1905) with the thesis that that literary work should be part of the general proletarian cause- followed from the principles proclaimed by “real criticism” and taken to their logical conclusion. The article caused a sharp rebuke in the literary and philosophical thought of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century; Lenin’s opponents were D. Merezhkovsky, D. Filosofov, N. Berdyaev, V. Bryusov, who was one of the first to react with the article “Freedom of Speech,” which appeared at the same time in November 1905 in the magazine “Scales.” V. Bryusov defended the already established in the decadent environment beliefs about the autonomy of literature as the art of speech and the freedom of artistic creativity.

Literature at the turn of the century entered into close relationships with religion, philosophy, and other forms of art that were also experiencing a revival during that period: painting, theater, and music. It is not without reason that the idea of ​​a synthesis of arts occupied the minds of poets and artists, composers and philosophers. These are the most general trends in the development of literature and culture at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.

During the period of the late XIX - XX centuries. Russian literature includes a group of young writers who continue high traditions of classical realism. This is V.G. Korolenko, A.I. Kuprin, M. Gorky,I.A. Bunin,B. Zaitsev, I. Shmelev, V. Veresaev, L. Andreev. In the works of these writers it is peculiar reflected the interaction of the realistic method with new trends of the era . The bright and clear talent of V.G. Korolenko was distinguished by his attraction to romantic motifs, plots, and images. The prose and dramaturgy of Leonid Andreev became more and more influenced by expressionist poetics. B. Zaitsev's lyrical prose and his plotless miniatures gave critics reason to talk about impressionistic features in his creative method. Fame I.A. Bunin was brought first of all by his story “The Village”, in which he gave a harsh image of modern folk life, sharply polemicizing against the poeticization of the peasantry coming from the Turgenev tradition. At the same time, the metaphorical imagery of Bunin’s prose, the associative connection of details and motifs bring it closer to the poetics of symbolism. Early creativity M. Gorky associated with the romantic tradition. Revealing the life of Russia, the acutely dramatic spiritual state of modern man, Gorky created a picture of life common to Kuprin, Bunin, Remizov, Sergeev-Tsynsky.

Modernist and avant-garde movements

The word "modernism" comes from the French. moderne - “newest”. The aesthetics of realism meant reflection of the surrounding reality in the artist’s works in its typical features ; modernist aesthetics brought to the fore the creative will of the artist, the possibility of creating many subjective interpretations of existence. Avant-garde is a particular and extreme manifestation of modernist culture; The motto of the avant-garde could be the words of Pablo Picasso: “I depict the world not as I see it, but as I think of it.” The avant-garde believed that vital material can be deformed by the artist to the ground. Avant-garde art meant, first of all, a fundamental break with the traditions of the 19th century. Avant-gardeism in Russian culture is reflected in poetry futurists and in similar searches in the field of painting (K. Malevich, N. Goncharova) and theater (V. Meyerhold).

The work of many Russian writers is imbued with love for the ordinary person and pain for him.

One of the first to put forward the democratic theme of the “little man” in literature was Pushkin. In “Belkin’s Tales,” completed in 1830, the writer paints not only pictures of the life of the nobility (“The Young Lady-Peasant”), but also draws the readers’ attention to the fate of the “little man.”

Already in the stories of sentimentalists, especially Karamzin (the story “Poor Liza”), a “little man” was shown. It was an idealized image, not very realistic.

Pushkin makes his first attempt to objectively and truthfully portray the “little man.” The hero of the story “The Station Agent” is alien to sentimental suffering; he has his own sorrows associated with the unsettled life.

There is a small post station somewhere at the crossroads of roads. Here live 14th grade official Samson Vyrin and his daughter Dunya - the only joy that brightens up the difficult life of a caretaker, full of shouts and curses from passers-by. And suddenly she is taken to St. Petersburg, taken away secretly from her father. The worst thing is that Dunya left with the hussar of her own free will. Having crossed the threshold of a new, rich life, she abandoned her father. Samson Vyrin goes to St. Petersburg to “return the lost sheep,” but he is kicked out of Dunya’s house, and in the end he receives several banknotes for his daughter. “Tears welled up in his eyes again, tears of indignation! He squeezed the pieces of paper into a ball, threw them on the ground, stamped with his heel and walked away...” Vyrin dies alone, and no one notices his death. About people like him, Pushkin writes at the beginning of the story: “We will, however, be fair, we will try to enter into their position and, perhaps, we will begin to judge them much more leniently.”

The truth of life, sympathy for the “little man”, insulted at every step by bosses higher in rank and position - this is what we feel when reading the story. Pushkin cares about this “little man” who lives in grief and need. The story, which so realistically depicts the “little man,” is imbued with democracy and humanity.

In 1833, Pushkin’s “The Bronze Horseman” appeared, in which a “little man” with a tragic fate expresses a timid protest against the inhuman autocracy. “Welcome, miraculous builder! -//He whispered, trembling angrily, -//Too bad for you!..”

Pushkin's traditions were continued and developed by Gogol, Dostoevsky, and Chekhov.

In the story “The Overcoat,” the idea of ​​a humane attitude towards the “little man,” which is hidden in all Gogol’s works, is expressed directly and decisively.

Akakiy Akakievich Bashmachkin - “eternal titular adviser.” The senseless clerical work killed every living thought in him. He finds his only pleasure in copying papers. He lovingly wrote out the letters in a clean, even handwriting and completely immersed himself in his work, forgetting the insults caused to him by his colleagues, and the need, and worries about food and comfort. Even at home, he only thought that “God will send something to rewrite tomorrow.”

But the man in this downtrodden official also woke up when the goal of life appeared - a new overcoat. “He somehow became more lively, even stronger in character. Doubt and indecision naturally disappeared from his face and from his actions...” Bashmachkin does not part with his dream for a single day. He thinks about it like another person thinks about love, about family. So he orders himself a new overcoat, “...his existence has somehow become fuller...” The description of the life of Akaki Akakievich is permeated with irony, but there is also pity and sadness in it. Introducing us into the spiritual world of the hero, describing his feelings, thoughts, dreams, joys and sorrows, the author makes it clear what happiness it was for Bashmachkin to acquire an overcoat and what a disaster its loss turns into.

There was no happier person than Akaki Akakievich when the tailor brought him an overcoat. But his joy was short-lived. When he was returning home at night, he was robbed. And none of those around him take part in the unhappy official. In vain did Bashmachkin seek help from a “significant person.” He was even accused of rebelling against his superiors and “higher ones.” The upset Akaki Akakievich catches a cold and dies. In the finale, a small, timid man, driven to despair by the world of the powerful, protests against this world. Dying, he “blasphemes” and utters the most terrible words that follow the words “your excellency.” It was a riot, albeit in a dying delirium.

It is not because of the overcoat that the “little man” dies. He becomes a victim of bureaucratic “inhumanity” and “ferocious rudeness,” which, as Gogol argued, lurks under the guise of “refined, educated secularism.” This is the deepest meaning of the story.

Higher St. Petersburg society shows criminal indifference towards Captain Kopeikin (in Gogol’s poem “Dead Souls”). It turned out to be callous, soulless not just towards a little man, but a defender of the Motherland, a hero of the War of 1812, a disabled person who had lost all means of livelihood... It is not for nothing that the further fate of Captain Kopeikin is associated with rebellion: a warning that the patience of the downtrodden and humiliated was once... Someday it will end that there is a limit to everything. And if the broad Russian soul rebelled, then woe to those who oppressed and offended the poor man.

Dostoevsky’s novel “Poor People” is imbued with the spirit of Gogol’s “The Overcoat.” This is a story about the fate of the same “little man”, crushed by grief, despair and social lack of rights. The correspondence of the poor official Makar Devushkin with Varenka, who has lost her parents and is being pursued by a pimp, reveals the deep drama of the lives of these people. Makar and Varenka are ready to endure any hardship for each other. Makar, living in extreme need, helps Varya. And Varya, having learned about Makar’s situation, comes to his aid. But the heroes of the novel are defenseless. Their rebellion is a “revolt on their knees.” Nobody can help them. Varya is taken away to certain death, and Makar is left alone with his grief. The lives of two beautiful people are broken, crippled, shattered by cruel reality.

Dostoevsky reveals the deep and strong experiences of “little people.”

It is interesting to note that Makar Devushkin reads “The Station Agent” by Pushkin and “The Overcoat” by Gogol. He is sympathetic to Samson Vyrin and hostile to Bashmachkin. Probably because he sees his future in him. So, Dostoevsky, the most complex and contradictory realist artist, on the one hand, shows a “humiliated and insulted” person, and the writer’s heart is filled with love, compassion and pity for this person and hatred for the well-fed, vulgar and debauched, and on the other hand, he speaks out for humility, submission, calling: “Humble yourself, proud man!”

Marmeladov from Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment” turns out to be a victim in a society of arbitrariness and lawlessness. This drunken retired official says to Raskolnikov: “In poverty you still retain your nobility of innate feelings, but in poverty no one ever does.” Marmeladov explains his thought: “Poverty is not a vice, poverty is a vice,” because in poverty the sense of human dignity in the poor person himself is not yet distorted; the beggar ceases to be a person, ceases to respect himself, humiliates himself, reaching the last degree of moral decline.

Further, in the development of the image of the “little man,” a tendency toward “bifurcation” is emerging. On the one hand, common democrats emerge from among the “little people,” and their children become revolutionaries. Nekrasov will say about Dobrolyubov: “What a lamp of reason has gone out!” On the other hand, the “little man” sinks, turning into a limited bourgeois. We observe this process most clearly in Chekhov’s stories “Ionych”, “Gooseberry”, “Man in a Case”.

Teacher Belikov is not an evil person by nature, but timid and reserved. In conditions when the formula was in effect: “If the circular does not allow, then it is not allowed,” he becomes a terrible figure in the city.

Everything living, moving forward, frightened Belikov; in everything he saw “an element of doubt.” Belikov could not arrange his personal life either. Once he saw his bride on a bicycle, he was very surprised and went to her brother for an explanation, believing that it was not appropriate for a woman to ride a bicycle. The result of the conversation was a quarrel between Belikov and Kovalenko, after which the teacher died. The townspeople buried Belikov with joy, but even after his death the stamp of “Belikovism” remained on the residents of the city. Belikov continued to live in their minds, he permeated their souls through and through

Fear.

Over time, the “little man,” deprived of his own dignity, “humiliated and insulted,” arouses not only compassion but also condemnation among progressive writers. “You live a boring life, gentlemen,” Chekhov said through his work to the “little man” who had come to terms with his situation. With subtle humor, the writer ridicules the death of Ivan Chervyakov, from whose lips the lackey “Yourness” has never left his lips. In the same year as “The Death of an Official,” the story “Thick and Thin” appears. Chekhov again speaks out against philistinism, against servility. The collegiate servant Porfiry giggles, “like a Chinese,” bowing obsequiously, when he meets his former friend, who has a high rank. The feeling of friendship that connected these two people has been forgotten.

Drawing images of “little people,” writers usually emphasized their weak protest and downtroddenness, which subsequently leads the “little man” to degradation. But each of these heroes has something in life that helps him endure existence: Samson Vyrin has a daughter, the joy of life, Akaky Akakievich has an overcoat, Makar Devushkin and Varenka have their love and care for each other. Having lost this goal, they die, unable to survive the loss.

“Little people” are people of the lower classes, and their language is folk, it contains vernacular (“clean up, old fool”), clerical words (“compasses”), and the expression “I have something to say.” To enhance the emotional sound of the image, writers use inappropriately direct speech (for example, the story about the grief of the old caretaker is told in the third person, although he himself talks about what happened).

To more fully describe the hero, Chekhov uses the technique of a story within a story. The hero is spoken about by another person who knows him and evaluates his actions (teacher Burkin in the story “The Man in a Case”, veterinarian Ivan Ivanovich in the story “Gooseberry”). All techniques for depicting heroes are aimed at a deeper disclosure of the images of “little people”.

In conclusion, I would like to say that a person should not be small. In one of his letters to his sister, Chekhov exclaimed: “My God, how rich Russia is in good people!” The keen eye of the artist, noticing vulgarity, hypocrisy, stupidity, saw something else - the beauty of a good person. Such, for example, is Doctor Dymov, the hero of the story “The Jumper,” a man who lives for the happiness of others, a modest doctor, with a kind heart and a beautiful soul. Dymov dies saving a child from illness.

So it turns out that this “little man” is not so small.

The theme of the “little man” becomes especially relevant in Russian literature in the second half of the 19th century, when authors and readers are already tired of reading about extremely smart and talented “supermen”, they want to see ordinary people in the works.

The appearance of the theme of the little man in Pushkin

The first in this tradition was A.S. Pushkin in his “Tales of the late Ivan Petrovich Belkin” (1830), which contain five short stories: “The Young Lady-Peasant Woman”, “The Station Warden”, “The Blizzard”, “The Undertaker” and “The Shot”.

The heroes of all of them are ordinary people who do not differ in any outstanding features. They are not superfluous in their society, they occupy their insignificant place in it - these are typical representatives of Russian society after the Decembrist uprising. And they are told by the same simple storyteller - a little man who reliably conveys simple life.

Particularly expressive in this regard is the story “The Station Agent”, in which, using the example of the main character, we understand that there are no “little” people; Each of them has their own problems that are important to someone, to which society does not want to react.

The reader feels sorry for the “little hero” Samson Vyrin and his daughter Dunya; the reader understands that any person deserves happiness.

Development of the theme of the little man in Gogol

It was this story that was a kind of basis for N.V. Gogol, when he comes up with a plot for his story “The Overcoat” (1842). Here, as in “The Station Agent,” we see an ordinary petty person whose problems society does not want to accept.

Akaki Akakievich Bashmachkin sadly serves every day in his department, his only joy in life is his shabby overcoat. When she is kidnapped, no one wants to help the “little man” in his grief, and in the end Bashmachkin dies of frustration.

After death, he flies in the form of a ghost through the streets of St. Petersburg, tearing off the greatcoat from passers-by - in this way he strives to achieve the highest justice.

The role of the story “The Overcoat” in Russian literature was enormous - it was considered the “starting point” by the authors, who later called their movement the “natural school.”

The focus of the literature of this period is on ordinary people and their ordinary lives, without understatement and without embellishment. Consequently, the “little man” became a typical character for this movement, as well as his rather big problems.

The theme of the little man in Dostoevsky

F.M. also belonged to this direction. Dostoevsky, whose favorite theme was the description of the life of the “humiliated and insulted.”

He develops this same theme partially in the story Poor People, but mainly in his novel Crime and Punishment. Particularly interesting here is the image of the main character Rodion Raskolnikov - although he imagines himself above all other people, in fact he is the same “little man”.

However, Dostoevsky’s “little man” goes further than the previous ones: he himself talks about his difficult life, he does not silently submit to circumstances. Other heroes of the novel are the same characters - the unfortunate Sonechka Marmeladova, Raskolnikov’s sister Dunya, Marmeladov himself...