Non-union proposals, examples. Unconjunct clause with comma
A non-union complex sentence is one of the two main structural types of a complex sentence in the Russian language, which is distinguished by a formal criterion.
Non-union is not just the absence of a union, it is the mobilization of other means of communication of predicative parts: intonation, the relationship of aspectual and tense verbal forms, lexical indicators, etc. This is the use of the structure of a simple sentence as a structural element in a complex one. For example: The wind whistled stronger, the trees swayed, bending to the ground. - the connection of predicative parts and the expression of relations between them is carried out through the intonation of enumeration, the relationship of aspectual and temporal forms (sequence), as well as the parallelism of the structure of the parts. Wed: Trahowl the graves are overgrown- pain grows long ago(Sh.) - comparison relations are conveyed by intonation (indicated by the dash sign), parallelism in the structure of parts and lexical repetition (verb overgrown used in different meanings, but in the same form).
The BSP expresses the relations of equivalence/dissimilarity (similarity/dissimilarity) common to the Russian syntactic system, which in conjunctive complex sentences are conveyed by coordinating and subordinating conjunctions: Mauvethe tones of the sands dimmed, [and] the desert darkened(IN.); Bye devwhoa- cheerful, and strong, and loud-mouthed; [only] issued- Alldefinitely someone erased it(A.S); [if] There are no kopecks in the ruble, sothe ruble is not full(Ate.); Dust and the smell of fresh milk hungover the village streets [because]- from forest gladesdrove the cows(Paust.).
However, the possibility of inserting a conjunction does not mean that BSP should be classified as complex or complex, especially since this insertion is not always permissible. BSP is characterized by its own structural qualities: expression of various types of relationships by various indicators, number of parts, openness/closeness of the structure; Clear punctuation is very important.
BSP is a fragment of a syntactic system, largely unknown to science. This is largely explained by the fact that for a long time attention was paid to the facts of the codified literary language (CLL), which was identified with the literary language in general. Meanwhile, the sphere of existence of a non-union complex sentence is predominantly spoken language (SL).
In KLYA, the main type of complex sentence is conjunctive. In scientific and business speech, non-union sentences are almost never used; only a few of their types are allowed here. The non-union proposal is more widely represented in fiction, and mainly in such areas that directly imitate RY (in dramatic works and in the speech of characters in fiction), as well as in journalistic works with an emphasis on loose speech. Non-union complex sentences are widely and uniquely used in poetic speech.
In RL, in many cases, the non-union design of the SP is the norm, while for the KL it represents a deviation from the norm, permissible only in limited speech spheres. Thus, SPs corresponding to the pronominal-correlative sentences of the CL are consistently and regularly formed in RY without conjunctions and correlative words: There was a terrible thunderstorm, we were scared (There was such a terrible thunderstorm that we were scared.) He is silent, it is impossible to get an answer (He is silent, so it is impossible to get an answer).
Not a single speech sphere of the CL represents the entire variety of BSPs existing in the RL. There are many examples of them, which are sold only within the RY. These are, for example, non-union sentences equivalent to IPPs with a substantive subordinate clause: And this is your dress, you said yesterday? (= which you talked about yesterday).
The functioning of BSP mainly in the field of RY is explained by the specifics of their formal and semantic organization. In the BSP, the semantic relationships between the parts do not have explicit expression and must be extracted by the addressee of the speech from the content of the parts, relying on the fund of general knowledge between him and the speaker. In the context of the implementation of RL, when the speaker and the addressee of speech are in direct contact and the speaker can constantly monitor the understanding of what he said, and, if necessary, correct misinterpretations, BSP turn out to be an economical and therefore convenient design.
History of BSP studies
The semantics of the BSP is not clear enough, grammatical meanings can be difficult to differentiate, and this is due to the lack of allied means of communication.
The parts of a non-union complex sentence are connected only by intonation.
Until the 50s of our century, the dominant view in syntactic science was that BSPs were considered not as a special syntactic structure, but as sentences with “omitted” conjunctions. With this view of the BSP, the task of studying them was reduced to subsuming certain non-union proposals under the types of union ones; there was no need for a special study of their structure.
In Russian science, a strong tradition has developed of dividing all non-union sentences, like allied ones, into composed and subordinate ones, and within these classes, distinguishing private types according to the principle of similarity to union structures.
Since the 50s, a fundamentally new view of the BSP has become widespread, which is based on the recognition of non-union sentences as a special structural-semantic class of a complex sentence. This recognition led to the abandonment of the traditional assimilation of their conjunction sentences and gave rise to attempts to build a classification of BSPs based on the specifics of their structure and semantics. One of these attempts belongs to N. S. Pospelov.
The division of the BSP is based on a consistently applied semantic criterion. There are two main types among BSPs: 1) proposals onenative composition, parts of which are of the same type in a semantic sense and equally relate to the whole they form; 2) offers heterogeneous composition, parts of which are different in semantic terms and are different sides of the whole they form. Within these types, particular varieties are distinguished, also according to the nature of the semantic relationships between the parts. Sentences of homogeneous composition are divided into sentences with the meaning of enumeration and sentences with the meaning of comparison. Among the sentences of heterogeneous composition, there are sentences with the meanings of conditionality, cause-and-effect, explanatory, explanatory and connecting.
This classification is an important step in the study of BSP. However, it is not aimed at studying its formal organization. Meanwhile, BSPs are not formless formations, but complex sentences with a specific formal organization, and therefore their classification must be built taking into account formal differences, as is done when classifying conjunctive complex sentences.
BSP open and closed structure
If, when classifying BSP, we proceed from the same grounds that underlie the systematization of conjunctive complex sentences, then the following will be discovered. In the sphere of non-union, as in the sphere of union relations, complex proposals confront each other open and closed structures. The sign of openness/closedness of the structure of a complex sentence has greater distinctive power than the sign of non-union/union connection. All sentences of an open structure - both non-union and allied - are similar in structure; Moreover, in sentences of an open structure it is possible to combine non-union and allied connection. Complex sentences of an open structure as a whole constitute a special formal type of complex sentence, characterized by great internal homogeneity, within which the opposition of non-conjunction and conjunction is not as significant as the opposition of non-conjunction and conjunction in complex sentences of a closed structure.
Non-union sentences of a closed structure constitute a special formal type: in them the opposition between coordinating and subordinating connections is removed, since closed structure is possible with both coordinating and subordinating connections, and there are no specific means of expressing one or another connection in these sentences.
Attempts to use intonation structures as the basis for dividing these BSPs into composed and subordinate ones are untenable, since there is no direct and obligatory correspondence between intonation structures and classes of a non-conjunctive complex sentence: the same form and lexical content of the BSP in different speech conditions may have different intonation design . In non-union sentences of a closed structure, a special type of connection is thus expressed, characteristic only of a complex sentence and not represented at the level of connection of the word form - an undifferentiated syntactic connection.
Among BSPs with an undifferentiated syntactic connection, two formal classes oppose each other: 1) sentences, parts of which have some specific formal organization (sentences of a typified structure) and 2) sentences, parts of which do not have a specific formal organization (sentences of an untyped structure).
BSP typed structure
According to the nature of the formal organization of sentences with a typified structure, there are three types: 1) sentences with an anaphoric element in one of the parts; 2) sentences with an optional position of the final particle; 3) sentences with an unsubstituted syntactic position in the first part.
Sentences with an anaphoric element, in turn, are of two types, depending on which part contains the anaphoric element; these types also differ in the nature of the anaphoric elements and the semantic relationships between the parts.
BSPs, in which the anaphoric element (a word with informative insufficiency, the content of which is revealed with the help of another part of the BSP) is contained in the first part, by the nature of the relationships between the parts, are close to SPPs of the pronominal-correlative type. However, unlike pronominal correlative sentences, non-conjunctive sentences do not contain grammaticalized lexical elements similar to correlative words. An anaphoric element in their composition can be a demonstrative pronoun, a combination of a demonstrative particle with an interrogative pronoun, a attributive pronoun with a cumulative or exclusive meaning, a combination of an indefinite pronoun with an adjective, an abstract noun, i.e. any word that is constantly or occasionally characterized by informational insufficiency, service function; compare: He was sure of one thing: this could not continue.; To this thought was added another: was it worth agreeing to this strange proposal at all?
BSP, in which the anaphoric element is placed in the second part, contain only demonstrative and personal demonstrative pronouns or combinations of demonstrative particles as anaphoric elements Here with a relative pronoun; For example: The brilliance of the lights reached to the very bottom of the bay,the sea water was so clear(K.P.); I want shaggy hairtouch with hand- suchthey are fluffy and soft(Lib.); From baea continuous roar began to be heard: there a monstrousroll forward(Y.K.); Occasionally a mournful sound rolled from edge to edge of the piernoisy noise- then, sleepily, the wave crashed on the stones(K.P.).
Sentences with an optional final particle actually or potentially include a final particle before the second clause like this (less often): I would be silent, (so) there wouldn’t be a quarrel: I’m leaving, (so) you lock the door; They will call you, (so) go; If you touch a bush, it will shower you with dew.
These sentences express undifferentiated relations of temporal correlation and conditionality between two situations: The weathered face is burning, and you close your eyes- the whole earth is like thisand will float under your feet(I.B.); You'll stand at the smelter- foreveryou're hesitating(Ant.); They threw a rocket into the sky- Help is in a hurry.
With a certain lexical content and the relationship between the modal-temporal plans of the parts, complex sentences of this type receive a narrower meaning. Thus, sentences with the modality of conjecture have a differentiated meaning of the unreal condition, for example: [Manka sometimes thinks:] don’t go every timeAnother day with mail along this path, everything would have died out long ago(Y.K.); Wed also the above example with subjunctive forms in both parts.
Sentences with an unsubstituted syntactic position as part of one part (as a rule, it is the first) are close to explanatory SPPs in the nature of the relationships between the parts and in the structure of the parts. What brings them together is that the structural diagrams of both presuppose: a) the presence in one of the parts (the main one in the SPP and semantically similar to it in the non-union one) of a reference word of a certain semantics, with which the second part of the sentence is correlated; b) the absence of a word form that extends it to the reference word, which is an alternant of part of a complex sentence, i.e. the presence of an unsubstituted syntactic position; compare: WasIt's clear: we are late- It was clear that we were late: Hesaid: call the laboratory"- He told me to call lalaboratory; I asked: “Where are you in such a hurry?”- I asked whereTheySo in a hurry.
Unionless sentences of untyped structure
BSPs of an untyped structure do not have expressive formal features that would make it possible to distinguish classes within them on formal grounds (types). Composing one formal type, these sentences differ in meaning and in the nature of semantic relationships between the parts. The most common are the following semantic varieties and BSP of untyped structure.
1. Explanatory sentences. Their first part contains a message about the event, and the second comments on this message, giving it a motivating or clarifying explanation.
In sentences motivating explanation the second part contains the rationale for what is said in the first, for example: [Levitan read Tyutchev’s poems in a whisper.] Chekhov made scary eyes and swore in a whisper too - he was biting, and his poems frightened the cautious fish (K.P.); You have to walk quietly: you can see the turtle dove drinking water here (Ex.); Apparently, no one had approached the well for a long time: curly ants were densely spreading around (K.F.); Serpilin did not answer: I didn’t want to argue or talk (Sim.); The boots were poorly laced: the iron from the laces had long fallen off, the ends became like tassels and did not fit into the holes (Ant.).
In sentences clarifying explanation parts report the same event differently: the first part contains a more general message (often vague), and the second is more specific (often more complete and expanded), for example: The tree's centuries-old efforts have done their job: this spruce brought its upper branches to the light(Etc.); DupBut you have to look for woodpeckers in the same way as mushrooms: all the timeyou look intensely in front of you and to the sides(Etc.); Began to livein a cherished way- every Demid strives for himself(K.F.); War as it isneta: no matter how much you roll, it still won’t hit the edge- will lie downeither heads or tails(Sim.); Apparently his work was interesting:on the water meadows near the Don near Kumshak - he made a dam(Ant.).
2. Comparative offers. The second part of such sentences contains a message that is significantly different from the message of the first part, for example: It's already wiper hourpassed, the hour of thrush has not yet begun(I., P.); Levitan wanted the sun,the sun didn't show(K.P.); They tried to calm her down, but she still resisted.
Semantic differences between sentences of an untyped structure are created by different lexical content of the parts and some other features of their semantic and communicative organization. The condition for the appearance of comparative meaning, for example, is the symmetry of the relationship between the actual and grammatical divisions within the parts and the presence in them of members (at least two) that are in associative connections with each other. Yes, in a sentence I couldn’t consult with my father, but I could with a friend, the actual division equally separates the first substantive component (with Father- with a friend) from the predicate in both parts, while these substantive components and predicates (could not consult- could) form associative series.
Punctuation marks in non-union sentences
From the point of view of the nature of the relationships between its parts, there are several types of BSP.
1. Complex sentences that state facts or phenomena that occur simultaneously or sequentially. They are typical for descriptive constructions.
In such complex sentences, its parts are separated from each other by a comma or semicolon. A comma is placed mainly when the connection between the parts is very close - for example, when incomplete simple sentences are combined in a complex sentence.
A semicolon in such complex sentences is required in two cases: 1) when it is necessary to emphasize that the connected parts are to a certain extent independent, although they reveal one general topic; 2) if there are punctuation marks inside the connected predicative parts and boundaries need to be defined.
Much depends on how the writer himself understands the relationships between the parts of the BSP, how he groups simple sentences within a complex one. Semicolons were used more often between parts of the BSP in the 19th century. There is an opinion that the semicolon is an outdated punctuation mark and therefore unnecessary, although there are no serious grounds for such an opinion.
2. When there is a comparison (or opposition) between the parts of the BSP; One of the following punctuation marks is used: comma, semicolon or dash.
If the parts of a complex sentence are short and contain a comparison, they are usually separated by commas: I was angry, he was sullen.
When there is a sharp contrast, a dash is placed: Behind mewere chasing- I was not disturbed in spirit.
A dash can also indicate an unexpected turn in the course of presentation.
A dash is also placed in the case when the second part is the conclusion or result of what is said in the first part.
3. BSPs, in which one part relates to the other as explanatory to the explained, have become widespread in the modern Russian literary language.
A well-established punctuation mark to indicate a pause between parts of such a sentence is the colon. However, the dash sign is also acceptable in such cases. (The door block squealed and hurried sounds were heardfootsteps: someone was coming in and going out.)
The explanation affects the semantics of the first part of the entire sentence or individual words (verbs, pronouns); relationships are conveyed with a special, “warning” intonation. In writing, the main punctuation mark is the colon: So, you were not mistaken: three treasures in this life were for mejoy(P.); That voice always meant only one thing: to otherspeople need your immediate, urgent help(Sol.); Each log house sat separately, on its own: no fenceall around, not a gate was noticed(T.); The room was cramped and strange: it resembled an antique dealer's storeroom(Paust.); Labor has been divided since ancient times: cities are surrendered by soldiers and generalsthey are taken(TV).
Conditional relationships are expressed by intonation: the contrast of parts of a sentence in pitch (a very high melodic peak in the first part). In writing, the main punctuation mark is a dash: They go ahead- they don't spare hair(Ate.).
Causal relations (the basis is in the second part of the sentence) are based on intonation (similar to explanatory). In writing, the main punctuation mark is a colon, possibly a dash: Only during the day was it quiet in the garden: restlessthe birds flew south(Paust.); It's better not to deal with an envious persongo fishing- he still won't bite(Paust.); But I rarely went into this room and reluctantly: for some reason my breathing was choked there(T.); Only one at a time Styopawell, no one cried to Astakhov- there was no one(III.).
A special type of relationship is represented by connecting ones; they are characterized by additionality; parts of a sentence are autonomous, have complete semantics and structure. In the system of non-union complex sentences, this type of sentence occupies a special place - as if intermediate between similar and non-analogous. As a rule, they do not allow the “insertion” of either a coordinating or subordinating conjunction. The punctuation of these sentences is determined by two rules: the semicolon emphasizes the independence, autonomy of the first part, and the colon - incompleteness, the need to develop the message: War timetook a long time; it seemed there would be no end to it(Paust.); Litvinov entered his room: a letter on the table was thrown at himin the eyes(T.).
BSP with a complicated structure
Complex sentences with non-conjunctive connections have a flexible structure. It can formalize both individual types of relations (enumeration, explanation, conditionality, etc.) and various combinations of them. In this case, intonation includes different elements, different fragments corresponding to the conveyed relationships. The number of predicative parts in a complicated non-union complex sentence is more than two, and at least two types of relations are expressed.
The combination of relations is varied, but, as a rule, two different types of relations are conveyed in one sentence; they correspond to punctuation (according to the rules for non-union communication). For example: And the marshals do not hear the call:others died in battle, others betrayed him and sold the swordmy(JI.) - relations of cause and comparative; Sadbut, Nina: my path is boring, my driver has fallen silent dozing, the bell is monotonous, the moon’s face is foggy(P.) - the relationship of cause and enumeration.
Enumeration relations are most freely combined with other types of relations. In this case, in a non-union complex sentence, semantic-structural blocks are formed, within which relations of analogy appear, and logically more complex relationships are formed between the blocks - cause-and-effect, conditional, explanatory: You can’t help but believe such love, my gaze doesn’twill hide nothing: it’s a sin for me to be a hypocrite with you, you’re tooangel for that (P.). In contrast, enumeration relationships can occur between blocks connected by logically complex relationships. For example: You will smile- it’s a joy to me; you will turn away- I'm sad; for a day of torment- reward me your pale hand(P.) - cause-and-effect relationships, enumeration, as well as additions (the last predicative part).
Lectures 9-10
POLYNOMAL COMPLEXOFFERS
The term “polynomial complex sentences” denotes a variety of constructions that have two common features: a) the number of predicative parts is more than two; b) different types of communication. These features distinguish them not only from elementary complex, complex, non-union complex sentences, but also from their complicated modifications. For example: The door to the hallway was open, butit felt like the house was empty(B.) - composition and submission; And in the dust, pockmarked with sweat, the people at the front laughed: goodwhat about the infantry, since the wheels are lagging behind?(TV) - non-union and subordination; Everyone was happy to see Pierre; everyone wanted to see him, andeveryone asked him about what he saw(JI. T.) - non-union, composition and submission.
When combining different types of communication, one is dominant. For example: The roar and crackling rushed fromsurrounding mountains; the forest edges were smoking, and it was impossibleunderstand how it is that even one person is still alive here(A.T.) - non-union; The Cossacks were defeated, but Kozhukh did not touchplaces, although it was necessary to perform at all costs(A.S.) - essay. Taking this into account, a polynomial complex sentence is characterized and named by a dominant connection, for example: a non-union complex with composition and subordination, a complex with subordination.
Of course, such a schematic description does not exhaust the analysis of a polynomial complex sentence, which should include the establishment of types of relations in composition, subordination, non-union, and the definition of means of communication, and an indication of the types of subordinate clauses, and a conclusion about the hierarchy of subordination in the presence of several subordinate clauses.
Methods of transmitting someone else's speech
When a speaker produces a text in the process of speech activity, there may be a need to convey someone else's speech and include its content in the information.
Someone else's speech is the speech of another person in relation to the speaker. Previously spoken speech (as well as one’s own) can be conveyed by the speaker in various ways. With the help of such an object, the topic of someone else’s speech is conveyed in a simple sentence: My father told me abouton his trip to St. Petersburg. Through the objective infinitive, a complicated simple sentence expresses the general content of someone else’s speech - expression of will: I asked him to be careful(IN.).
Direct speech is the literal transmission of someone else's speech: “Who is your mother?”- Potapov asked the girl(Paust.).
The most complete transfer of the content of someone else’s speech, but without preserving its form and style, is achieved with the help of indirect speech: Potapov asked the girl who her mother was.
Direct speech is a special syntactic formation, a method of verbatim transmission of someone else's speech. It consists of two parts - input and someone else's speech, which differ in function and style: Someone said : “Many are obsessedI have a passion for writing books, but few people are ashamed of them afterwards.”(M.G.).
The construction of direct speech does not represent a complex sentence and does not have clear grammatical indicators. The fastening element is introducing verbs with the meaning of speech-thought, in which the position of the deliberative
the object is replaced by someone else's speech (cf.: told the truth, saidspeech).
Structurally, direct speech differs in the relative position of the input and someone else’s speech: Having examined the cat, Reubenthoughtfully asked: “What should we do with him?”- "Youtear",- I said. "Will not help,- said Lyonka.- He’s had this kind of character since childhood.”(Paust.). Punctuation in direct speech reflects this difference in parts: they are separated by a colon or dash, while someone else's speech is highlighted by quotation marks (or a dash).
Direct speech has complex punctuation. Its main task is to designate the author’s words and someone else’s speech differently. The placement of punctuation marks depends on the relative position of the two parts:
if someone else’s speech is in front, then it is enclosed in quotation marks, and after it a dash is placed; someone else’s speech ends with one of the end-of-sentence marks (question, exclamation marks, ellipses), and the narrative simple sentence of someone else’s speech is separated from the following words of the author by a comma and a dash: “Where is your mother?”- asked Potapovgirl(Paust.); “I made this up for you about the chick,”- said the boy after a long silence(Paust.);
if the author’s words are in the middle and interrupt someone else’s speech, then they are highlighted on both sides with a comma and a dash, and the second part of someone else’s speech is written with a lowercase letter: "Mename is Arkady Nikolaevich Kirsanov,- said Arkadiy,- and I don't do anything"(T.); if someone else’s speech is not broken, then a question mark, or an exclamation mark, or a comma is placed after it, the author’s words are highlighted with a dash and a period is placed after them, and the second part of someone else’s speech is written with a capital letter: “Ivan Andreich!- someone callednext room.- You are at home?"(Ch.)
Indirect speech is a way of transmitting someone else's speech on behalf of the speaker, the author. Unlike direct speech, here someone else's speech changes, all words and forms that indicate the person - the author of this speech and the addressee (interlocutor) - are eliminated from it. Wed: “Where is your mother?”- askedPotapov girl.(Paust.) - Potapov asked the girl,Where her mother- in direct speech a pronoun yours indicates the addressee; in indirect speech it is replaced by a pronoun her.
Indirect speech has the form of a complex sentence, in which the author’s words (input) represent the main part, and someone else’s speech is conveyed in the form of a subordinate clause. These are explanatory sentences with additional clauses.
The restructuring of direct speech into indirect speech is done according to certain rules:
1) the 1st person form of the verb is replaced by the 3rd person form;
2) personal pronouns of the 1st-2nd person, as well as possessives my yours are replaced by a 3rd person pronoun (or a noun is used);
3) if someone else’s speech is an incentive sentence, then the form of the imperative mood is replaced by the form of the subjunctive mood (with the conjunction to);
4) if someone else’s speech is an interrogative sentence, then the interrogative pronoun (or adverb) becomes relative, that is, it is used as a conjunction word: Potapovasked the girl where her mother was; and in the absence of interrogative pronouns or adverbs, indirect speech is introduced whether as a subordinating conjunction:
I asked my brother: “Did you bring the book?” - I asked the sconcewhether he brought the book;
“I’ve been sitting here for six hours,”- declared Mamaev, lookingfor a gold watch.(M.G.) - Mamaev announced,What is sittingit's six o'clock here;
When replacing direct speech with indirect speech, the style of someone else’s speech is “smoothed out”: the word order changes, particles of emotional meaning are omitted (for example, same, then), interjections, as well as addresses, introductory words. Wed:
Replacing direct speech with indirect speech is impossible if someone else’s speech is an emotional exclamatory sentence: The old man walked and, stumbling over the grass,echoed:“What a aroma, citizens, what an intoxicatingaroma!(Paust.) In addition, indirect speech is constructed only with speaking verbs (this meaning must be basic, direct): “Why are you baring your teeth?” - Zakhar (Gonch.) wheezed with rage.- the verb prevents transformation into indirect speech wheezed.
Improperly direct speech
A special, expressive form of conveying someone else’s speech is indirect speech, which is a detailed retelling by the speaker of someone else’s speech “in his own words,” but preserving some elements of the other person’s style: The upcoming wedding was the reasonWhy did Alexander Vadimych wince? Where to find a suitablegroom? The devil knows! It is probably plannedprince, but how can he be wooed when he goes to the house, even at night, they say, he sees Katya in the garden, but does not woo- impudent.(A.T.)
Dialogical unity
Dialogical unity- this is a structural and semantic community, a text of two or more participants in speech. It is ensured by the presence of one topic, agreement/disagreement of the interlocutors. In structure, dialogical unity is a sequence of interconnected replicas. They are united not only by the accumulation of information on a given topic, but also by the motivation of forms, cohesion, and reliance on the previous or subsequent replica:
Complex syntactic whole
The object of study in syntax is not only the sentence, but also text, which is considered in different aspects.
Active interest in the study of coherent text awakened in the 40-50s of the 20th century (V.V. Vinogradov, N.S. Pospelov, I.A. Figurovsky, etc.): it was during this period that such a unit of text as a complex syntactic whole (CCU), or superphrasal unity - “a group of sentences syntactically united by various means and methods” - a unit that, compared to a sentence, is more independent “from the surrounding context of coherent speech.”
In the 60-70s, various ways of connecting sentences in the text were studied, the relationship between the paragraph and the SSC was examined, the characteristics of the text were determined, the most important of which were recognized as the qualities of coherence and completeness. It is these features that are primarily taken into account in modern definitions of the text: “...Text is the ideal highest communicative unit, gravitating toward semantic closure and completeness, the constitutive feature of which, however, is coherence, which manifests itself each time in different parameters, at different levels of the text, and in a different set of particular connections,”- writes Kozhevnikova “On the aspects of coherence in the text as a whole” (in the book “Text Syntax”). As the highest unit of the language system, the text is composed of lower level units - sentences. When forming a text, sentences are combined into larger units that have a certain semantic and formal structure.
The text is a substantive unity, but, as a rule, it is characterized by multi-topic nature: it is a complex organization of particular topics related to each other. Their semantic development forms the overall theme of the text. The thematic block of sentences forms the SSC. Thus, STS is a group of sentences that reveal one micro-topic (private topic) and form on this basis a formal semantic unity that has fairly defined boundaries.
The unity of the topic in the text can be emphasized by special syntactic constructions, the main purpose of which is to grammaticalize the topic. Such constructions usually open the SSC, occupying the initial position in it. These include: 1) nominative themes; 2) topic infinitive: To be an artist... Without bitter, constant work there are no artists... but to work, I thought, looking at his soft features, listening to his unhurried speech, - no! you will not work, you will not be able to shrink (I. Turgenev); 3) interrogative sentences : What's happening around? Winter. Hunger. Fights in the markets (V. Astafiev).
So, SSC expresses one topic and, accordingly, reflects a certain unified situation or its individual aspects. This fragment of text can represent different functional and semantic types of speech (description, narration, reasoning): a) description: Far awaymotionless clouds were black in the south, from there came a continuous, dullgrunt. There was an even stronger smell of uncut hay all around. The wind is weakblew, rustling dry grass(V. Veresaev); b) narration: ThroughFive minutes later Nina came out. Bobrov moved out of the shadows and blocked herthe road. Nina screamed weakly and stepped back(A. Kuprin).
The SSC, as an objective structural and semantic unit of the text, is contrasted with the paragraph as a compositional and stylistic unit, reflecting the subjective intentions of the author of the text. The boundaries of the SSC and the paragraph may not coincide. There are three main types of relationships between a paragraph and a complex syntactic whole.
1. The paragraph coincides with the STS. This phenomenon is common in scientific and official business styles and serves as a kind of narrative norm in fiction.
2. The boundaries of a paragraph do not coincide with the boundaries of a complex syntactic whole - one paragraph includes several syntactic wholes.
3. One STS is divided into two or more paragraphs: in this case, the paragraph that breaks the whole plays an accentuating role when it is considered important to highlight individual links of the overall structure, particular details in the description, in the disclosure of a particular topic.
The discrepancy between the boundaries of the STS and the paragraph is the source of many effects in a literary text.
Characterizing SSCs involves not only identifying their micro-themes, but also considering the means of interphrase communication that connects the sentences in them.
The undoubted features of a complex syntactic whole are thematic unity, the expression of relations of equivalence/unequivalence in their particular varieties between sentences, and the presence of means of communication. In the SSC, such elements of the composition of meaning as the beginning, development to the climax (or contradiction) and the ending are more or less clearly distinguished.
The SSC does not have a specific quantitative characteristic (size, number of sentences, etc.); its clear boundaries cannot always be established in the text.
Indicators of connection and at the same time indicators of the development of events are verbal aspectual forms. Together with lexical means of communication and conjunctions, they form the unity of a complex syntactic whole:
(Dibrova “Modern Russian Language”, Valgina “Text Syntax”, Solganik “Syntactic Stylistics: Complex Syntactic Whole”)
Unconjunct sentences are those complex sentences in which the parts are connected only by intonation. The main feature of such complex structures is the absence of unions. Instead, punctuation marks are used in the BSP.
general characteristics
Between sentences in the BSP, semantic relationships are established that are similar to the relationships in allied sentences: compound and complex.
For example:
- The night was falling, the forest was moving closer to the fire. IN sentences reveal semantic relations in the listing of simultaneously occurring events.
- One fine day, the pickets, losing their legs from running, bring the news: the fortress is surrendering. In this sentence, semantic relations are similar to those in explanatory ones.
- He told the truth - they didn’t believe him. The sentence combines temporary, concessive and adversative relations.
Depending on how the parts relate to each other in meaning, there are BSPs with different ones. The examples given above serve as proof of this. Depending on this, non-union complex sentences are divided into three groups.
BSP with comma and semicolon
There are several punctuation features associated with non-union sentences. In particular, there are two rules governing the use of commas and semicolons in a sentence.
In BSP. Table with examples |
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A comma is placed in the BSP if certain facts are listed; a conjunction can be used And. In this case, the intonation when reading will be enumerative, and before each comma it is necessary to take a short pause. | My head began to spin, stars danced in my eyes. My head is spinning And stars danced in his eyes. |
If a sentence is common and has its own commas (homogeneous members, isolated members, introductory words and addresses), then it is separated from the other part by a semicolon. | Green frogs jump on the stones near the stream; On the largest stone lies a golden snake, basking in the sun. |
Should I choose a comma or semicolon?
If the rule is well understood and mastered, then you can easily cope with the following exercises:
1.Explain the use of semicolons:
1) The sun rises, vigorous and radiant from the cold; the window is gilded with reflection.
2) All morning, the colors sparkled, clean and bright; For half a day frosty chrysanthemums glittered silver on the window.
2. What punctuation marks are missing in the BSP in brackets?
Happy irrevocable time - childhood! How can you not love the memories of her? They are so refreshing and uplifting to my soul.
You run to your heart’s content (...) you sit at the table on your chair (...) it’s already late (...) a cup of milk has long been drunk (...) sleep clouds your eyes (...) but you don’t move from your place (...) you still sit and listen. Mom is talking to someone (...) her voice is so sweet (...) so welcoming. The sound of my mother’s voice says so much to my heart, resonates so much in my soul!
With hazy eyes I look intently into her sweet face (...) suddenly she becomes all small - her face becomes no bigger than a button (...) but I still see it just as clearly. I love seeing her so tiny. I squint my eyes even more (...) she is now no more than those boys (...) that are in the pupils (...) when you look closely into the eyes (...) but then I moved - and the miracle disappeared (...) I narrow my eyes again (... ) I try in every possible way to renew the vision (...) but in vain.
BSP with dash
Punctuation marks in the BSP directly depend on the semantic relationships of its parts. To place a dash in non-union sentences, one of the conditions given in the table must be present.
Punctuation marks in BSP. Dash setting table with examples |
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Conditions for using dashes | |
I am glad to understand you - understand me too. (I’m glad to understand you, but you should also understand me). |
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One sentence contains an indication of the time or condition of what is being said in another sentence. You can use a comma and the conjunctions IF and WHEN. | If it rains, we'll cancel the trip. (If it rains, we'll cancel the hike. When it rains, we'll cancel the hike). |
The second sentence contains a conclusion or consequence of what is said in the first sentence. You can use a comma and the conjunctions THEREFORE or SO THAT. | There is a lot to do tomorrow - we need to get up early. (Tomorrow there is a lot to do, so we need to get up early). |
If the sentence depicts a rapid change of events. You can put a comma and the conjunction I. | There was a loud stomp - everything fell silent. (There was a loud stomp and everything fell silent.) |
Dash or no dash?
1. What punctuation marks are used in the BSP given below?
1) The teacher ordered a diary (...) I didn’t have a diary.
2) It’s terribly stuffy (...) there will be a thunderstorm by night.
3) She sat down in the wagon near the hussar (...) the driver whistled (...) the horses rushed off.
4) There was a shout (...) he started running.
5) You will chase after the big (...) you will lose the little.
2. The text contains BSP with different punctuation marks. With which?
A song was heard (...) the voices immediately fell silent (...) the urgings died down (...) and the entire convoy moved on in silence (...) only the clatter of wheels and the slurping of dirt under the horses' hooves could be heard at those moments (...) when the words of the sad song sounded.
3. Which sentence contains a dash?
1) The sun has already set, but it is still light in the forest (...) the air is so clean and transparent (...) the birds are chirping and whistling (...) the young grass shines like emerald.
2) My soul is cheerful and festive (...) it’s spring outside (...) and the air is so clean and transparent (...) the birds are chirping wildly and joyfully (...) young grass is sprouting.
BSP with colon
Intonation plays a huge role in determining the connection between parts in the BSP. If at the end of the first part it is necessary to raise the tone of voice, then it is probably necessary to add a colon. So it turns out that punctuation marks in BSP depend on intonation. But semantic relationships are also of utmost importance. Let's consider the conditions for placing a colon.
Punctuation marks in BSP. Table with examples of colon placement |
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Conditions for placing a colon | |
The second sentence states the reason for what is said in the first sentence. You can use a comma and the conjunction BECAUSE. | I didn't like rainy weather: it made me sad. (I didn’t like rainy weather because it made me sad). |
One sentence serves to explain another, revealing its content. You can put a comma and the introductory word NAMELY, then the colon will appear after this word. | A riot of colors reigns in the field: among the bright green grass, chamomile bushes turn white with fragrant snowdrifts, small carnation stars turn red, and occasionally the shy eyes of a cornflower peek through. (A riot of colors reigns in the field, namely: among the bright green grass, chamomile bushes turn white with fragrant snowdrifts, small carnation stars turn red, and occasionally the shy eyes of a cornflower peek through). |
The second sentence serves to complement the first. In this case, you can put a comma and the conjunction HOW, WHAT or SAW WHAT between the sentences. | I feel: carefully, as if fearing something, the fingers are slowly moving up towards the shoulder. (I feel how carefully, as if fearing something, the fingers are slowly moving up to the shoulder). |
To colon or not to colon?
In this case, there are also rules.
1. Which ones are missing in the sentence?
Somehow it happened (...) that Vera left ahead of schedule (...) but now this did not frighten Sergei at all (...) he knew (...) that his father and everyone else would return in the evening.
2. Place punctuation marks in the BSP. Example sentences are given below.
1) The picture changed (...) already on the white tablecloth of the fields, black spots and stripes of thawed earth could be seen here and there.
2) I really liked listening to the girl (...) she described to me about a world unknown to me.
3) A little more (...) her eyes will come to life, a smile will bloom on her face.
4) I looked out the window (...) the stars were shining brightly in the cleared sky.
5) How many years have I been serving (...) this has never happened to me before.
Let's summarize what we've learned
BSPs are a complex system that includes four types of sentences, depending on the punctuation marks between the parts of a complex sentence - comma, semicolon, colon, dash.
Punctuation marks in BSP. Table with examples |
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semicolon | colon |
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A shot popped, then a machine gun crackled. | Near the door I saw a boy, all blue from the cold; he was wearing wet clothes that stuck to his body; he was barefoot, and his small feet were covered in mud, like socks; a shiver ran through me from head to toe at the sight of him. | In summer, the trees merged into one green mass; in autumn, each one stood separately, on its own. Dawn began to break - we woke up and went outside. A life without joy is a day without sunshine. If you give, I won’t take. | Here's what I'll do: I'll come with a detachment at night, set fire to explosives and blow that house, that is, the research station, into the air. He thought to himself: the doctor needs to be called. The bird could not fly: its wing was broken. |
BSP with punctuation marks. Rule |
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A comma is used for sentences with connecting relations. | A semicolon is used if sentences with connecting relations have their own commas inside them. | A dash is placed if there are sentences with contrastive, temporal, comparative, concessive, investigative relations. | A colon is placed if there are sentences with explanatory, additional, causal relationships. |
What is the difference between punctuation marks in SSP, SPP, BSP
Between the parts of the BSP, relationships are established that are similar to the relationships found in conjunctive sentences: compound and complex.
Non-Union | |
In one corner a floorboard creaked and the door creaked. | In one corner the floorboard creaked and the door creaked (SSP). |
It was already evening, the sun had disappeared behind the pine grove located behind the garden; her shadow stretched endlessly across the fields. | It was already evening, the sun had disappeared behind the pine grove located behind the garden, and its shadow stretched endlessly across the fields. |
He felt ashamed to kill an unarmed man - he thought and lowered his gun. | He felt ashamed to kill an unarmed man, so he thought about it and lowered his gun. |
I entered the hut: two benches along the walls and a large chest near the stove made up its entire furnishings. | I entered the hut and saw that two benches along the walls and a large chest near the stove made up its entire furnishings. |
As can be seen from the table, the placement of punctuation marks in the BSP is much richer than in conjunction sentences, which only use commas. But in allied constructions, the semantic relationships of the parts are clear and understandable, thanks to the unions:
- simultaneity, sequence - conjunction I;
- reason - conjunction BECAUSE;
- consequence - union THEREFORE;
- comparison - conjunction HOW;
- time - union WHEN;
- conditions - union IF;
- addition - conjunction THAT;
- explanation - conjunction THAT IS;
- opposition - conjunction A.
Punctuation marks in BSP are needed to express semantic relationships between sentences; they serve as conjunctions.
BSP examples
Examples illustrate BSP options:
- with conditional relationships: If you stay here for a day, then you’ll find out.
- with temporary relationships: If you can handle it, we’ll transfer you to management.
- with the meaning of the consequence: The rain has stopped - you can move on.
- with conditional relationships: The sun is shining - we are working, it is raining - we are resting.
- with concessionary relationships: I would like a dog like this - I don’t need a cow.
- with adversarial relationships: The city ones are beautiful - the countryside is dearer to me.
- with connecting relationships: A man, sitting at a table, spoke on the phone; the child was still sleeping on the sofa.
- with explanatory relationships: I advise you: do not pick up other people’s wallets.
- with relations of consequences: The land was needed for crops: the gardens had to be plowed.
- with explanatory relationships: Occasionally voices were heard: late pedestrians were returning home.
- with relationships reasons: We must give him credit - he was very ardent, brave and persistent.
- with comparison relations: It is not the wind that rustles in the open space, it is not the sea that rages in a storm - my heart yearns for the Motherland, there is no peace and happiness in it.
Example of an OGE task
Among the sentences you need to find complex ones with a non-union connection between parts:
1) The Holy Sea - this is what Baikal has been called for a long time. 2) We will not assure you that there is nothing better than Baikal in the world: everyone is free to love something of their own, and for an Eskimo, his tundra is the crown of creation. 3) From a young age, we love pictures of our native land, they define our very essence. 4) And it is not enough to consider that they are dear to us, they are part of us. 5) You cannot compare icy Greenland with the hot sands of the Sahara, the taiga of Siberia with the steppes of Central Russia, the Caspian Sea with Baikal, but you can convey your impressions of them.
6) But Nature still has her favorites, which she creates with special care and endows with special attractiveness. 7) Such a creature is undoubtedly Baikal.
8) Even if we don’t talk about its wealth, Baikal is famous for other things - for its wonderful strength, its timeless and reserved power.
9) I remember how my friend and I went far along the shore of our sea. 10) It was the beginning of August, a most fertile time, When the water has warmed up, the hills are raging with colors, when the sun makes the fallen snow on the distant Sayan Mountains shine, when Baikal, stocked with water from melted glaciers, lies well-fed and calm, gaining strength for the autumn storms, when the fish splash merrily to the cries of the seagulls.
Non-union complex sentence- This is a complex sentence in which simple clauses are combined without conjunctions or allied words.
Means of communication of non-union complex sentences (BSP):
1) Semantic connection
2) Intonation connection
3) Arrangement order
4) Forms of tense, aspect and mood of verbs
Semantic connection is expressed in the fact that the parts of the sentence that are part of a non-union complex sentence form a single integral statement.
For example: Evening came, it was raining, and the wind was blowing intermittently from the north.(M.G.). This complex sentence paints a big picture, the details of which are indicated by listing the parts of the sentences.
Intonation connection parts of a complex sentence have a different character:
This could be the intonation of the enumeration.
For example: A mournful wind drives a flock of clouds to the edge of heaven, the broken spruce groans, the dark forest whispers dully.(N.)
Intonation of opposition.
For example: I would be glad to serve, but being served is sickening.(Gr.);
Intonation of explanation.
For example: A terrible thought flashed through my mind: I imagined it in the hands of robbers.(P.)
Intonation of warning.
For example: Suddenly I feel: someone takes me by the shoulder and pushes me.(T.)
Intonation of conditioning.
For example: If you love to ride, you also love to carry a sled.(last) etc.
Arrangement order parts in a non-union complex sentence is a means of expressing semantic relationships between them.
Compare: It became cool: evening came(the cause is indicated in the second part, the effect in the first; a causal conjunction can be inserted between the parts because). - Evening came - it became cool(when rearranged, cause-and-effect relationships with a temporal connotation are expressed differently: the cause is indicated in the first part of the sentence, the effect in the second; the adverb therefore can be inserted between them).
A means of connecting parts of sentences also serve as part of a non-union complex sentence forms of tense, aspect and mood of the verb in them. Thus, homogeneous verbal forms are usually used to denote a temporal or spatial connection between phenomena.
For example: The rain was restlessly knocking on the wood of the boat, its soft noise suggested sad thoughts.(M.G.); In a clear field, the snow is silver, wavy and pockmarked, the moon is shining, the troika is rushing along the highway(P.); To the left was a deep gorge; behind him and in front of us, the dark blue peaks of the mountains, pitted with wrinkles, covered with layers of snow, were drawn on the pale horizon, still retaining the last glow of dawn(L.).
Types of non-union complex sentences
Types of non-union complex sentences
There are two main types of non-union complex sentences: correlatives with conjunctive complex sentences And incompatible with them.
Sentences of the second type are relatively rare, much more common than sentences of the first type, which in turn are divided into two groups:
A) non-union complex sentences of homogeneous composition (with the same type of parts)
b) non-union complex sentences of heterogeneous composition (with different types of parts).
The first group includes sentences that, in terms of the meanings they express and according to some structural features, approach complex sentences: both express temporal relations (simultaneity or sequence of phenomena, events), relations of comparison or opposition of actions, etc. ; both of them are characterized by enumerative intonation, comparison intonation, etc.; for both of them, the parts of the sentence included in their composition usually have homogeneous forms of predicates, etc.
The first group of non-union complex sentences also includes those in which relations of comparison or opposition are expressed, for example: Legs carry - hands feed (last); They shouted a loud cry three times - not a single fighter was moved... (L.).
The second group of non-conjunct complex sentences is formed by those that in semantic terms are close to complex sentences: between the parts of these non-conjunctive sentences there are objective, attributive, cause-and-effect, conditional-effect relationships, etc.
Syntactic analysis of a unionless complex sentence
Scheme for parsing a unionless complex sentence
1. Determine the type of sentence according to the purpose of the statement (narrative, interrogative, incentive).
2. Indicate the type of sentence based on emotional coloring (exclamatory or non-exclamatory).
3. Identify grammatical basics, determine the number of parts (simple sentences), find their boundaries.
4. Determine the semantic relationships between the parts (enumerative, causal, explanatory, explanatory, comparative, adversative, conditional-temporal, consequences).
5. Parse each part as a simple sentence.
6. Create a proposal outline.
SAMPLE ANALYSIS OF A CONJUNCTIONAL COMPLEX SENTENCE
1) [His entire skin was trembling from the thirst for battle], [his eyes were bloodshot], [his nostrils fluttered], [the light steam from his breath was blown away by the breeze].(Yu. Kazakov)
[ — = ],[ — = ],[ — = ],[ = ].
The sentence is narrative, non-exclamatory, complex, non-conjunctive, consists of four parts, the relations between the parts are enumerative (simultaneity). Each part is parsed as a simple sentence.
2) [Everything around him was empty]: [some died], [others left].
[ — = ]:[ — = ],[ — = ].
The sentence is narrative, non-exclamatory, complex, non-conjunctive, and consists of three parts; the second and third parts together reveal the reason for what is said in the first (causal relationships); between the second and third parts the relationship is comparative and adversative. Each part is parsed as a simple sentence.
1. NON-UNION COMPLEX SENTENCE
General information
A non-union complex sentence is a complex sentence, the predicative parts of which are interconnected in meaning and structure, and are also connected without the help of conjunctions or relative words by rhythmic and melodic means, the order of the parts. They differ:
1) non-union complex sentences of homogeneous composition (with parts of the same type). According to the meanings they express (simultaneity or sequence of events, comparison or opposition of actions, etc.) and according to some structural features (enumerative intonation or intonation of opposition, uniformity of aspect-tense forms of predicate verbs, the possibility of inserting coordinating conjunctions), sentences of this type can be correlated with complex sentences; compare:
The forest lawn is all saturated with cold dew, insects are sleeping. many flowers have not yet opened their corollas (Prishv.). - It was not wounds, not a sick lung that tormented him - it was the consciousness of uselessness that irritated him (Paul);
2) non-union complex sentences of heterogeneous composition (with different types of parts). According to the meanings they express (relations of conditionality, cause-and-effect, explanatory, etc.) and according to some structural features (intonation, the order of the predicative parts of a single whole, the lexical composition of the first part, etc.), sentences of this type can be correlated with complex sentences; cf.: I am sad: there is no friend with me (P.). - Suddenly I feel: someone takes me by the hand and pushes me (T.).
Types of non-union complex sentences
Depending on the meanings of the parts of non-conjunctive complex sentences and the type of intonation as the most important formal aspect of their construction, various types of non-conjunctive complex sentences are distinguished:
1) non-union complex sentences with meaning" transfers: The snowstorm did not subside, the sky did not clear up (P.); The doors and windows are wide open, not a leaf moves in the garden (Gonch.);
2) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of comparison or opposition: Measure seven times - cut once (Eat); It was not only grief - it was a complete change of life, of the entire future (Sim.);
3) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of conditionality: And if you kill, you will not get anything (L. T.); If you like to ride, you also like to carry a sled (Eat). (About non-union proposals like And if it weren’t for me, you would be smoking in
Tver, in which conditional-consequential relations are expressed by the presence in the first part of a predicate in the form of an imperative mood;
4) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of explanatory relations: With anxiety, I jumped out of the wagon and saw: my mother met me on the porch with an appearance of deep grief (P.); I will definitely tell you: you have talent (Fad.); Fedor understood: it was about communication (Furm.); Alexey decided: enough of the delay (B. Pol.). In these examples, the second part denotes an object related to the predicate in the first part, expressed by a verb of speech, thought, perception, etc. The second part can also perform the function of a subject in relation to the first part: It is decided: I will not show fear... ( P.); It occurred to me: why is mother sleeping so soundly?
(Adv.). This type of non-union complex sentences can also include those in which the first part contains the verbs look out, look around, listen, etc. or an expression such as raise your eyes, raise your head, etc., warning of further presentation; in these cases, between the parts of the non-union southern sentence, you can insert the words and saw that; and heard that; and felt that: I turn around: Grushnitsky (L.); Oblomov looked around, in front of him in reality, not in a hallucination, stood the real, real Stolz (Gonch.); He thought, smelled: it smells like honey (Ch.);
5) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of attributive relations: Like all Moscow ones, your father is like this: he would like a son-in-law with stars and with ranks... (Gr.); Through my sleep, a persistent thought began to disturb me: the shop will be robbed, the horses will be stolen (Boon.);
6) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of cause-and-effect relationships: I could not go out: a boy with white eyes was still spinning in front of me in the darkness (L.); Sometimes the horses sank up to their bellies: the soil was very viscous (Fad.); The rich man cannot sleep: the rich man is afraid of the thief (Episode);
7) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of temporary relations:
Let's win - you'll build a stone house (A.N.T.); I was driving here and the rye began to turn yellow.
Now I’m leaving back - people eat this rye (Prishv.); They plow the arable land - they don’t wave their hands (Seq.);
8) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of comparison: The nightingale says the word and sings (L.); ...He’ll look and give him a ruble (N.);
9) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of consequence, result, rapid change of events: ... The cheese fell out - there was a trick with it (Kr.); I
I’m dying - I have no need to lie (T.); Suddenly men with axes appeared - the forest rang, groaned, crackled (N.), Blizzard was already very close to the fire - suddenly horse rye was heard in the darkness (Fad.);
10) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of explanation; From early youth, Tatyana was kept in a black body: she worked for two, but never saw any kindness (T.); Everyone assessed Nagulnov’s behavior differently: some encouraged, others condemned, some kept a reserved silence
(Shol.);
11) non-union complex sentences with the meaning of joining: I already know all this by heart - that’s what’s boring (L.); She was sitting nearby on a bench under a rickety wooden mushroom - the kind they make in camps for sentries (Paust.); He always loved to chat - I knew that very well
(Kav.);
12) non-union proposals of complex composition. In these sentences, the second part consists not of one, but of several simple sentences:
He noticed some special disrepair in all the village buildings: the logs on the huts were dark and old; many roofs were leaky like a sieve; on others there was only a ridge at the top and poles on the sides in the form of ribs (G.);
It’s pleasant after a long walk and deep sleep to lie motionless on the hay: the body is luxuriating and languishing, the face is glowing with a slight heat, sweet laziness closes the eyes
(T.).
2. Methods of transmitting someone else's speech.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
General information
The author's narration may include the speech of another person or the statements and thoughts of the author himself, expressed in a certain situation and conveyed verbatim or in content. The statements of other persons (less often the author himself), included in the author’s narration, form someone else’s speech. Depending. How such a statement is conveyed is a distinction between direct speech and indirect speech.
The main criterion for distinguishing between direct and indirect speech is, first of all, that the first, as a rule, literally conveys someone else’s statement, preserving its lexical and phraseological composition, grammatical structure and stylistic features, while the second usually reproduces only the content of the statement, and the original words and expressions speaker, the nature of the construction of his speech changes under the influence of the author's context.
From a syntactic point of view, direct speech retains significant independence, being connected with the author's words only in meaning and intonation, and indirect speech acts as a subordinate clause as part of a complex sentence, in which the role of the main sentence is played by the author's words. These are the most important differences between both methods of transmitting someone else's speech. However, their clear delineation in a number of cases gives way to their convergence, close interaction and crossing.
Thus, direct speech may not convey someone else’s statement verbatim.
We sometimes find an indication of this in the author’s words themselves: He said something like this...; He answered something like the following... etc. It is clear that in such cases someone else's speech is reproduced with greater or lesser approximation to accuracy, but not verbatim.
Naturally, we find not a literal translation, but an exact translation in those cases when the speaker expresses himself in a foreign language, and his direct speech is conveyed in Russian: - What? What are you saying?
- said Napoleon. - Yes, tell me to give you a horse (L.T.).
On the other hand, indirect speech can literally convey someone else's words, for example, in an indirect question corresponding to an interrogative sentence of direct speech; cf: He asked when the meeting would start. - He asked: “When will the meeting start?”
Sometimes indirect speech differs lexically from direct speech only by the presence of a function word - a conjunction that subordinates the subordinate clause to the main one; Wed; He said that the manuscript had already been edited. - He said, “The manuscript has already been edited”; He asked if everyone was ready to leave. He asked: “Are everyone ready to leave?”
The rapprochement of direct and indirect speech is possible not only from the side of their lexical composition, but also from the side of the syntactic structure, the construction of speech, which in common speech reaches the mixing of both forms of transmitting someone else's statement (the so-called semi-direct speech); Of course, the postmaster and the chairman and even the police chief himself, as usual, made fun of our hero, wondering if he was in love and that we know, they say, that Pavel
Ivanovich’s heart is limping, we know who shot him... (G.).
The same mixed construction is formed in cases where there is no subordinating conjunction, with which indirect speech as a subordinate clause would have to be attached to the author’s words:
They objected to him, justifying themselves, but he persistently insisted: no one is to blame for anything before him, and everyone is to blame for himself (M. G.)
The absence of a conjunction brings such sentences closer to direct speech, and pronouns indicate indirect speech.
Direct speech
Direct speech is the transmission of someone else's statement, accompanied by the author's words. The latter first of all establish the very fact of someone else’s speech, explain to whom it belongs, and can indicate under what conditions it was spoken, to whom it was addressed, give it an assessment, etc.:
“Hush, children, hush!” - Levin even shouted angrily at the children, standing in front of his wife to protect her, when a crowd of children scattered towards them with squeals of joy (L. T.).
In the absence of the author's words, you can talk about someone else's speech, but not about direct speech: Everyone took their places. “I’m opening the meeting, comrade!” There was silence in the hall. In such a narrative, the author's text characterizes the situation, but does not introduce direct speech.
In relation to the author's words, direct speech acts as an independent sentence, in meaning and intonationally connected with the author's context, together with which it forms one whole, reminiscent of a non-conjunctive complex sentence. In some cases, the connection between direct speech and the author's words is closer and more direct speech resembles a member of the sentence formed by the author's words: We heard: “Help!”
(the author’s words do not have semantic completeness, and with a transitive verb an addition is expected; cf.: We heard a call for help); In the silence came:
"Behind me! Attack!" (the author’s words are perceived as an incomplete sentence in which a subject is necessary; cf.: In the silence a call for attack was heard); He made a request: “Give this book to the library” (cf.: He asked to hand over this book to the library - an inconsistent definition with an objective meaning). However, it should be borne in mind that direct speech is a sentence, therefore, when drawing an analogy between it and a member of a sentence, one cannot talk about the identity of these constructions.
In other cases, the analogy with subordinate clauses is closer. These are constructions in which direct speech is associated with verbs of speech: he said..., he asked..., he answered..., he objected..., etc. When replacing direct speech with indirect speech, a subordinate clause is formed, not a member of the sentence.
From here, however, it does not follow that the combination of the author’s words with direct speech forms a complex sentence: this is a special construction consisting of two independent sentences. As for such cases as Osip’s remark, conveying to Khlestakov the innkeeper’s speech: “You and your master, he says, are swindlers, and your master is a rogue” (G.) - then there is no merging of direct speech and the author’s words into one sentence, so how the word speaks acts in such cases as an introductory word, indicating the source of the message.
Direct speech can convey:
1) a statement by another person, i.e. literally someone else's words:
“Iran, you’re crying again,” Litvinov (T.) began with concern;
2) the words of the speaker himself, spoken earlier: “Why aren’t you going?” - I asked the driver impatiently (P.);
3) unspoken thoughts: “How good, “I hid the revolver in the crow’s nest,” thought Pavel (N. Ostr.).
1) precede direct speech: The “delighted” mother confidently answered:
“I’ll find something to say!” (M.G.);
2) follow direct speech: “I will, I will fly!” - it rang and went in Alexey’s head, driving away sleep (B. Pol.);
3) engage in direct speech: “We’ll have to spend the night here,” he said
Maxim Maksimych, “you can’t cross the mountains in such a snowstorm” (L.);
4) include direct speech: To my question: “Is the old caretaker alive?” - no one could give me a satisfactory answer (P.).
Direct speech is most often associated with verbs of statement or thought contained in the author’s words (speak, say, ask, answer, exclaim, say, object, think, decide, etc.), less often with verbs indicating the nature of speech, its connection with the previous statement (continue, add, conclude, finish, complete, interrupt, interrupt, etc.), with verbs expressing the purpose of speech (ask, order, explain, confirm, complain, agree, etc.), as well as with phrases with nouns close in meaning or formation to verbs of speech (asked a question, heard an answer, heard exclamations, uttered words, heard a whisper, heard a cry, heard a voice, etc.), or with nouns indicating the emergence of a thought
(a thought arose, flashed in consciousness, appeared in the mind, etc.). Author's words may contain verbs indicating the action that accompanies the statement; verbs denoting movements, gestures, facial expressions
(run, jump up, shake your head, shrug your shoulders, spread your arms, make a grimace, etc.), expressing feelings, sensations, the internal state of the speaker (to be happy, upset, offended, indignant, surprised, laugh, smile, sigh, etc.) P.).
The order of words in direct speech does not depend on its place in relation to the author's words, and the order of words in the author's remark is associated with the place it occupies in relation to direct speech. namely:
1) if the author’s words precede direct speech, then in them there is usually a direct order of the main members of the sentence (the subject precedes the predicate); Zhukhrai flocked to the training machine gun site and, raising his hand, said: “Comrades, we have gathered you for a serious and responsible matter” (N. Ostr.);
2) if the author’s words come after direct speech or are included in it, then the order of the main members of the sentence in them is reversed (the predicate precedes the subject): “Fire! Fire/" - a desperate cry was heard below
(Ch.); “Gather, brothers, material for the fire,” I said, picking up some block of wood from the road. “We’ll have to spend the night in the steppe” (M. G.).
Indirect speech
Indirect speech is the transmission of someone else's speech in the form of a subordinate clause: Gurov told. that he is a Muscovite, a philologist by training, but works in a bank; once prepared to sing in a private opera, but gave up, has in
Moscow has two houses (Ch.).
The subordinate clause containing indirect speech follows the main one and is attached to the predicate of the latter using conjunctions and relative words characteristic of explanatory subordinate clauses: what, so that, as if, as if, who, what, which, which. whose, how. where, where, where, why, why, etc.
A conjunction that indicates the transfer of a real fact and is used when replacing a narrative sentence of direct speech: They said that Kuban was preparing an uprising against the Volunteer Army... (School.)
The conjunctions seem to give indirect speech a tinge of uncertainty, doubt about the truth of the conveyed content: ... Some said that he was the unfortunate son of rich parents ... (L. T.).
The conjunction so is used when replacing an incentive sentence of direct speech: ... Tell the groom not to give oats to his horses (G.). Also in some cases, with a negative predicate of the main sentence: No one could say that they had ever seen him at some evening (G.).
Relative words who, what, which, food, where, etc. are used when replacing the interrogative sentence of direct speech, i.e. interrogative pronominal words are retained in the role of interrogative-relative: Korchagin repeatedly asked me when he could check out (N. Ostr. ). Such a subordinate clause is called an indirect question. An indirect question is expressed using the conjunction particle whether, if the question in direct speech was expressed without pronominal words: The mother asked a worker working in the field how far it was to the tar factory (M.G.).
In indirect speech, personal and possessive pronouns and persons of the verb are used from the point of view of the author (i.e. the person conveying the indirect speech), and not the person to whom the direct speech belongs. Addresses, interjections, emotional particles present in direct speech are omitted in indirect speech; the meanings they express and the expressive coloring of speech are conveyed only approximately by other lexical means.
The introduction of modal particles into indirect speech, say, de, they say, etc., allows us to preserve in it some shades of direct speech: The servant... reported to his master that, they say, Andrei Gavrilovich did not listen and did not want to return (P).
Sometimes in indirect speech the literal expressions of someone else’s speech are preserved (in writing this is shown with the help of quotation marks): From Petrushka they heard only the smell of living quarters, and from Selifan that “he performed government service, but previously served at customs,” and nothing more (G. ).
Improperly direct speech
Someone else's speech can also be expressed by a special technique called improperly direct speech. Its essence lies in the fact that it, to one degree or another, preserves the lexical and syntactic features of someone else’s statement, the manner of speech of the speaker, the emotional coloring characteristic of direct speech, but it is conveyed not on behalf of the character, but on behalf of the author, the narrator. In this case, the author expresses the thoughts and feelings of his hero, merges his speech with his own speech. As a result, a two-dimensionality of the statement is created: the “inner” speech of the character, his thoughts, moods are conveyed (and in this sense, he “speaks”), but the author speaks for him.
Indirect speech is similar to indirect speech in that it also replaces the persons of the verb and pronouns; it can take the form of a subordinate clause.
The difference between direct, indirect and improperly direct speech is shown by the following comparison:
2) indirect speech: Everyone remembered this evening, repeating that they had a good time and had fun;
3) improperly direct speech: Everyone remembered that evening. How good and fun they had!
From a syntactic point of view, improperly spicy speech is:
1) as part of a complex sentence: The fact that Lyubka stayed in the city was especially pleasant. Seryozha Lyubka was a desperate girl, her own in the board
(Fed.),
2) as an independent, independent proposal:
When my grandmother died, they put her in a long, narrow coffin and covered her eyes, which did not want to close, with two nickels. Before her death, she was alive and was carrying soft bagels sprinkled with poppy seeds from the market, but now she is sleeping, sleeping... (H).
The most characteristic type of improperly direct speech is the form of interrogative and exclamatory sentences, which stand out in emotional and intonation terms against the background of the author’s narration:
She could not help but admit that he liked her very much; Probably, he too, with his intelligence and experience, could have already noticed that she distinguished him: how come she had not yet seen him at her feet and had not yet heard his confession? What was holding him back? Shyness.. pride or coquetry of a cunning red tape? It was a mystery to her (P.); Nikolai Rostov turned away and, as if looking for something, began to look at the distance, at the water
Danube, in the sky, in the sun. How beautiful the sky seemed, how blue, calm and deep! How tenderly and glossily the water shone in the distant Danube! (T)
The interaction of individual methods of conveying someone else's speech allows, for stylistic purposes, to combine them in one text: He [the provincial] is angrily silent when making such comparisons, and sometimes he dares to say. that such and such material or such and such wine can be obtained from them better and cheaper, and that such and such wine can be obtained from overseas rarities. they won’t even look at these big crayfish and shells and red fish, and it’s free, they say, for you to buy various materials and trinkets from foreigners. they rip you off, and you are glad to be idiots
(Gonch)
Literature
1. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language: Textbook. - M.: International relations, 1995. - 560 p.
Depending on the meanings of the parts of non-conjunctive complex sentences and the type of intonation as the most important formal aspect of their construction, various types of non-conjunctive complex sentences are distinguished:
- Non-union complex sentences with the meaning of enumeration: Morning was still dozing in one of the alleys in Sololaki, the shadow lay on the wooden low houses gray with age (K. Paustovsky); The horses started moving, the bell rang, the wagon flew away... (A. Pushkin); It was already September, the last harvests in the garden and taiga were ripening (V. Rasputin). These sentences talk about events occurring simultaneously or sequentially and describe the overall picture. Such sentences are characterized by enumerative intonation. Such sentences are often used when describing something (nature, man, interior): The roof had been painted for a long time, the glass gave off a rainbow, grass grew from the cracks between the steps (A. Chekhov); The hazel branches bent over the tree, forming a green canopy; through the branches the sky shone through in the colors of sunset; the spicy smell of fresh leaves filled the air (M. Gorky); His name was Andrei Petrovich Bersenev; his comrade, a blond young man, was nicknamed Shubin, Pavel Yakovlevich (I. Turgenev).
- Non-union complex sentences with the meaning of comparison or opposition: You are a prose writer, I am a poet... (A. Pushkin); Don't promise a pie in the sky - give a bird in your hands (Proverb); It’s not a shame not to know - it’s a shame not to learn (Proverb); From the very beginning I knew everything about poetry - I knew nothing about prose (A. Akhmatova). These sentences talk about phenomena that are opposed to each other or differ from each other: It is necessary, for example, to keep fertilizers in bags - no, they are poured into a heap on the field (V. Peskov); Both went into the box - I into the stalls (V. Gilyarovsky); If there was a neck, there would be a clamp (Proverb); Don’t be afraid of obvious ones - be afraid of secret prisons (Yu. Levitansky).
- Unconjunct complex sentences with the meaning of conditionality. The first part of this sentence indicates the condition necessary to perform the action discussed in the second part. And in the second part it can also talk about the consequence, the result of what happens in the first: At noon, walk along a dead street - you won’t meet a person (M. Sholokhov); The rain is not rain, but pasha. If you don’t get up, Lyubishkin’s day will wear away like rust on iron (M. Sholokhov); Hares are jumping under the windows of the house. If you creak the door, they run away into the bushes (V. Peskov); And if you try to drive across our land from the west to the Amur - how many times will the rails run over the water! (V. Peskov).
- Non-conjunctive complex sentences with the meaning of explanatory relations: To himself, Danilov formulated the task as follows: Dr. Belov must be made the head of the train (V. Panov); He reasoned like this: his father could have lived by joking (M. Saltykov-Shchedrin). Here the second part performs the function of the subject in relation to the first part. This type of non-union complex sentences can also include those in which in the first part there are verbs to look out, look around, listen, etc. or expressions such as raise your eyes, raise your head, etc., warning of further presentation; in these cases, between the parts of a non-union sentence, you can insert the words and saw that; and heard that; and felt that: I approached the bridge for rinsing clothes and saw: a float on a boy’s fishing rod was slowly being pulled by the current (V. Peskov); Suddenly everyone fell silent and raised their heads: a neighbor appeared from behind the hut, the tall, fair-haired little Grishka (I. Bunin). These sentences also include non-conjunctive complex sentences if the second part denotes an object related to the predicate in the first part, expressed by a verb of speech, thought, perception, etc.: One can assume: in early summer something turns green here and even something is blooming (V. Peskov); During these twenty minutes, I realized: a piece of flatbread and a mug of tea in the desert is not the same as tea in a city house (V. Peskov); I immediately guessed: we won (V. Mashkov). And it became mercilessly clear: life made a noise and went away (A. Blok); I knew: the blow of fate would not bypass me (M. Lermontov).
- Non-union complex sentences with the meaning of attributive relations: The bearded man’s plan was this: wait for dawn, and then drive the beast into the sea and finish it off (V. Bianchi); Like all Moscow people, your father is like this: he would like a son-in-law with stars and ranks... (A. Griboyedov).
- Non-union complex sentences with the meaning of cause-and-effect relationships: He walked alongside: such was the duty of the adjutant (K. Simonov); The huge cast-iron gates of the park did not close: carriages drove through them one after another (N. Ostrovsky); The first Fat Man, the owner of the bruise, laughed maliciously: he was avenged (Yu. Olesha); Only the fishing harbor is lively at noon: fishermen go fishing (K. Paustovsky).
- Non-union complex sentences with the meaning of temporary relations: The red sun will rise - goodbye to the clear month (Proverb); If you put a sideways guy in a backpack, he screams and tries to bite (V. Peskov); Next time you come, let's go catch quails (V. Peskov); Spring has come - new worries fell on the shoulders of this thin woman (V. Panova); I went to bed - the forest was noisy (Yu. Kazakov).
- Unconjunct complex sentences with the meaning of comparison: You sang a bright song - the bells are ringing! (JI. Oshanin); A dear one will pass by and give him sunshine (Proverb); Says a word - the nightingale sings (M. Lermontov); She laughed cheerfully and contagiously - that’s how children laugh (A. Chekhov).
- Non-union complex sentences with the meaning of consequence, result, rapid change of events: The earth is round - you cannot hide secrets on it (M. Dudin); I came out with a sketch - there is no one happier than me in the world (I. Smolnikov); And the birch tree near the shore has not yet believed the summer - it stands without leaves (V. Peskov); But it’s already late - we decide to spend the night with the fishermen (V. Peskov).
- Non-union complex sentences with the meaning of explanation: But Vaska and Zhenka did not listen, busy with their own affairs: they carried medicinal plants to the procurement point (V. Panova); Today a more serious misfortune happened, Aunt Ganymede: the gunsmith Prospero was captured (Yu. Olesha); The next day, work was in full swing on Court Square: carpenters were building ten blocks (Yu. Olesha); A second later, a miracle happened: the black man became white, beautiful and not black (Yu. Olesha).
- Non-union complex sentences with the meaning of accession: Varvara listened: the noise of the evening train was heard (A. Chekhov); He sluggishly dragged his numb legs along the deck, climbed onto the bridge and listened: the dull blows became more frequent (K. Paustovsky); But one day in winter I went out and heard: someone was moaning behind the fence (K. Paustovsky); During pauses, I looked around - it seemed that Violetta was singing in her native Venice (K. Paustovsky); I already know everything by heart - that’s what’s boring (M. Lermontov); But Nikitich can reason in this way all night long - just keep your ears open (V. Shukshin). The first parts of such sentences are distinguished by warning intonation and the presence of a predicate verb naming the action leading to perception, and the second part indicates the object of perception. The second part of such sentences is more informative; it carries the main information.
- Non-union proposals of complex composition. In these sentences, the second part consists not of one, but of several simple sentences: He noticed some special disrepair in all the village buildings: the logs on the huts were dark and old; many roofs were leaky like a sieve; on others there was only a ridge at the top and poles on the sides in the form of ribs (N. Gogol). : ; ; . The first and second parts are connected by explanatory intonation; this is a non-union complex sentence with the meaning of explanation; the second and third, third and fourth are enumerative (they have the meaning of enumeration). It’s pleasant after a long walk and deep sleep to lie motionless on the hay: the body is luxuriating and languishing, the face glows with a slight heat, sweet laziness closes the eyes (I. Turgenev). :,,. The first semantic part is the first part of a non-union complex sentence, the second semantic part is the other three sentences connected to each other by enumerative intonation. The first and second parts of a non-union complex sentence are connected by intonation of conditionality (they have cause-and-effect relationships).