Early Renaissance (Quattrocento). The culture of the early Renaissance in Italy in names and works The largest artist of the early Renaissance
Renaissance painting constitutes the golden fund of not only European but also world art. The Renaissance period replaced the dark Middle Ages, subordinate to the core of church canons, and preceded the subsequent Enlightenment and the New Age.
It is worth calculating the duration of the period depending on the country. The era of cultural flourishing, as it is commonly called, began in Italy in the 14th century, and then spread throughout Europe and reached its apogee by the end of the 15th century. Historians divide this period in art into four stages: Proto-Renaissance, early, high and late Renaissance. Italian Renaissance painting is, of course, of particular value and interest, but French, German, and Dutch masters should not be overlooked. It is about them in the context of the time periods of the Renaissance that will be discussed further in the article.
Proto-Renaissance
The Proto-Renaissance period lasted from the second half of the 13th century. to the 14th century It is closely connected with the Middle Ages, in the late stage of which it originated. The Proto-Renaissance is the predecessor of the Renaissance and combines Byzantine, Romanesque and Gothic traditions. The trends of the new era appeared first in sculpture, and only then in painting. The latter was represented by two schools of Siena and Florence.
The main figure of the period was the artist and architect Giotto di Bondone. The representative of the Florentine school of painting became a reformer. He outlined the path along which it further developed. The features of Renaissance painting originate precisely in this period. It is generally accepted that Giotto managed to overcome the style of icon painting common to Byzantium and Italy in his works. He made the space not two-dimensional, but three-dimensional, using chiaroscuro to create the illusion of depth. The photo shows the painting “The Kiss of Judas”.
Representatives of the Florentine school stood at the origins of the Renaissance and did everything to bring painting out of the long medieval stagnation.
The Proto-Renaissance period was divided into two parts: before and after his death. Until 1337, the brightest masters worked and the most important discoveries took place. Afterwards, Italy is hit by a plague epidemic.
Renaissance Painting: Briefly about the Early Period
The Early Renaissance covers a period of 80 years: from 1420 to 1500. At this time, it has not yet completely departed from past traditions and is still associated with the art of the Middle Ages. However, the breath of new trends is already felt; masters are beginning to turn more often to elements of classical antiquity. Ultimately, artists completely abandon the medieval style and begin to boldly use the best examples of ancient culture. Note that the process went rather slowly, step by step.
Bright representatives of the early Renaissance
The work of the Italian artist Piero della Francesca entirely belongs to the early Renaissance period. His works are distinguished by nobility, majestic beauty and harmony, accurate perspective, soft colors filled with light. In the last years of his life, in addition to painting, he studied mathematics in depth and even wrote two of his own treatises. His student was another famous painter, Luca Signorelli, and the style was reflected in the works of many Umbrian masters. In the photo above is a fragment of a fresco in the Church of San Francesco in Arezzo, “The History of the Queen of Sheba.”
Domenico Ghirlandaio is another prominent representative of the Florentine school of Renaissance painting of the early period. He was the founder of a famous artistic dynasty and the head of the workshop where young Michelangelo began. Ghirlandaio was a famous and successful master who was engaged not only in fresco painting (Tornabuoni Chapel, Sistine), but also in easel painting (“Adoration of the Magi”, “Nativity”, “Old Man with Grandson”, “Portrait of Giovanna Tornabuoni” - pictured below).
High Renaissance
This period, in which the style developed magnificently, falls on 1500-1527. At this time, the center of Italian art moved to Rome from Florence. This is connected with the ascension to the papal throne of the ambitious, enterprising Julius II, who attracted the best artists of Italy to his court. Rome became something like Athens during the time of Pericles and experienced an incredible growth and construction boom. At the same time, there is harmony between the branches of art: sculpture, architecture and painting. The Renaissance brought them together. They seem to go hand in hand, complementing each other and interacting.
Antiquity is studied more thoroughly during the High Renaissance and reproduced with maximum accuracy, rigor and consistency. Dignity and tranquility replace flirtatious beauty, and medieval traditions are completely forgotten. The pinnacle of the Renaissance is marked by the work of three of the greatest Italian masters: Raphael Santi (the painting “Donna Velata” in the image above), Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci (“Mona Lisa” in the first photo).
Late Renaissance
The Late Renaissance covers the period from the 1530s to the 1590s to the 1620s in Italy. Art critics and historians reduce the works of this time to a common denominator with a large degree of convention. Southern Europe was under the influence of the Counter-Reformation that triumphed in it, which perceived with great caution any free-thinking, including the resurrection of the ideals of antiquity.
In Florence, there was a dominance of Mannerism, characterized by artificial colors and broken lines. However, he reached Parma, where Correggio worked, only after the death of the master. Venetian painting of the late Renaissance had its own path of development. Palladio and Titian, who worked there until the 1570s, are its brightest representatives. Their work had nothing to do with new trends in Rome and Florence.
Northern Renaissance
This term is used to describe the Renaissance throughout Europe, outside of Italy in general and in German-speaking countries in particular. It has a number of features. The Northern Renaissance was not homogeneous and was characterized by specific features in each country. Art historians divide it into several directions: French, German, Dutch, Spanish, Polish, English, etc.
The awakening of Europe took two paths: the development and spread of a humanistic secular worldview, and the development of ideas for the renewal of religious traditions. Both of them touched, sometimes merged, but at the same time they were antagonists. Italy chose the first path, and Northern Europe - the second.
The Renaissance had virtually no influence on the art of the north, including painting, until 1450. From 1500 it spread throughout the continent, but in some places the influence of late Gothic remained until the advent of the Baroque.
The Northern Renaissance is characterized by a significant influence of the Gothic style, less close attention to the study of antiquity and human anatomy, and a detailed and careful writing technique. The Reformation had an important ideological influence on him.
French Northern Renaissance
The closest thing to Italian is French painting. The Renaissance was an important stage for French culture. At this time, the monarchy and bourgeois relations were actively strengthening, the religious ideas of the Middle Ages faded into the background, giving way to humanistic tendencies. Representatives: Francois Quesnel, Jean Fouquet (pictured is a fragment of the master's "Melen Diptych"), Jean Clouse, Jean Goujon, Marc Duval, Francois Clouet.
German and Dutch Northern Renaissance
Outstanding works of the Northern Renaissance were created by German and Flemish-Dutch masters. Religion continued to play a significant role in these countries, and it greatly influenced painting. The Renaissance took a different path in the Netherlands and Germany. Unlike the works of Italian masters, the artists of these countries did not place man at the center of the universe. Throughout almost the entire 15th century. they portrayed him in the Gothic style: light and ethereal. The most prominent representatives of the Dutch Renaissance are Hubert van Eyck, Jan van Eyck, Robert Campen, Hugo van der Goes, the German - Albert Durer, Lucas Cranach the Elder, Hans Holbein, Matthias Grunewald.
The photo shows a self-portrait of A. Durer from 1498.
Despite the fact that the works of northern masters differ significantly from the works of Italian painters, they are in any case recognized as priceless exhibits of fine art.
Renaissance painting, like all culture as a whole, is characterized by a secular character, humanism and so-called anthropocentrism, or, in other words, a primary interest in man and his activities. During this period, there was a real flowering of interest in ancient art, and its revival took place. The era gave the world a galaxy of brilliant sculptors, architects, writers, poets and artists. Never before or since has cultural flourishing been so widespread.
Renaissance, or Renaissance - an era in the history of European culture that replaced the culture of the Middle Ages and preceded the culture of modern times. A distinctive feature of the Renaissance is the secular nature of culture and its anthropocentrism (that is, interest, first of all, in man and his activities).
Renaissance style
The wealthy citizens of Europe no longer needed to hide behind castle walls. They were replaced by city palaces (palazzos) and country villas, delighting the owners with beauty and comfort. A typical palazzo usually has 3-4 floors. On the lower floor there were vestibules, service rooms, stables and storerooms. On the next level - Piano Nobile - there are spacious, richly decorated state rooms. Sometimes the bedrooms of family members of the owner of the house were located on this floor. Private quarters are the bedroom and the “studio,” a room used as an office, workshop, or room for private conversations. There was a washing room nearby; water was taken from a fountain or well. The third floor often had the same layout as the piano nobile, with living rooms with lower ceilings. On the top floor the height of the ceilings was even lower; there were quarters for servants. Medieval staircases were spiral or resembled narrow slots cut through the thickness of the walls; now they have become wide and straight and dominate the interior. Additional staircases were often poorly lit. The country villa was not built in such cramped conditions, and therefore could be larger. At the same time, the same scheme was maintained: service rooms were located downstairs, state rooms were on the second floor, and servants' rooms were on the top floor or in the attic.
Renaissance interiors speak of a passion for the classics. Symmetry is paramount, and details are borrowed from ancient Roman designs. Walls are often neutral tones or have patterns. In rich houses, the walls are often decorated with frescoes. The ceilings are beamed or coffered. The ceiling beams and coffers are painted in bright colors. The floors are decorated with complex geometric patterns. The fireplaces, which served as the only source of heat, are covered with carvings. Judging by the paintings of artists of that time, draperies and other accessories were multi-colored.
During the Renaissance, furniture was more widespread than in the Middle Ages, but by modern standards it was still scarce. Carving, inlay and intarsia were present in the interior, depending on the financial capabilities and tastes of the homeowner.
The interiors of Renaissance churches were painted in subdued colors and richly decorated with architectural details borrowed from ancient Roman monuments. Stained glass windows gave way to transparent glass. Painting was widely used - frescoes, altar paintings. Altars were usually ordered and donated to churches by wealthy citizens, whose portraits can be seen in the foreground. In the interiors of the Renaissance, a transition from simplicity to splendor can be seen.
Early Renaissance
Palazzo Davanzati in Florence (late 14th century) is an excellently preserved city house built at the turn of two eras. The building stands on a narrow, irregular plot of land, typical of a medieval city. On the lower floor there is a loggia facing the street, which could serve as a bench. From the courtyard, stairs lead to the floors where the living quarters are located - spacious and richly decorated, but chaotically located, like in a medieval castle. From the outside the building is symmetrical. The friezes and consoles that support the ceiling beams are borrowed from classical architecture; but the lead window frames and tapestry-like wall paintings go back to the Middle Ages. Even with furniture, the rooms seem empty, and medieval asceticism is still noticeable.
Approximate chronological framework of the era: the beginning of the 14th century - the last quarter of the 16th century and in some cases - the first decades of the 17th century (for example, in England and, especially, in Spain). Interest in ancient culture appears, its “revival,” as it were, occurs - and this is how the term appeared. Historians have divided the Renaissance into three periods:early, high, later Historians of the old school highlight the triumphant period of the “High Renaissance”, which ends in decline. Modern scientists consider each period worthy of study and admiration: from bold experiment through a period of flourishing to a final stage characterized by great freedom and complexity.
Renaissance in France
In 1515, Francis I (1515-1547), at the invitation of the pope, spent four days in the Vatican, where he could admire the art of the High Renaissance. Francis invited Leonardo da Vinci to come to France, which came to fruition in 1516. Leonardo settled in the vicinity of Amboise, where he lived until his death in 1519. The Francis wing in the castle of Blois (1515-1519) with its famous staircase has three floors, which are decorated pilasters and decorative elements borrowed from the courtyards of Florentine palaces. The roof with pipes and dormer windows is made in a style typical of France.
The most spectacular of the early Renaissance castles is the huge royal palace of Chambord (1519). Round medieval towers, moats, and high roofs are combined with a symmetrical layout and order elements. A variety of chimneys, turrets, domes and dormers are reminiscent of the Italian Renaissance. At the Chateau de Chambord, the lobby is designed in the form of a Greek cross. The two-flight spiral staircase in the center of the lobby is the core of the entire composition. Since Leonardo da Vinci lived near Amboise, it is believed that the staircase was created based on sketches found in his notebooks. Living quarters are concentrated in the corners of the square, additional rooms, staircases and corridors are located in the corner towers, which makes the building look like a huge labyrinth. The rooms look bare. In those days, furniture moved with the royal court to Paris and back. It is believed that the plan for the castle was designed by Domenico da Cortona (d. 1549), a student of Giuliano da Sangallo, who visited France in 1495 (Sangallo returned to Italy, while Domenico remained in France). The French architect Pierre Iepvo also played an important role, but whether he was the author of the project or a simple mason working under the supervision of other craftsmen is unclear.
The small castle of Azay-le-Rideau in the Loire Valley (1518-1527) is the creation of unknown architects. The building in the shape of the Latin letter B, a moat with water and a lake form a charming ensemble. The corner towers and moat are reminiscent of the Middle Ages, but the rear facade, facing the moat, is completely symmetrical, and the pilasters and friezes are in the Renaissance style. The main staircase is located in the center of the main volume. A quaint entrance marks its location outside. The façade of the building is asymmetrical. Fortunately, the interiors of Azay-Rideau are well preserved. A suite of rooms begins from the main staircase. The wooden beams of the ceiling are exposed, the walls are covered with fabric, large fireplaces are probably the work of an Italian master. The windows are recessed into the thickness of the stone walls. Since the rooms did not have any special purpose, for example, a bed could stand in any of them. Moreover, each room was decorated in a certain color scheme.
Brunelleschi
The Early Renaissance in Italy is the period from approximately 1400 to the end of the 15th century. The first significant figure is Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), a Florentine goldsmith who later became a sculptor, geometer and architect. He is an example of a “Renaissance man.” Having taken part in a competition for designs for the dome of the Florence Cathedral, Brunelleschi proposed building a huge dome without buttresses and without wooden circles (in the latter case, it would have been necessary to erect expensive scaffolding, which in itself is a huge engineering structure). In 1420, Brunelleschi began construction of the grandiose dome, which still towers over Florence.
Brunelleschi's dome differs from Roman domes in its pointed shape, which fits perfectly with the Gothic cathedral. The construction of a dome without external buttresses required fundamentally new technological solutions. Stone ribs are located in the corners of the octagon, plus two additional ribs in each side of the dome. The entire space of the cathedral was used during the construction process. The huge connections made of stone, iron and wood are not visible, which connect the dome with the “tension rings” and dampen the thrust, quite sufficient to destroy the entire structure. There is a round window at the top of the dome. The lantern of the dome, actually a small building on the roof, was built after Brunelleschi's death, but is in his style and is the only part of the dome that is strictly classical in style.
Although the enormous dome is Brunelleschi's most spectacular structure, other designs reflect his interior design concept more fully. In the Florentine churches of San Lorenzo (begun c. 1420) and Santo Spirito (begun 1435), Brunelleschi attempted to transform the basilica with transept, choir and side naves into something new. The plan of each church is divided into squares, one such square is a module for the entire structure as a whole. The central nave is separated from the side naves by Roman arches supported by Corinthian columns. The side naves are covered with vaults. In Roman buildings, the arch does not rest directly on the column, but on the entablature. In Brunelleschi we see the same thing: the columns always end with a fragment of an entablature, a square slab, which is sometimes called an impost.
Brunelleschi's very first work in the Church of San Lorenzo was the small Sacristy (known as the Old Sacristy, there is also the New Sacristy by Michelangelo, usually called the Medici Chapel). This is a square room, topped with a dome on sails. It connects to a smaller room where the altar is located (the so-called scarcella).
The small Pazzi Chapel in the courtyard of the Church of Santa Croce in Florence (1429-1461) is generally considered to be the work of Brunelleschi, although it is not precisely established what his contribution was to the construction of the chapel, which was completed after the death of the architect, but it is in many ways reminiscent of the Sacristy in the Church of St. -Lorenzo. It is often considered the first structure of the Early Renaissance, characterized by symmetry and classical elements along with sophistication and innovation. The square space is covered with a dome on sails; in the north-south direction, the arms of the cross with barrel vaults extend from the dome square, turning the square plan into a rectangular one. The square scarcella with its dome balances the plan. The chapel was built as a monastic chapter hall; inside there are still benches surrounding the perimeter of the room, intended for monks taking part in meetings. The walls are decorated with pilasters made of gray-green marble; in the upper part of the walls there are round niches with reliefs by Luca della Robbia (1400-1482). The room seems small, but in fact it is of impressive size. This may be due to the not entirely correct use of classical elements.
Michelozzo
The Palazzo Medici-Riccardi in Florence (begun 1444), designed by Michelozzo di Bartolommeo (1396-1472), with rusticated walls and small windows, resembles a medieval castle, but the symmetrical plan and order elements indicate an Early Renaissance style. The central entrance leads into a small square courtyard with access to the garden. Twelve columns of the Corinthian order support the arches, forming an open gallery. The arches rest directly on the capitals of the columns, unattractively connecting at the corners, which indicates that the architect does not have sufficient knowledge of the laws of classical architecture. The interiors are simple and undecorated, with the exception of magnificent coffered ceilings, door frames and mantelpieces in a classical style. It is possible that tapestries hung in the main rooms and served as decoration at the same time. The chapel contains frescoes by Benozzo Gozzoli (1420-1497), which depict the “Adoration of the Magi” - a line of magnificently dressed people moving through the hilly terrain. The fresco resembles a tapestry. During the subsequent reconstruction (1680), the symmetry was preserved, although the original symmetry now remains only on the left side. The courtyard of the palazzo is an example of Early Renaissance architecture: semi-circular arches rest on thin columns of the Corinthian order, the plan is strictly symmetrical.
Alberti
Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) was a scientist, musician, artist, art theorist and writer. His book De Re Aedificatoria (On Building), published in 1485, was the first major work on architecture since Vitruvius. The book had a great influence on Italian architecture. The text outlines the rules of classical orders. As in music, the prime ratios of 2:3, 3:4 and 3:5 (the frequency of vibration corresponding to musical chords) can be successfully applied in architecture.
The Church of Sant'Andrea in Mantua (begun in 1471) is Alberti's most important work, having a great influence on the architecture of the 16th century. The plan of the church is cruciform, a dome rises above the middle cross, the central nave, transept and altar are covered with barrel vaults with caissons. There are no side naves; instead of them, large and small chapels were built. Free-standing columns were replaced by powerful pylons with pilasters. The lavish decoration of the interior appeared after Alberti’s death; the generally simple and majestic architecture testifies to the influence that Roman architecture, in particular the imperial baths, had on the architect.
Details Category: Fine arts and architecture of the Renaissance (Renaissance) Published 12/19/2016 16:20 Views: 9452The Renaissance is a time of cultural flourishing, the heyday of all arts, but the one that most fully expressed the spirit of its time was fine art.
Renaissance, or Renaissance(French “new” + “born”) had global significance in the cultural history of Europe. The Renaissance replaced the Middle Ages and preceded the Age of Enlightenment.
Main features of the Renaissance– the secular nature of culture, humanism and anthropocentrism (interest in man and his activities). During the Renaissance, interest in ancient culture flourished and, as it were, its “rebirth” took place.
The Renaissance arose in Italy - its first signs appeared in the 13th-14th centuries. (Tony Paramoni, Pisano, Giotto, Orcagna, etc.). But it was firmly established in the 20s of the 15th century, and by the end of the 15th century. reached its peak.
In other countries, the Renaissance began much later. In the 16th century a crisis of Renaissance ideas begins, a consequence of this crisis is the emergence of mannerism and baroque.
Renaissance periods
The Renaissance is divided into 4 periods:
1. Proto-Renaissance (2nd half of the 13th century - 14th century)
2. Early Renaissance (beginning of the 15th - end of the 15th century)
3. High Renaissance (end of the 15th - first 20 years of the 16th century)
4. Late Renaissance (mid-16th-90s of the 16th century)
The fall of the Byzantine Empire played a role in the formation of the Renaissance. The Byzantines who moved to Europe brought with them their libraries and works of art, unknown to medieval Europe. Byzantium never broke with ancient culture.
Appearance humanism(a socio-philosophical movement that considered man as the highest value) was associated with the absence of feudal relations in the Italian city-republics.
Secular centers of science and art began to emerge in cities, which were not controlled by the church. whose activities were outside the control of the church. In the middle of the 15th century. Printing was invented, which played an important role in the spread of new views throughout Europe.
Brief characteristics of the Renaissance periods
Proto-Renaissance
The Proto-Renaissance is the forerunner of the Renaissance. It is also closely connected with the Middle Ages, with Byzantine, Romanesque and Gothic traditions. He is associated with the names of Giotto, Arnolfo di Cambio, the Pisano brothers, Andrea Pisano.
Andrea Pisano. Bas-relief "Creation of Adam". Opera del Duomo (Florence)
Proto-Renaissance painting is represented by two art schools: Florence (Cimabue, Giotto) and Siena (Duccio, Simone Martini). The central figure of painting was Giotto. He was considered a reformer of painting: he filled religious forms with secular content, made a gradual transition from flat images to three-dimensional and relief ones, turned to realism, introduced plastic volume of figures into painting, and depicted interiors in painting.
Early Renaissance
This is the period from 1420 to 1500. Artists of the Early Renaissance of Italy drew motifs from life and filled traditional religious subjects with earthly content. In sculpture these were L. Ghiberti, Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, the della Robbia family, A. Rossellino, Desiderio da Settignano, B. da Maiano, A. Verrocchio. In their work, a free-standing statue, a picturesque relief, a portrait bust, and an equestrian monument began to develop.
In Italian painting of the 15th century. (Masaccio, Filippo Lippi, A. del Castagno, P. Uccello, Fra Angelico, D. Ghirlandaio, A. Pollaiolo, Verrocchio, Piero della Francesca, A. Mantegna, P. Perugino, etc.) are characterized by a sense of harmonious orderliness of the world, appeal to the ethical and civic ideals of humanism, a joyful perception of the beauty and diversity of the real world.
The founder of Renaissance architecture in Italy was Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), an architect, sculptor and scientist, one of the creators of the scientific theory of perspective.
A special place in the history of Italian architecture occupies Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472). This Italian scientist, architect, writer and musician of the Early Renaissance was educated in Padua, studied law in Bologna, and later lived in Florence and Rome. He created theoretical treatises “On the Statue” (1435), “On Painting” (1435–1436), “On Architecture” (published in 1485). He defended the “folk” (Italian) language as a literary language, and in his ethical treatise “On the Family” (1737-1441) he developed the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality. In his architectural work, Alberti gravitated towards bold experimental solutions. He was one of the founders of new European architecture.
Palazzo Rucellai
Leon Battista Alberti developed a new type of palazzo with a facade, rusticated to its entire height and divided by three tiers of pilasters, which look like the structural basis of the building (Palazzo Rucellai in Florence, built by B. Rossellino according to Alberti’s plans).
Opposite the Palazzo is the Loggia Rucellai, where receptions and banquets for trading partners were held, and weddings were celebrated.
Loggia Rucellai
High Renaissance
This is the time of the most magnificent development of the Renaissance style. In Italy it lasted from approximately 1500 to 1527. Now the center of Italian art from Florence moves to Rome, thanks to the accession to the papal throne Julia II, an ambitious, courageous, enterprising man, who attracted the best artists of Italy to his court.
Rafael Santi "Portrait of Pope Julius II"
In Rome, many monumental buildings are built, magnificent sculptures are created, frescoes and paintings are painted, which are still considered masterpieces of painting. Antiquity is still highly valued and carefully studied. But imitation of the ancients does not drown out the independence of artists.
The pinnacle of the Renaissance is the work of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) and Raphael Santi (1483-1520).
Late Renaissance
In Italy this is the period from the 1530s to the 1590s-1620s. The art and culture of this time are very diverse. Some believe (for example, British scholars) that "The Renaissance as an integral historical period ended with the fall of Rome in 1527." The art of the late Renaissance presents a very complex picture of the struggle of various movements. Many artists did not strive to study nature and its laws, but only outwardly tried to assimilate the “manner” of the great masters: Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo. On this occasion, the elderly Michelangelo once said, watching artists copy his “Last Judgment”: “This art of mine will make fools of many.”
In Southern Europe, the Counter-Reformation triumphed, which did not welcome any free thought, including the glorification of the human body and the resurrection of the ideals of antiquity.
Famous artists of this period were Giorgione (1477/1478-1510), Paolo Veronese (1528-1588), Caravaggio (1571-1610) and others. Caravaggio considered the founder of the Baroque style.
Spring/ Botticelli
A turning point in events in art was observed at the beginning of the 15th century. Then the powerful birth of the Renaissance took place in Florence, which served as the impetus for revising the entire Italian artistic culture. The work of such authors as Masaccio, Donatello and their associates speaks of the victory of Renaissance realism, which had serious differences from the “realism of detail” inherent in the Gothic art of the late Trecento. The ideals of humanism penetrate the works of great masters. A person, rising, becomes above the level of everyday life. Most of the artists' attention is occupied by the color of individual character and the strength of human experiences. Meticulous detailing is replaced by generalization and monumentality of forms. It is worth noting that the heroism and monumentality that characterized the works of the great authors who opened the Italian Renaissance era were retained in the art of the Quattrocento only for some time and developed further only in High Renaissance period.
David/ Donatello
The artistic reform of the early 15th century cut off the possibility of turning to both old forms and medieval spiritualism. From this time stage art of Italy becomes realistically oriented and takes on an optimistic secular character, which is a defining feature of the Renaissance.
To stop turning to the Gothic traditions of the early Renaissance, a search for ideas begins in antiquity and in the art of the Proto-Renaissance. This happens with one difference. Thus, if earlier the appeal to antiquity was rather episodic in nature, and was often just a simple copying of style, now the use of the ancient heritage was approached from a creative position.
The characteristic features of the art of the early 15th century are akin to the Proto-Renaissance, the legacy of which is widely used. Moreover, if earlier masters of the Proto-Renaissance were looking for ideas blindly, now their creative style is based on accurate knowledge.
Madonna and Child/Mazzacho
In the 15th century there was a convergence of art and science. Artists strive to understand and study the world around them, which leads to broadening their horizons and moving away from the narrow focus of the guild craft. This also contributes to the emergence of auxiliary disciplines.
Great architects and artists (Donatello, Philippe Brunelleschi, Leona Battista Alberti and others) develop the theory of linear perspective.
This period is marked by a systematic study of the structure of the human body and the emergence of the theory of proportions. In order to correctly and realistically depict the human figure and space, sciences such as anatomy, mathematics, anatomy and optics are used.
Lazzi Chapel of Santa Croce Cathedral in Florence/Brunelleschi
At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries, the Renaissance style was emerging in architecture and a departure from old traditions took place. Like fine art, the call to antiquity played a dominant role in the renewal. Of course, the new style was not just a second life for antiquity. Renaissance architecture was created in accordance with the new spiritual and material needs of people.
Initially Renaissance architecture found her ideas for development in monuments that were subject to the influence of ancient architecture. Together with new ideas, the creators of the Renaissance, despite the rejection of old foundations, adopted some of the properties of Gothic architecture.
Byzantine architecture also influenced the formation of a new style, the most striking example being church construction. Transformation process and development of Renaissance architecture stems from attempts to change external decorative parts to a complete reworking of key architectural forms.
Madonna and Child/Gentile da Fabriano
Italian art of the 15th century is distinguished by its heterogeneity. The different conditions of local schools lead to a variety of artistic movements. If in advanced Florence the new art was warmly received, this does not mean at all that it received recognition in other parts of the country. Simultaneously with the works of the authors of Florence (Masaccio, Brunelleschi, Donatello), the traditions of Byzantine and Gothic art continued to exist in northern Italy, only gradually being displaced by the Renaissance.
The simultaneous presence of innovative and conservative tendencies is characteristic of both local schools of sculpture and painting, as well as the architecture of the 15th century.
The painting of the early Renaissance goes through the same evolution as sculpture. Overcoming the Gothic abstraction of images, developing the best features of Giotto's painting, artists of the 15th century embarked on the broad path of realism. Monumental fresco painting is experiencing an unprecedented flourishing.
Masaccio. Expulsion from Paradise, 1426–1427
Church of Santa Maria del Carmine
Brancacci Chapel, Florence
Uccello. Portrait of a Lady, 1450
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Castaño. Portrait of a Seigneur, 1446
National Gallery, Washington
Masaccio. A reformer of painting, who played the same role as in the development of Brunelleschi's architecture and Donatello in sculpture, was the Florentine Masaccio (1401–1428), who lived a short life and left remarkable works in which the search for a generalized heroic image of man and a truthful representation of the surroundings was continued his world. These quests were most clearly manifested in the frescoes of the Brancacci Chapel at the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence, “The Miracle of the Stater” and “The Expulsion from Paradise” (both between 1427–1428).
Masaccio breaks with the decorativeness and petty narrative that dominated painting in the second half of the 14th century. Following the tradition of Giotto, the artist Masaccio focuses on the image of a person, enhancing his harsh energy and activity, civic humanism. Masaccio takes a decisive step in combining figure and landscape, introducing aerial perspective for the first time. In Masaccio's frescoes, the shallow platform - the scene of action in Giotto's paintings - is replaced by an image of real deep space; The plastic light and shadow modeling of figures becomes more convincing and richer, their construction is stronger, and their characteristics are more varied. And besides, Masaccio retains the enormous moral power of images, which captivates Giotto in the art.
Angelico. Madonna Fiesole, 1430
Monastery of San Domenico, Fiesole
Lippi. Woman and man, 1460s
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Domenico. Madonna and Child
1437, Berenson Gallery, Florence
The most significant of Masaccio’s frescoes is “The Miracle of the Statir,” a multi-figure composition that, according to tradition, includes various episodes of the legend about how, upon entering the city, Christ and his disciples were asked for a fee - a statir (coin); how, by order of Christ, Peter caught a fish in the lake and found a statir in its mouth, which he handed over to the guard. Both of these additional episodes - fishing and the presentation of the stater - do not distract attention from the central scene - a group of apostles entering the city. Their figures are majestic, massive, courageous faces bear the individualized features of people from the people; in the man on the far right, some researchers see a portrait of Masaccio himself. The significance of what is happening is emphasized by the general state of restrained excitement. The naturalness of gestures and movements, the introduction of a genre motif in the scene of Peter’s search for the coin, and the carefully painted landscape give the painting a secular, deeply truthful character.
No less realistic is the interpretation of the “Expulsion from Paradise” scene, where, for the first time in Renaissance painting, nude figures are depicted, powerfully modeled by side light. Their movements and facial expressions express confusion, shame, and remorse. The great authenticity and persuasiveness of Masaccio’s images impart special strength to the humanistic idea of the dignity and significance of the human personality. With his innovative quests, the artist opened up ways for the further development of realistic painting.
Uccello. An experimenter in the study and use of perspective was Paolo Uccello (1397–1475), the first Italian battle painter. Uccello varied compositions with episodes from the Battle of San Romano three times (mid-1450s, London, National Gallery; Florence, Uffizi; Paris, Louvre), enthusiastically depicting multi-colored horses and riders in a wide variety of perspective cuts and spreads.
Castaño. Among the followers of Masaccio, Andrea del Castagno (about 1421 - 1457) stood out, who showed interest not only in the plastic form and perspective structures characteristic of Florentine painting of that time, but also in the problem of color. The best of the created images of this rough, courageous, uneven by nature artist are distinguished by heroic strength and irrepressible energy. These are the heroes of the paintings of the Villa Pandolfini (circa 1450, Florence, Church of Santa Apollonia) - an example of a solution to a secular theme. The figures of prominent figures of the Renaissance stand out against the green and dark red backgrounds, among them the condottieri of Florence: Farinata degli Uberti and Pippo Spano. The latter stands firmly on the ground, legs spread wide, clad in armor, with his head uncovered, with a drawn sword in his hands; he is a living person, full of frantic energy and confidence in his abilities. Powerful light-and-shadow modeling gives the image plastic strength, expressiveness, emphasizes the sharpness of individual characteristics, and a bright portraiture not previously seen in Italian painting.
Among the frescoes of the church of Santa Apollonia, the “Last Supper” (1445–1450) stands out for the scope of its image and the sharpness of its characteristics. This religious scene - Christ's meal surrounded by disciples - was painted by many artists, who always followed a certain type of composition. Castagno did not deviate from this type of construction. On one side of the table located along the wall, the artist placed the apostles. Among them, in the center is Christ. On the other side of the table is the lonely figure of the traitor Judas. Yet Castaño achieves great impact and innovative sound in his composition; This is facilitated by the bright character of the images, the nationality of the types of the apostles and Christ, the deep dramatic expression of feelings, and the emphatically rich and contrasting color scheme.
Angelico. The exquisite beauty and purity of delicate shining color harmonies, which acquire a special decorative quality in combination with gold, captivates the art of Fra Beato Angelico (1387–1455), full of poetry and fabulousness. Mystical in spirit, associated with the naive world of religious ideas, it is covered in the poetry of folk tales. The soulful images of the “Coronation of Mary” (circa 1435, Paris, Louvre), frescoes of the Monastery of San Marco in Florence, created by this unique artist - a Dominican monk, are enlightened.
Domenico Veneziano. Problems of color also attracted Domenico Veneziano (c. 1410 – 1461), a native of Venice who worked mainly in Florence. His religious compositions (“Adoration of the Magi,” 1430–1440, Berlin-Dahlem, Art Gallery), naive and fairy-tale in their interpretation of the theme, still bear the imprint of the Gothic tradition. Renaissance features appeared more clearly in the portraits he created. In the 15th century, the portrait genre gained its own significance. The profile composition, inspired by ancient medals and making it possible to generalize and glorify the image of the person being portrayed, has become widespread. A precise line outlines a sharp profile in the “Portrait of a Woman” (mid-15th century, Berlin-Dahlem, Picture Gallery). The artist achieves a living direct similarity and at the same time a subtle coloristic unity in the harmony of light shining colors, transparent, airy, softening the contours. The painter was the first to introduce Florentine masters to the technique of oil painting. By introducing varnishes and oils, Domenico Veneziano enhanced the purity and richness of color of his canvases.