The science. Polish scientists and inventors
Every nation has its own heroes or outstanding personalities, widely known throughout the world. Possession of at least superficial information about them, as a rule, has a positive effect on understanding the national character. Doesn’t a little knowledge by a foreigner about Pushkin or Yesenin inspire respect among our Russian citizens? How nice is it to hear from a foreign guest about Gagarin or Peter I?
Such a person immediately arouses affection and becomes a little closer. The Poles feel the same. After all, this is national pride and, one might say, spiritual wealth. Knowing about the great people of other countries also ennobles us and makes us think about the importance of man.
In this section we will try to briefly characterize some famous Poles. We encourage you not to limit yourself to a superficial description, but to read more about them in the biographies provided at the link.
Boleslaw I the Brave
– the first crowned Polish king since 1025. Along with his father Mieszko, he is considered the founder of Polish statehood. Having ascended the throne, he put an end to internecine wars, united the scattered principalities and carried out military reforms. He had the talent of not only a warrior-leader, but also a gifted diplomat. Established connections with the Holy Roman Emperor and the Pope. Under him the first Polish archbishopric was founded.
Tadeusz Kosciuszko
- People's hero of the liberation movement. A man of international stature. Systematically implementing the ideas of the Enlightenment, he wisely rushed into battle where he could be useful. Hero and brigadier general of the United States, head of the Polish uprising of 1794. Even his enemies spoke about his courage, human honor and dignity.
Maria Skłodowska-Curie
- a great scientist in the field of physical and chemical sciences. Despite her difficult fate, she has earned the enormous gratitude of many people who are today being treated for cancer thanks to her discoveries. Her strong character served as a great example for people devoted to science.
John Paul II
– Pope since 1978, for half a century of the existence of the Papal See, the first non-Italian to hold this high position. He was engaged in enormous educational and peacekeeping activities. Transformed the opinion of the world community about the Vatican and its place in international affairs. He devoted a lot of time to establishing a peaceful dialogue with other faiths and movements.
Lech Walesa
- the undisputed leader of the second half of the 20th century. Founder of Solidarity. His characteristic figure has forever entered the historical chronicles as a man who prevented a nuclear confrontation and managed to lead Poland into independent development. The first post-war president who was not a member of the Communist Party.
Joseph Piłsudski
- a central figure in Polish history at the beginning of the twentieth century. He led the revived Poland after the World War. His reign included six wars, from which he was able to emerge without losing respect. Together with R. Dmowski, he belongs to theorists of the new Polish identity. His biography was banned in Soviet times and many members of the older generation do not know him well.
- the Polish king, under whom the country made a breakthrough, the area of the territory was multiplied by two. He ordered the construction of more than eight dozen fortresses. Foresight and statesmanship allowed him to transform Poland into an exemplary European country to be reckoned with.
Stefan Batory
- a Polish king who ascended the throne during a difficult time for the country under the dominance of magnates. With his policy he sought to limit the influence on royal power and pursued a systematic policy to find peaceful coexistence of various political forces.
Nicolaus Copernicus
- famous astronomer. The announcement of the truth known to everyone today about the rotation of the Earth around the sun caused a state of shock in conservative society. His work was banned for a long time until the 19th century.
Henryk Sienkiewicz
- writer, Nobel Prize winner in literature, his works are forever included in the golden fund of culture. It is largely through his historical novels that modern Poles imagine artistic images of their country's past.
and many others...
Famous and Famous:
A 14th-century king who ruled the Polish state for almost half a century. His reign is filled with romantic legends, spy intrigues and smooth development. Often mentioning Casimir III, they write that he led a wooden Poland, and left it to his descendants as a stone one. Indeed, during his reign he managed to build more than a dozen fortresses and castles and fortify the main cities with walls. But his reign was not smooth; in order to stay on the throne, Casimir III had to fight not only with internal and external enemies, but also with his passions.
The electoral system of the kings of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth led to surprising situations. The elective diet of 1576 declared Stefan Batory, Prince of Transylvania, the Polish king, who spoke neither Polish nor Lithuanian. However, in the history of Poland he is remembered as the most effective ruler, brave commander and reformer.
Henryk Sienkiewicz is one of the most recognizable Polish writers. His books are included in the golden fund of world literature. The masterful, original style grabs readers from the first lines and does not let go. Living images of book characters help to feel both the era being described and the actions of the book heroes. The writer received the Nobel Prize for literary achievements, and his name is forever inscribed in golden letters in the hearts of grateful Poles.
Frederic Chopin once said that for him there is nothing more disgusting than music without hidden meaning. His name has become immortal for lovers of classical music; we encourage you to get to know his life in detail.
Copernicus' heliocentric hypothesis served as a trigger for a critical perception of reality and those canons that explained its understanding. His theory served as the source for the first scientific revolution. Monuments to Copernicus stand in many cities in Poland. In his hometown of Torun there is a sculpture of him with the words: “He who stopped the Sun - who moved the Earth.”
If a foreigner outside Poland is asked to name three famous Poles, the name Lech Walesa will probably come up more often than others. The world learned about him in the early 70s. The former shipyard worker became a famous leader of the Polish nation, founded the Solidarity trade union movement, which criticized the existing government and, in the end, achieved political power and managed to realize many of the aspirations of Polish society.
This man devoted himself all his life to serving the church and people. Not limiting himself to the framework of his religion, Paul II sought to promote the ideas of philanthropy and establish peaceful contacts with other religions. Understanding the importance of the spiritual component, he actively participated in the life of world politics. He was the first non-Italian on the papal throne and managed to restore confidence in the Catholic Church as a creative force.
Poland is a state with a long history. This country has given the world famous scientists, composers, musicians, artists, and church ministers. Perhaps the most famous among them are Nicolaus Copernicus, Frederic Chopin and St. John Paul II.
Nicolaus Copernicus
The author of the heliocentric system of building the world, Nicolaus Copernicus, was born in the Polish town of Torun in the family of a merchant. The boy, who lost both his parents early, had no idea that it was his works and discoveries that would lead to the first scientific revolution. He had a passion for science since childhood. Copernicus was particularly interested in astronomy. From the age of 9 he was raised by his uncle, a bishop. Many predicted spiritual rank for him. However, the young man chose to study science. He studied in Krakow, Italian Bologna, Padua, and Ferrara. The scientist’s most famous work, “On the Rotation of the Celestial Spheres,” is still considered the foundation of modern astronomy. More about Nicolaus Copernicus at: http://slawomirkonopa.ru/nicolas-copernicus
Frederic Chopin
Poland is known not only for scientists born on its soil, but also for famous musicians and composers. Even people far from classical music know the name of Frederic Chopin. The future pianist and author of famous musical works already composed his first short polonaise at the age of 7. And at the age of 12 he was already performing in Warsaw aristocratic salons. At the age of 21, the composer left his homeland, going first to Vienna and then to Paris, where he spent the rest of his life. But Poland remained forever in the musician’s memory. He was homesick. The main evidence of this is the composer’s will, in which he asked to bury his body in the French capital and return his heart to Poland. This last request was fulfilled. To this day, the capsule with Chopin's heart remains in Warsaw. The relationship between Chopin and Baroness Dudevant, known throughout the world under the pseudonym Georges Sand, lasted eight years. The composer died of tuberculosis at the age of 39.
John Paul II
The most famous Pole born in the 20th century is undoubtedly St. John Paul II. The future Pope was born in the city of Wadowice. Before his accession to the throne as head of the Roman Catholic Church, he bore the name Karol Józef Wojtyła. As a child, he dreamed of becoming a professional actor and attended a theater group. During the Second World War, he worked at a quarry and a chemical plant to support his family. At this time, he became a student of courses at an underground theological seminary in Krakow. The future Pope spoke 11 languages. He was ordained in 1946. And in 1978 he was elected primate of the Roman Catholic Church. The pontiff died in 2005 and was later canonized.
John Paul II (1920-2005)
The most famous Pole in the whole world, Pope John Paul II, was born in the Polish city of Wadowice. His real name is Karol Jozef Wojtyla. In 1978, he was elected head of the Catholic Church. John Paul II became the first non-Italian pope in the 445-year period of this post. The period of his pontificate is characterized by a number of internal reforms of the church itself, as well as a change in the image of the Vatican as an apostolic capital in the eyes of the international community. John Paul II made numerous pilgrimages throughout the world, always attended by thousands of believers. He also devoted a lot of attention to conducting dialogues with representatives of other faiths.
Lech Walesa
An electrician from Gdansk, a man with a distinctive mustache, was the founder of the Polish Solidarity movement and the first non-communist president of post-war Poland. His role in the collapse of the post-war order in Europe and the end of the Cold War puts him on par with figures such as John Paul II and Mikhail Gorbachev.
Zbigniew Brzezinski
Born in Warsaw in 1928, Zbigniew Brzezinski in the period 1977-1981. was a consultant to the President of the United States of America on security issues. In 1981, the President awarded him the Medal of Freedom for his contributions to the normalization of U.S.-China relations, his U.S. security policy, and his human rights work.
Joseph Piłsudski
This is undoubtedly the most important person in the history of Poland during the first half of the twentieth century. At least twice his activities directly influenced the fate of the inhabitants of Europe: in November 1918 and in the summer of 1920 (1918 - Poland gained independence, 1920 - opposition to the expansion of Bolshevism in Western Europe).
Tadeusz Mazowiecki
Publicist, public figure and politician, lawyer by training. The first non-communist prime minister in Eastern Europe, United Nations special envoy to Yugoslavia. One of the founders of the Solidarity movement, a staunch fighter for human rights. He was interned by the communist authorities for opportunist activities. Close friend of John Paul II.
Tadeusz Kosciuszko (1746-1817)
Commander-in-Chief of the national uprising to defend the Constitution of May 3 and the sovereignty of the Polish state in 1794 (Kosciuszkowski insurrection). He distinguished himself with his engineering and military talents during the battles of Saratoga during the War of Independence of the United States of America.
Casimir Pulaski (1747-1779)
Leader of the "lordly conference" and defender of Jasnaya Gora. He led the cavalry on the side of George Washington during the Revolutionary War of the United States of America. He died a heroic death as a result of wounds received in the Battle of Savannah.
Richard Kuklinski (1930-2004)
Colonel of the National Polish Army, who decided to cooperate with CIA intelligence for NATO. It is assumed that during the Cold War he handed over to the CIA about 35 thousand pages of secret documents, which related, among other things, to the USSR's plans to use nuclear weapons, as well as the introduction of martial law in Poland.
2. Kings
Boleslav the Brave (967-1025)
The first-born of Meshka I and the Czech princess Dubrava. After the death of his father, he expelled his second wife from the country, as well as her sons. After the unification of the kingdom, he tried to ascend to the throne. For this purpose, he entered into diplomatic relations with the apostolic capital of the Vatican and the German Empire. Thanks to his actions, Bishop Adalbert, who died a martyr, was canonized in 999. In 1000, the first archbishopric in Poland was established in the city of Gniezno, and a congress of enormous political significance was held there, which was also attended by Emperor Otto III.
Casimir the Great (1310-1370)
During his reign, Poland enjoyed both territorial and economic power. Subsequent generations, appreciating his contribution to the establishment of the political system in Poland, nicknamed him “The Great”. An old Polish proverb says that he “took Poland as wood, but left it as stone.”
Stepan Bathory (1533-1586)
The Prince of Semigorod was elected king of Poland in 1575, and finally ascended the throne in 1576, after marrying Anna Jagiellonka, the sister of Zygmunt August. A decisive ruler who opposed his policies to the influence of nobles and magnates. Supporter of the policy of religious tolerance, recognized in 1573 by the Convocation Sejm as one of the basic principles of the functioning of the Polish state.
Jan Sobieski (1629-1696)
He became famous thanks to the qualities of an exceptionally seasoned military commander-in-chief and an excellent strategist demonstrated during the war with Turkey. He married Maria Casimira d'Arquin, known as Marysenka from their correspondence, which is one of the most interesting historical exhibits of epistoligraphy.
Stanisław August Poniatowski (1732-1798)
Coming from a family of Poniatowski magnates, Stanisław ascended to the Polish throne in 1764 under the patronage of Tsarina Catherine II (and also as her lover). He was a patron of the arts and sciences, a supporter of educational thought, and one of the founders of the May 3 Constitution.
3. Writers/Poets
Adam Mickiewicz
The publication of the book “Ballads and Romances” by a Polish folk singer in 1822 marked the beginning of the era of romanticism in Poland. The famous drama "Grandfathers" (1823-1832), in accordance with Mickiewicz's concept of missionaryism, assigned Poland a special role as a liberator of nations, whose martyrdom is comparable to the martyrdom of Jesus Christ.
Henryk Sienkiewicz
Prose writer, winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature (1905) for his work “Quo Vadis,” a book translated into many languages and filmed many times. The author's Catholic worldview largely shaped his work. Sienkiewicz's works have been translated into 50 languages.
Czeslaw Milosz
Poet, writer, translator, literary critic, awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature (1980). Milosz's poetry and essays are imbued with autobiographical themes, memories from the time of emigration, religious and metaphysical discussions, and historical and literary analysis. One can also notice pantheistic motives in his work.
Wieslawa Szymborska
Poet and translator, one of the few women awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature (1996). Her first works were created in the spirit of socialist realism. Szymborska’s works, filled with pessimism regarding the future fate of man, embedded in the seeming everyday life and written in a rather ironic form, deserve special attention.
Richard Kapustinsky
An exceptional writer and journalist. As a reminder of his numerous travels abroad, there are reports that reflect the turbulent history of the countries of Latin America, Asia and Africa. Africa was especially close to his heart (he witnessed the end of the colonial era), to which he dedicated many works, including “Heban”.
4. Musicians
Frederic Chopin
A genius of 19th-century music, he spent most of his life in Paris. A composer of the Romantic period who introduced revolutionary innovations into the world of piano music. His exceptional expressive style was reflected previously in two piano concertos, as well as in many other less significant works.
Krzysztof Penderecki
Honorary member of many universities, multiple winner and winner of the main awards of many prestigious music competitions, including the “Gram” and the award for the best composer at the Cannes festival (2000).
Henryk Nikolai Gurecki
The first composer of classical music whose work reached the peak of popularity. The recording of his Symphony No. 3 has sold more than 1,200 thousand copies.
Stanislav Monyushko
Recognized as the father of Polish opera. His operatic adaptations of folk melodies during the historical divisions of the country raised the civic spirit of the Polish people.
Witold Lutoslawski
One of the most important composers of the 20th century. Born in Warsaw in 1913, he showed enormous musical talent from childhood.
Witold Preisner
The most famous creator of music for films. He collaborated, among others, with Krzysztof Kieszlowski and Agnieszka Holland. International success was brought to him by musical compositions for the films “Decalogue”, “The Double Life of Veronica”, “Three Colors: Blue, White, Red”. Winner of many prestigious music awards, including the Silver Bear at the Berlin Film Festival and the Los Angeles Critics Circle Award.
Urszula Dudziak
Vocalist, ex-wife of Mikhail Urbaniak, a jazz musician, better known in the USA than in Poland. She began her career in the late fifties, quickly becoming one of the most popular jazz performers. In the sixties and seventies she traveled overseas, and later finally settled in New York. She has collaborated with such famous musicians as Archie Shepp, Lester Bovey, Bobby McFerrin and Sting.
Barbara Trzetshelevska
Singer, more commonly known as Basya. She gained international recognition after moving to the UK in the early 1980s. She was a vocalist in the band Matt Bianco, and also performed with pianist Danny White. In 1987 she published her first solo album. Many of her songs found their way onto British hit lists. However, in Poland it remains virtually unknown.
5. Discoverers/Inventors/Scientists
Nicolaus Copernicus
Founder of modern astronomy. Born in 1473 in Toruń. His work “On the Rotation of Celestial Bodies,” which presented his heliocentric theory, which gave direction to all subsequent research, brought him fame.
Marie Curie-Skłodowska
Her discovery of the radioactive chemical element radium made a huge step in the development of atomic physics as well as cancer therapy. She was a woman full of passion and determination, completely devoted to science. Died as a result of an illness caused by contact with radioactive elements.
Jan Heveliusz
Seventeenth-century astronomer from Gdańsk. He studied the movement of comets, compiled a catalog of stars and one of the first maps of the surface of the Moon. In his honor, one of the craters on the Moon is named after him.
Henryk Arctowski
Scientist, oceanologist, explorer of Antarctica. A special effect that occurs in clouds consisting of ice crystals (the so-called “Arktovsky arc”), which he studied and described, is named after him.
Ernst Malinovsky
The creator of the section of the railway connecting the Atlantic coast with the territory of Peru. The section of the road from Callao to Oroya was, until 2005, a section of railway traffic located at the highest altitude in the world. His contribution to the development of social sciences is also emphasized.
Casimir Funk (1884-1967)
A biochemist of Polish origin, he studied in Berlin and Bern, then began research at various scientific centers in Paris, Berlin and London. During the First World War he moved to the United States of America and received American citizenship in 1920. A vitamin researcher, he was the first to discover and isolate vitamin B1 from rice bran. The scientist foresaw that a lack of vitamins could lead to diseases such as scurvy. He also conducted research into hormones and the causes of diseases such as cancer, diabetes and ulcers. His research led to improvements in the production of medicines, and he himself created several new medicines.
Ludwig Zamenhof (1859-1917)
A Jew of Polish origin, born in Bialystok. Famous doctor and linguist, creator of the artificial international language Esperanto. This language, according to its creator, was supposed to become a bridge connecting people of different nationalities and cultures. And although this language did not become, as Zamenhof intended, an international language, it nevertheless spread throughout the world and has many supporters. Currently, 8 million people speak Esperanto.
Korczak Ziulkowski (1908-1992)
American of Polish origin, architect and self-taught sculptor. He never studied art. In his youth he experimented by creating sculptures from wood and stone. In 1939, he took part in the creation of the Mount Rushmore monument (South Dakota), which represents busts of four American presidents. His later projects ensured his place of honor among the famous artistic masters of the century.
6. Athletes
Irina Shevinska
Shevinskaya's sports career was one of the longest in international practice (from 18 years to 34 years of age) and was marked by many victories. She took part in five Olympic Games, winning 7 medals, including 3 gold. She set world records six times and was the first woman to break records simultaneously in the 100, 200 and 400 meters.
Andrzej Golota
The most famous Polish boxer in the heavy weight category. The peak of his amateur career was 111 victories in Europe, marked with bronze medals in 1988. As a professional boxer, he fought with the strongest professionals in the world.
Adam the Kid
Ski jumping athlete, still a popular Polish athlete. Winner of the 4-Hills Tournament and gold medal winner in the cross-country skiing competition in Harrachov. Repeatedly won on ski jumps in Salt Lake City, Sapporo, Wilingen, Falne, Trondheim and Holmenkolen. At the end of the season he set a new Polish record in Polanica - 218.5 meters. He won the World Cup twice. He turned ski jumping into almost a national sport.
Casimir Deyna
The best Polish football player of all time. He received the nickname "Rogal" (Russian for "pretzel") for his effective and unexpected goals.
Robert Kozeniowski
The world's best race walking athlete, winner of 4 Olympic gold medals (Atlanta, Sydney, Athens). He holds today's world records.
Zbigniew Boniek
One of the most talented Polish football players. He began his career in Polish national representation at the age of 20. Scored 24 goals in 80 matches. Played in the Italian league for teams such as Juventus Turin and AS Roma. After finishing his football career in 1980, he founded his own entrepreneurial activity. However, he is always in the sports environment, being the vice-president of the Polish Football Union. During all this time he also conducts coaching work as a coach of the Polish National Representation.
Dariusz Michalczewski
Boxing record holder in recent years. He began his career in his native Gdansk, and was the champion of Poland among juniors in the light heavyweight division. Since 1991 he has been a sports coach, representing mainly the colors of the German national flag. World champion among professionals of the WBO, WBA, IBF light heavyweight federations. He got his nickname – “Tiger” – due to his unusually aggressive fighting style.
7. Filmmakers
Roman Polyansky
One of the most famous Polish film directors, Oscar winner. His life was marked by tragedies, which was also reflected in his works. Miraculously, he survived in the Warsaw ghetto; his mother died in the gas chamber.
Andrzej Wajda
Winner of an Oscar in 2003 for his creative contribution to cinematography, the father of modern Polish cinematography, known for his excellent film adaptations of Polish literature. Included in the vanguard of the world's most exceptional directors, he is especially valued for his ability to create works that touch the soul and at the same time reach the viewer's intellect.
Krzysztof Kieszlowski
Apparently, the most exceptional Polish director of recent years. He began as a creator of documentaries, which presented, as if through a prism, life in communist Poland, images of individual personalities.
Janusz Kaminski
American cinematographer and director of Polish origin. His directorial debut in 2000 was the film Lost Souls. Since 1993, he has collaborated with Steven Spielberg on all of his films. He received Academy Awards for his films Schindler's List (1994) and Private Ryan (1999). Winner of the British Academy Film Award (BAFTA) and many others.
Krystyna Yanda
One of the most famous Polish actresses, she played in many films by Andrzej Wajda. She owes her fame to her roles in politically oriented films created in the post-thaw period. She currently performs on the stage of the theater and also works as a director of performances.
Jerzy Skolimowski
Director, one of the most original filmmakers in Eastern Europe. A graduate of the Film Institute in Lodz, he studied with Roman Polyansky. I tried my hand at the Brynan film world. His films, which explore weighty and complex themes and are crafted with extraordinary imagination, have received worldwide critical acclaim.
Andrzej Severin
Theater and film actor. Graduate of the Warsaw Actor's School. He played roles in such films as “The Promised Land” by Andrzej Wajda, “Slaves” by Jan Rybkowski. In 1980 he began his international career in France. In 1993, he received an engagement in one of the most prestigious theater troupes in the world - the Comédie Français - as the third foreigner in the history of French theater. He played the main role in the French film adaptation of Moliere's Don Juan. He also played in such films as Spielberg's Schindler's List, Peter Brook's Mahabharata, and Marco Belloci's The Verdict.
Isabella Scorupco
Actress and fashion model, born in Bialystok. As a little girl, she moved with her mother to Sweden. When she was 17 years old, she was noticed by Swedish director Staffan Hildebrand, thanks to whom she made her debut in the film Nobody Loves Like Us, becoming a teen idol. She traveled a lot around the world, working as a fashion model, and also trying her hand as a singer. However, she returned to acting and in 1995 she performed alongside Pierce Brosnan in one of the films about the adventures of James Bond (“GoldenEye”). In 1999, the premiere of a super film with her participation took place - “With Fire and Sword” directed by Jerzy Hofman. She also played in such films as “The Limits of Exposure” by Martin Campbler and “Lords of Fire.”
Ioanna Patsula
American actress of Polish origin. The events of 1981 influenced her departure to the United States, where she began her international career as an actress and fashion model. Collaborates with the best Hollywood directors. She played in such productions as “Gorky Park” by Michael Apted, “The Kiss” by Pen Deschamps.
Back in the 13th century. one of the first Polish scientists, Witelo, conducted research that became the basis of the optics of that time, as he described the structure of the eye and tried to explain the process of vision. Witelo's concept remained relevant until the 16th century, as evidenced by the publication of his work in Nuremberg in 1535. The work of Polish scientists was often fundamental in nature, although their successes are not always widely known. The Americans are considered to be the pioneers of the oil industry. But it was the Pole Ignacy Łukasiewicz who began exploiting the first oil well in 1856 in the Bubrka area. The first oil production plant in Pennsylvania was built only 5 years after Łukasiewicz did it in Poland. Although, of course, this achievement cannot be equated with such a great scientific revolution as the discovery of radioactive radiation and two chemical elements made by the most famous Polish woman scientist, Marie Skłodowska-Curie, a two-time Nobel Prize winner. In 1903 she received a prize in physics for her research into radioactive radiation, and in 1911 for her discovery of two new chemical elements: polonium and radium. Many Polish scientists followed in the footsteps of Marie Skłodowska-Curie. Among them are Marian Danysz, a specialist in the field of nuclear physics, one of the creators of the radioactive fluorine isotope and the discoverer of the double hypernucleus, and Józef Rozblat, also a researcher in the field of nuclear physics and at the same time an activist in the movement for the reduction of nuclear weapons, organizer of the Pugwash conference. In 1995, Józef Rozblat won the Nobel Peace Prize.
Polish scientists often collaborated with the world's leading scientists. For example, Leopold Infeld, who studied the theory of relativity, together with Mark Born, a Nobel Prize winner, worked on the study of the electromagnetic field, formulating the Born-Infeld rule of electrodynamics. In 1936 - 1938 Infeld collaborated with Albert Einstein at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. The result of this work was the book The Evolution of Physics (1959), which explained the theory of relativity to people far from physics. Mieczysław Wolfke left his mark on the history of science as the discoverer of two states of liquid helium, of which He II is still the only known superfluid liquid. Wolfke became the founder of holography - a field of optics that deals with obtaining and fixing a three-dimensional image. In 1920, the scientist divided the process of creating an image into two separate stages using two beams of waves. At the same time as Albert Einstein, Marian Smoluchowski worked on the theory of relativity. He explained the process of the emergence of Brownian motion. His work contains an equation that became the basis of the theory of stochastic processes. Another Polish scientist, Maximilian Huber, also studied the physical properties of materials. His research led to the development of the so-called Huber criterion, which determines the conditions under which materials subjected to heavy loads reach a dangerous state in which cracks appear or irreversible deformation occurs. This is of enormous importance in the design of buildings, bridges and structural elements that must withstand heavy loads.
A two-time Nobel Prize candidate and the creator of modern thermochemistry is Wojciech Świętosławski, the author of the development of a static method of cryometric measurements and a modern method of coal analysis. Sventoslavsky was deputy chairman of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the creator of the foundations of a new branch of physical chemistry - polyazeotopy.
Everyone who was more closely acquainted with Smolyukhovsky valued him not only as an example of a brilliant intellect, but also a noble man.
Great achievements in the development of physics were made by such scientists as Jerzy Pniewski and Marian Danysz, who discovered elementary particles - hypernuclei - in 1952. These are specific atomic nuclei containing, in addition to neutrons and protons, also hyperons. This discovery was simultaneously the discovery of a new state of matter - hypernuclear matter. Marjan Danysz and Jerzy Pniewski were once serious contenders for the Nobel Prize. Vitold Nazarevich also studies the nuclei of atoms, who studies the nuclei of exotic atoms, for example, those that arise from the collision of radioactive nuclei. The primary chemical elements existing on earth are stable. Their nuclei decay spontaneously. Exotic nuclei are observed in exploding supernovae. Witold Nazarewicz holds the position of scientific director of the Heavy Ion Laboratory at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory at the University of Tennessee, and also works at the University of Warsaw. Professor Jacek Kalinowski shines radio waves into objects in a very strong magnetic field, which makes it possible to distinguish between larger and smaller particles. These studies may help increase the production of mineral-derived chemicals.
Each of us studied the periodic table at school. Adam Sobichevsky, thanks to the discovery of the so-called “island of stability,” proved that the periodic table is not yet finished.
Maria Skłodowska-Curie (1867 - 1934) is an exceptional figure in the pantheon of Polish scientists. A two-time Nobel Prize winner and the discoverer of two new chemical elements, she was a pioneer of women in science. Maria Sklodowska-Curie began her journey into science by studying at the illegal Mobile (Flying) University. In 1891 she went to France, studied at the Sorbonne, and later devoted herself entirely to the study of radioactive substances. She was the first woman to defend her dissertation at the Sorbonne and the first woman to become a Sorbonne professor and head of department. In 1897, a university graduate, Skłodowska, was looking for a topic for her doctoral dissertation. In the student library, she came across messages from Antoine Becquerel, a professor of physics at the Polytechnic Institute in Paris, about the discovery of new mysterious rays that were emitted by ore bars containing uranium. Skłodowska began researching this phenomenon, which at that time did not yet have a name, but years later came to be called radioactivity. During many years of research and observation, Sklodowska-Curie concluded that some alloys of uranium and thorium emit significantly more energy than would be expected from the quantitative content of both elements. The work led her to the trail of hitherto unknown elements, of which the first was called radium (from the Latin radius - ray), and the other was called polonium in honor of the homeland of its discoverer. Maria conducted scientific activities together with her husband Pierre Curie. In order for other scientists to believe in their discovery, the couple had to obtain pure elements from the isolated salts. From the only uranium ore mine operating at that time in the Jáchymovo area in the Czech Republic, scientists received a free ton of waste from the production of uranium glass. They bought another seven tons of ore and refined it in a rustic outbuilding near Paris that had been converted into a chemical laboratory. Four years later, Maria and Pierre obtained one tenth of a gram of radium chloride (RaCl2) from eight tons of ore. After the death of her husband, Maria managed to isolate 0.08 grams of pure metal radium. To date, about 500 grams of this element have been obtained worldwide. It is used (usually in the form of chloride or bromide) as a source of gamma radiation in the treatment of cancerous tumors and some skin diseases. In 1903, together with Pierre Curie and Antoine Becquerel, Marie Skłodowska-Curie received the Nobel Prize in Physics for her research in the field of radioactivity. After the death of her husband, in 1906. Sklodowska-Curie independently headed the department of radioactivity research in Paris. There she made the most important discoveries about the properties of the elements radium and polonium. On her initiative, the Radium Institute was created in Paris. In 1911, the Swedish Academy of Sciences again awarded Marie Sklodowska-Curie the Nobel Prize, this time in chemistry for the discovery and isolation of two new elements.
Generator simulator from the original experiment
régine debatty / Flickr
Polish scientists repeated Milgram's famous experiment on their compatriots. It turned out that the Poles of the 2010s are no less willing to hurt people by obeying authority than the Americans of the 1960s. The results of the work were published in the journal Social Psychological and Personality Science in January 2017, brought to attention by a press release issued in March.
One of the most respected psychologists of the 20th century, Stanley Milgram, conducted his classic experiment in 1963, inspired by the crimes of the Nazis during World War II. He wanted to find out how much suffering ordinary people could cause to others if it was their job to do so. To do this, the scientist invited average people to participate in an experiment, the purpose of which was to study the effect of pain on learning.
In the experiment, participants drew fake lots to play the role of teacher or student. In fact, they always got the role of the teacher, and the student was portrayed by a professional actor. The student had to memorize pairs of words and then reproduce them on the teacher's command. At the same time, the teacher had at his disposal a plausible-looking current generator with 30 switches from 15 to 450 volts in 15-volt increments. For each mistake, the experimenter in charge of the work in a white coat ordered the teacher to give the student an electric shock, and with each subsequent mistake the voltage increased by 15 volts. The actor portrayed an increasing pain response, but the experimenter insisted on continuing the “training” by saying four phrases in succession: “Please continue,” “The experiment requires you to continue,” “It is absolutely necessary that you continue,” and “You have no other choice.” , you must continue." If the maximum tension was reached, it was applied three times, after which the session was stopped. Before the experiment began, the teacher himself was given a demonstration electric shock of 45 volts.
Experimental design: E - experimenter, T - teacher, L - student
Wikimedia Commons
The American experiment was supposed to serve only to fine-tune the methodology, after which Milgram planned to conduct it in Germany in order to better understand the psychology of the citizens of this country during the war. However, the results turned out to be very eloquent: on average, 65 percent of the participants, submitting to the authority of the experimenter, brought the student’s punishment to the maximum, despite his “pain” and protests. Only about 12 percent stopped at 300 volts when the actor began to depict unbearable suffering. “I found so much obedience that I don’t see the need to conduct this experiment in Germany,” the scientist said.
Milgram's experiment was repeated several times in the United States, Holland, Germany, Spain, Italy, Austria and Jordan with similar results (the average proportion of participants who completed it was 61 percent in the United States, and 66 percent outside the United States, the range was from 28 to 91 percent). Minor changes in the study design, designed to exclude the influence of such factors as gender, social status, the authority of the scientific center, ignorance of the dangers of current and possible sadistic tendencies, did not significantly affect the results, nor did the year of the work. Such experiments have not yet been carried out in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe.
Employees of the University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Wroclaw decided to correct this situation. “Our goal was to check how high the level of obedience is among the inhabitants of Poland. The particular history of the Central European region has made the question of obedience to authority of exceptional interest to us,” they write.
To reduce the psychological trauma of the participants, scientists used a modification of the experiment based on the findings of American psychologist Jerry Berger. Burger). He noted that the majority (79 percent) of participants in the original work who reached the 10th switch also reached the last, 30th. Therefore, the level of submission can be judged by the first 10 indicators of shock tension. Polish psychologists used this design to make the experiment more ethical. 40 men and 40 women aged from 18 to 69 years were invited to participate.
90 percent of the participants, obeying the authority of the experimenter, reached the last switch. The rate of failure to complete the experiment was three times higher if the role of the student was performed by a woman, but the authors note that due to the small sample size, it is impossible to draw clear conclusions from this.
“Our research once again demonstrates the enormous power of the situation in which people find themselves, and how easily they agree to things that are unpleasant for themselves. Half a century after Milgram’s work, a striking majority of subjects are still willing to shock a helpless person,” Tomasz Grzyb, one of the authors of the work, commented on the results.