Download Latin letters with translation. Latin alphabet, diphthongs, pronunciation


There are 25 letters in the Latin alphabet: 7 vowels (a, e, i, j, o, u, y) and 18 consonants (b, c, d, f, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z).

In botanical literature, all names are written with a capital letter, except for the specific and subspecific epithet in the names of species and subspecies.

Remember the pronunciation features of vowels, diphthongs and some consonants. Translate the names of plants given as examples into Russian.

Features of vowel pronunciation

The vowel sounds [a] [and] [u] are pronounced as in Russian:

A a– [a]: Acacia, Acer, Adonis, Agava etc.

I i– [and]: Angelica, Valeriana, Digitalis etc.

O o– [o]: Solanum, Fagopirum, Grossularia etc.

U u– [y]: Leonurus, Luzula, Muscari etc.

E e -[e]: the consonant sound before [e] is always pronounced firmly: Berberis, Gerbera, Geranium

Jj- [th]: written at the beginning of the syllable before the vowel and softens it: Juncus, Juniperus etc.

Yy - [And]: written in words of Greek origin: Hydrastis, Myrtus, Lychnis, Lysimachia, Symphytum etc.

Diphthongs. A diphthong is a sound consisting of two vowels:

ae Crataegus, Aegopodium, Aeonium, Aerva, Aesculus etc.

[ uh]

oe Boehmeria, Oenothera, Oenanthe etc.

In cases where the vowels “ae” and “oe” need to be pronounced separately, put a section sign “..”: Aloе

au-[aw]: Laurus, Rauvolfia

eu-[ew]: Eucommia, Eucalyptus etc.

Features of the pronunciation of some consonants

C c – [ts] or [ To]:

[ts] is pronounced before the sounds [ uh] And [ And]: officinale, Cirsium, Citrus, Cereus, Cetraria, Cerasus etc.

[To] pronounced in all other cases: Caulerpa, Carum, Carica, Canna, Cladonia, Conium etc.

Hh – [G']: pronounced with thick aspiration: Hyosciamus, Hevea, Hibiscus etc.

Kk – [To]: written in words of non-Latin origin: Kalanchoе, Kalopanax, Kniphofia etc.

Ll – [l]: pronounced softly: Lamiaceae, Secale etc.

Qq– written only in combination with [ u] and in position before other vowels it is pronounced [ kv]: Quercus, Aquilegia

Ss – [With] or [z]:

[h] is pronounced in the position between vowels and in combination with – m- - n- Rosa, Rosmarinus etc .

[With] pronounced in all other cases: Asparagus, Asplenium, Aster etc.

Xx– pronounced [ ks]: Panax, radix, cortex etc

Zz – [h]: written in words of Greek origin: Leuzea, Zea, Oryza, Zingiber etc.

Exceptions are words of German, Italian and other origins: Zincum etc.

Memorize Latin and Greek letter combinations and their pronunciation. Translate into Russian the names of plants given as examples.

Latin and Greek letter combinations

ti– before vowels it is pronounced [ qi], but after s, t, x pronounced like [ti]: Lallemantia, Nicotiana, but Neottia

- ngu– before vowels it is pronounced [ ngv]: Sanguisorba

-su- reads like [ St.]: Suaeda, Suillus etc

-ch- pronounced like [ X]: Chamomilla, Arachis, Chenopodium, Chondrilla etc.

-sch- reads like [ cx], not [sh.]: Schizandra, Schoenoplectus, Schoenus etc.

-rh- pronounced [r]: Rhamnus, Rhizobium, Rhododendron, Rheum, Rhinanthus etc.

-th- pronounced as [t]: Thymus, Thea, Thlaspi, Thladiantha etc.

-ph- pronounced [f]: Phellodendron, Phacelia Phaseolus etc.

Latin accent rules

The number of syllables in a word is equal to the number of vowels; Diphthong vowels form one syllable:

Salvia – Sal-vi-a- 3 syllables

Althaea – Al-thae-a – 3 syllables

Eucalyptus – Eu-ca-lyp-tus – 4 syllables

    in words that consist of two syllables, the stress never falls on the last syllable: fungus, labor, tuber, herba, Crocus etc.

    In words that consist of three or more syllables, the stress may fall on the second or third syllable from the end:

Foe-ni-cu-lum, me-di-ca-men-tum

    The place of stress depends on the length and or shortness of the second syllable from the end of the word:

If the second syllable is long, it will be stressed;

If the second syllable is short, then the stress moves to the third syllable;

A syllable is long if:

A vowel comes before two or more consonants, -x- or -z-:

exst`actum, Schiz`andra, Or`yza

    contains a diphthong:

Spir`aea, Crat`aegus, Alth`aea

    contains a long vowel sound, which is always marked with a longitude sign (-) in the dictionary:

Urtica, Solanum

A syllable is short if:

A vowel comes before another vowel:

Polem`onium, Hipp`ophaе,

Contains a short vowel, which is marked in the dictionary with a short sign (~)

`Ephedra, V`iola

Usually in dictionaries there is no sign for brevity, and longitude

put:

Familiarize yourself with Latin botanical nomenclature. Answer, what is the main botanical category?

How can a species epithet be expressed and what features of a plant can it indicate?

Latin botanical nomenclature. Species name

In modern botanical nomenclature, the binomial principle of designating plant species has been adopted, which was introduced in the 18th century. Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus. Rules for the design of Latin plant names are regulated International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. According to these rules, the main botanical category is viewSpecies. The name of the species consists of two words: the name of the genus and the specific epithet. Name sort ofGenus is a noun in the nominative singular case. In the botanical name of a plant, it always comes first and is written with a capital letter. Specific epithetNomen specificum- this is a definition that indicates a characteristic characteristic of a given plant species. The specific epithet comes in second place and is written with a lowercase letter. If a specific epithet consists of two words, they are written with a hyphen.

1. A specific epithet, expressed by a definition, can indicate various distinctive features:

a) – flowering time:

Adonis vernalis – spring adonis, adonis

Convallaria majalis – May lily of the valley

Colchicum autumnale – autumn crocus

b) – appearance, color, structural features and other characteristics:

Anethum graveolens – fragrant dill

Galeopsis speciosa – beautiful pikulnik

Hyoscyamus niger – black henbane

Cicuta virosa – poisonous

Centaurea cyanus – blue cornflower

c) – habitat:

Arachis hypogaea – groundnut, peanut

Trifolium montanum – mountain clover

Ledum palustre - marsh rosemary

Lathyrus pratensis – meadow chin

Anthriscus sylvestris – forest sedum

Festuca pratensis – meadow fescue

Caltha palustris – marsh marigold

Quercus petraea – sessile oak

d) – geographical distribution:

Acacia arabica - Arabian acacia

Anacardium occidentale – western anacardium

Hamamelis virginiana

Hevea brasiliensis - Hevea brasiliensis

Hydrastis canadensis – goldenseal

Bunias orientalis

Trollius europaeus – European swimsuit

e) – absence of characteristic signs:

Barbarea vulgaris – common cress

Artemisia vulgaris – common wormwood

Hordeum vulgaris – common barley

2. A specific epithet can be expressed as a noun

Atropa belladonna

Carica papaya – melon tree

Theobroma cacao – chocolate tree

Punica granatum – pomegranate tree

Panax ginseng – Panax ginseng

Salsola richteri

3. The specific epithet can be expressed in two words:

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi – bearberry

Capsella bursa-pastoris – shepherd's purse

Vaccinium vittis idaea – common lingonberry

Remember the Latin names of taxa.

Names of taxa of botanical classification

All plants are united into subordinate systematic groups - taxa, specific genera, families, orders, classes, divisions:

View - species – genus name + specific epithet

Genus - genus– noun in the nominative case

Subfamily – subfamilia– base + (o) ideae

Family – familia– base + ceae

Order – ordo– base + ales

Subclass – subclassic– base + idae

Class - classic– base + opsida

Department - divisio– base + (o) phyta

Examples:

Family names:

Fabaceae – legumes

Poaceae - bluegrass

Lamiaceae – Lamiaceae

Order names:

Cucurbitales – pumpkin

Piperales - peppers

Theales – teahouses

Subclass names:

Caryophyllidae – caryophyllides

Liliidae - liliids,

Asteridae - asterids,

Class names:

Liliopsida – monocots

Magnoliopsida – dicotyledons

using the example of a rosehip species

Taxonomic

Taxa

Plants

Angiosperms Magnoliophyta

Dicotyledons Magnoliopsida

Subclass

Rosidae

Pink Rosales

Family

Pink Rosaceae

Rose (rose hip) Rosa

Rose of May (rose hips) Rosa majalis

Briefdictionary of botanical terms

    Abaxial – off-axis

    Agrocenosis, or agrophytocenosis- an artificial agricultural plant community created by man when sowing or planting cultivated plants.

    Adaxial– directed towards the axis.

    Azonal vegetation- vegetation that does not form an independent zone anywhere, but is found in a number of zones, for example, water meadows.

    Androecium- the collection of stamens of a flower.

    Anemophilia– wind pollination.

    Anemochoria– distribution of fruits, seeds and other diasporas by air currents.

    Anthropophytes, anthropophilic plants - constantly found in phytocenoses or agrocenses due to unconscious or intentional human influence. These include weeds, native plants and plants cultivated by humans.

    Antecology - flower and ecology; ecology of flower and bloom. Anteclogical studies include the production of nectar, pollen, and seeds.

    Apomixis– the formation of an embryo without fertilization – from an unfertilized egg (parthenogenesis), from gametophyte cells (apogamy) or from other cells.

    Apoplast– a set of interfibrillar spaces of cell membranes and intercellular spaces through which free transport of water-soluble substances occurs.

    Area- part of the earth's surface within which the species is distributed.

    Areola- a small area of ​​leaf mesophyll, limited by small intersecting veins.

    Arilus- acetum, a formation characteristic of the seeds of many flowering plants and consisting either of succulent tissues, or having the appearance of a film or fringe; develops in various parts of the seed.

    Aspect– the appearance of the phytocenosis, changing throughout the year in accordance with the alternation of phases of plant development. Aspects are named based on the color of the aspectual species.

    Plant association– the basic unit of vegetation classification, which is a set of homogeneous phytocenoses.

    Autecology– the science of the adaptability of individual plant species to living conditions.

    Aerenchyma- air-bearing plant tissue containing large intercellular spaces.

    Biogeocenosis– a homogeneous area of ​​the earth’s surface with a certain composition of living and inert components, united by metabolism and energy into a single natural complex, i.e. This is an ecosystem within the boundaries of one phytocenosis.

    Biomorphs– life forms of plants, determined by their genetic nature, growth form and biological rhythm.

    Biotope- a territory with homogeneous ecological conditions, occupied by a certain biocenosis and serving as a habitat for one or another species of plants or animals.

    Botanical geography– the science of the patterns of geographical distribution of vegetation cover on the earth's surface.

    Vacuole- a cavity in a cell surrounded by a membrane - tonoplast, filled with cell sap.

    Velamen- a multilayered epidermis that covers the aerial roots of some tropical epiphytic orchids and aroids, as well as some terrestrial monocots.

    Age composition of the population – distribution of individuals of the coenotic population by age and development phases. There are latent, juvenile, virginile, generating, and senile individuals.

    Halophytes- plants adapted to living in saline soils.

    Gametogenesis– the process of formation of sex cells – gametes.

    Heliophytes– light-loving plants that cannot tolerate shade.

    Helophytes– plants of shallow waters and waterlogged shores of reservoirs, a transitional group between hydrophytes and terrestrial plants; in the narrow sense - swamp plants.

    Hemicryptophytes– perennial grasses with dying above-ground shoots, the renewal buds of which are located at the level of the soil surface.

    Geotropism- the orientation of the axial organs of plants - shoots and roots, caused by the unilateral action of gravity. Positive geotropism of the root causes its growth to be directed towards the center of the earth, negative geotropism of the shoot - from the center.

    Geophytes– plants whose renewal buds are located below the soil level.

    Hygrophytes– terrestrial plants growing in conditions of high soil and air humidity.

    Hydrophytes- plants that live in aquatic environments.

    Gynoecium- a collection of carpels of a flower.

    Hypocotyl- the axial part of the embryo and seedling, located between the cotyledons and the root.

    Homeostasis in plants– relative constancy and stability of internal metabolic factors and basic physiological functions in changing environmental conditions. Homeostasis ensures the maintenance of vital functions and the consistent implementation of ontogenesis under various fluctuations in external conditions.

    Double fertilization – a type of fertilization characteristic of angiosperms in which one of the sperm fuses with the egg to form a diploid zygote, giving rise to the seed embryo, and the other sperm fuses with the diploid nucleus of the central cell to form a triploid nucleus, giving rise to the endosperm.

    Diaspora – unit of dissemination, a naturally separated part of a plant that serves for its reproduction and dispersal.

    Dominants– predominant plant species in phytocenoses.

    Sapwood- the outer part of the wood of a stem or root, containing living cells and storage substances and conducting water.

    Ovary– the lower part of the carpel or gynoecium, consisting of fused carpels; contains ovules and differentiates into a fruit.

    Zoochoria– distribution of seeds, fruits and other plant diaspores by animals.

    Variability- the property of plants to deviate in their characteristics and in the characteristics of individual development from the parental forms. Variability is distinguished genotypic caused by changes in gene and chromosomal structures - mutations - or resulting from a new combination of parental genes in a daughter organism, and phenotypic– modification variability of gene manifestation during the implementation of hereditary information in different external conditions.

    Callose– a polysaccharide that forms glucose upon hydrolysis, a component of the cell wall in sieve elements.

    Callus- tissue consisting of large thin-walled, meristematically active cells, formed as a result of plant damage in healing wounds and grafts, as well as in tissue culture.

    Carpella, carpel- the same as the carpel.

    Cell wall– a structural formation on the periphery of a plant cell, gives strength and shape to the cell, limits the size of the protoplast and protects it. It is a product of the vital activity of protoplast.

    Cell sap-aqueous solution of various substances; Contained in the vacuole, it is a product of the vital activity of the protoplast.

    Coleoptile- a vaginal leaf-like formation, shaped like a cone-shaped closed cap, surrounding the epicotyl and embryonic bud in cereals.

    Coleorhiza- membranous sheath around the root of the cereal embryo.

    Collenchyma- mechanical tissue consisting of living cells with unevenly thickened cell walls that never become lignified.

    Root– the main vegetative organ of a plant, anchoring the plant in the substrate and providing soil nutrition (absorbs water and minerals from the soil).

    Root cap– formation covering the apical meristem of the root in the form of a cap; its tissues perform important functions. Sometimes a synonym for “root cap” is the term “calyptra” - cap, cap.

    Spine– embryonic main root; forms the basal continuation of the hypocotyl in the embryo.

    Cosmopolitans- plants and animals found in most of the inhabited regions of the Earth.

    Cryptophytes– perennial grasses in which renewal buds are located below the soil level or under water (geophytes, helophytes, hydrophytes).

    Xerophytes- plants adapted to life in arid habitats.

    Xylem– conductive tissue of plants (wood), which provides an upward flow of water with dissolved minerals from the root to the shoot.

    Cuticle- a lipophilic film covering the surface of the epidermis in plants.

    Lignification– impregnation of cell membranes with lignin.

    Sheet- a lateral organ of a plant that performs the functions of photosynthesis, transpiration and gas exchange.

    Sheet mosaic– mutual arrangement of leaves, thanks to which they do not shade each other. It is especially evident in shade-tolerant plants and represents an adaptation in low light conditions.

    Lithophytes– plants of rocky habitats.

    Mesophytes– plants adapted to life in conditions of average water supply

    Meristems– educational tissues whose cells retain the ability to divide for a long time.

    Mosaic– horizontal heterogeneity of phytocenoses and their division into smaller structures.

    Morphogenesis– morphogenesis, the formation of morphological structures and the entire organism in the process of ontogenesis.

    Nastia– non-directional movements of organs relative to the axis of fixedly attached plants in response to changes in diffusely acting external factors (light-darkness, heat-cold).

    Nyctinastic movements- movements of organs caused by the change of day and night, as well as changes in temperature (thermonasty), or light intensity (photonasty), or both.

    Norm of reaction– hereditarily determined amplitude of possible changes in the implementation of the genotype. The reaction norm determines the number and nature of possible phenotype variants, or modifications, under different environmental conditions.

    Nucellus– the central part of the ovule, in which the embryo sac develops, is usually considered to be a homologue of the megasporangium.

    Abundance– number of individuals based on visual assessment in points of a particular scale

    Ontogenesis, or individual development– the whole complex of consistent and irreversible changes in the life activity and structure of a plant from its emergence from a zygote or any diaspora to natural death due to aging. Ontogenesis is the consistent implementation of the hereditary program for the development of a plant organism in specific environmental conditions.

    Pollination- the process of transferring pollen from the anthers to the stigma.

    Organism as a system– a plant as an integral system with several subordinate levels of organization - organismal, organ, tissue, cellular, molecular. Regulation of the growth and development of the entire organism is carried out through the integration of processes occurring at all levels, interconnected by numerous direct and feedback connections.

    Pericarp- the same as the pericarp.

    Periodization of ontogeny– a set of stages and life states of plants (according to Uranov, 1975)

    Plasmolysis– the process by which the cytoplasm is separated from the cell membrane. Occurs due to loss of water by the cell.

    Plastids- double-membrane organelles of a plant cell. Contain circular DNA, ribosomes, enzymes. There are three types of mature plastids: chloroplasts, leucoplasts and chromoplasts.

    Fetus- the reproductive organ of flowering (angiosperm) plants, develops from a flower and contains seeds.

    The escape– the main vegetative organ of a plant, performing the functions of aerial nutrition, consists of a stem, leaves and buds.

    Polarity– a specific orientation of processes and structures in space characteristic of plants, leading to the emergence of morphophysiological gradients and expressed in differences in properties at opposite ends or sides of cells, tissues, organs and the entire plant.

    Population- a collection of individuals of the same species inhabiting a certain territory, freely interbreeding and, to a certain extent, isolated from neighboring populations.

    Protoplast– living contents of the cell, cytoplasm with nucleus.

    Development– qualitative changes in the structure and functions of the plant and its individual parts - organs, tissues and cells, arising in the process of ontogenesis.

    Vegetation– a set of plant communities, or phytocenoses, of the Earth or its individual regions.

    Relics- species of plants and animals that have been preserved in modern ecosystems as remnants of disappeared floras and faunas of past geological eras and are in some inconsistency with modern conditions of existence.

    Height– an irreversible quantitative increase in body size, volume and weight associated with the formation of new body structures.

    Seismonastic movements- movements of organs that occur in response to shocks and tremors experienced by plants. Characteristic of flowers of Asteraceae and leaves of Mimosa pudica.

    Seed coat- the cover of the seed, in the formation of which integuments and sometimes other parts of the ovule take part.

    Seed– organ of reproduction and dispersal of seed plants.

    Simplast– a set of interconnected protoplasts of plant cells and their plasmodesmata.

    Scarification- a technique that accelerates the germination of hard seeds, consisting of scratching the seed coat without damaging the embryo.

    Sclerenchyma- mechanical tissue consisting of dead cells with uniformly thickened lignified cell walls.

    Infertility- a collection of fruits frolicking from one inflorescence

    Sporogenesis– the process of formation of spores – microspores (microsporogenesis) and megaspores (megasporogenesis).

    Stem– shoot axis, consists of internodes and nodes.

    Seed stratification- a technique that accelerates their development and germination. It consists of preliminary keeping the seeds on a moist substrate.

    succession– unidirectional replacement of some plant communities (biogeocenoses, ecosystems) by others over time.

    Taxis– directed movements of the whole organism, caused by the unilateral influence of external stimuli, gravity, light, and chemical exposure.

    Therophytes– annual plants that tolerate unfavorable seasons in the form of seeds.

    Tonoplast- membrane that bounds the vacuole.

    Tropisms– oriented movements of organs of fixedly attached plants in response to the unilateral action of external factors (light, gravity, etc.).

    Phanerophytes– trees and shrubs that have open renewal buds high above the ground.

    Phenotype- the entire complex of external and internal signs and properties of an organism, manifested during its ontogenesis. The phenotype is the result of the implementation of the genotype under certain environmental conditions.

    Plant phylogeny– the process of evolutionary development of plant organisms belonging to a specific taxon. Phylogeny consists of the historical sequence of related ontogenies.

    Phytocenosis (plant community)- a historically established stable collection of various plant species in a certain area of ​​the territory. A phytocenosis is characterized by certain relationships between its constituent plant species, as well as between plant species and environmental conditions.

    Phloem– conductive plant tissue (bast), which provides a downward flow of water with organic substances (assimilates) from leaves to roots, flowers, fruits and growing shoots.

    Photoperiodism– the reaction of plants to the ratio of the length of day and night, expressed in changes in the processes of growth and development and associated with the adaptation of ontogenesis to seasonal changes in external conditions. One of the main manifestations of photoperiodism is the photoperiodic reaction of plant flowering.

    Phototropism- orientation of the axial organs of the plant - shoots and roots - to one-sided illumination, expressed in directional growth or bending towards the light (positive phototropism of the stem) or away from the light (negative phototropism of the root).

    Chalaza- the basal part of the ovule, in which the integuments originate and at the base of which the vascular bundle coming from the funiculus ends or branches.

    Chamephytes- plants whose shoots do not die off in the winter; renewal buds are located close to the soil surface and protected by litter and snow cover.

    Chlorenchyma– chlorophyll-bearing parenchyma (assimilation tissue), photosynthetic tissue consisting of cells with many chloroplasts; performs the function of photosynthesis.

    Flower– reproductive organ of flowering (angiosperm) plants

    Cytoplasm- part of the cell located between the plasma membrane and the nucleus; hyaloplasm with organelles.

    Cuttings- a method of vegetative propagation of plants using cuttings - parts of a stem, leaf or root separated from the plant. Accordingly, stem, leaf and root cuttings are distinguished.

    shield- cotyledon (or part of the cotyledon) of the cereal embryo, specialized for nutrients from the endosperm.

    Environmental factors– environmental conditions affecting the growth, development and distribution of plants. Environmental factors include climatic (temperature, light, air, water), soil, relief, as well as the impact of other plants, animals and humans on plants.

    Ecotop– a set of abiotic conditions of the inert environment of a given area, which represents the habitat of a particular community.

    Endemics– species of plants and animals limited in their distribution to a certain territory.

    Epiblast- a small membranous outgrowth located opposite the scutellum in the embryo of cereals.

    Epiblema- single-layer covering tissue of a young root bearing root hairs.

    Epicotyl- the shoot part of the embryo or seedling above the cotyledon or cotyledons, consisting of an axis ending in an apical meristem and leaf primordia.

    Epiphytes– plants that settle on other plants and use them exclusively as a substrate for attachment.

    Ephemeroids– perennial herbaceous plants, which, like ephemerals, are characterized by a short growing season.

    Ephemera- annual herbaceous plants that complete a full development cycle in a very short and usually wet period.

    Nuclear envelope- a double-membrane membrane surrounding the cell nucleus.

    Nucleolus- a dense body located inside the nucleus, not separated from the nuclear juice by a shell. Consists of granular and fibrillar components. Contains protein, DNA and RNA.

    Tiering– vertical division of the plant community into elements of different composition and density.

References

1. Suvorov V.V., Voronova I.N. Botany with basics of geobotany / V.V. Suvorov, I.N. Voronova. - 3rd ed. - M.: ARIS, 2012. - 520 p.

2. Andreeva I.I. Botany / I.I. Andreeva, L.S. Rodman. – 3, 4th ed. - M.: KolosS, 2010. – 488 p.

3. Yakovlev G.P. Botany: textbook for universities / G.P. Yakovlev, V.A. Chelombitko, V.I. Dorofeev; edited by R.V. Camelina. - 3rd ed., rev. and additional – St. Petersburg: SpetsLit, 2008. – 689 p.

4. Guidelines for the study of botanical nomenclature / N.M. Naida. – St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State Agrarian University, 2008. – 16 p.

5. Botanical geography with the basics of plant ecology. Textbook for universities / V.G. Khrzhanovsky, S.V. Viktorov, P.V. Litvak, B.S. Rodionov, L.S. Rodman. - 2nd, revised. and additional – M.: Kolos, 1994. – 240 s.

6. Terminology of growth and development of higher plants / M.Kh.Chailakhyan, R.G.Butenko, O.N.Kulaeva. – M.: Nauka, 1982. – 96 p.

It is a widely held opinion, shared even by some scholars, that the Latin alphabet is derived from the Greek in the form used by Greek colonists in Italy, probably from the Chalcidian version of the Greek alphabet used in Cumae Campania. This theory attempts to prove that the Latin alphabet, with the exception of the letters g and p, is exactly the same as the Chalcidian alphabet. Recently, however, it has been proven that this theory is generally incorrect and that the Etruscan alphabet was a link between the Greek and Latin alphabets.

We have already mentioned that on the Praenestine fibula the sound f is conveyed, as in early Etruscan inscriptions, by the combination wh. Later, for example in the Duenos Inscription, the h was omitted - also under Etruscan influence. Thus, the Greek ϝ (digamma), that is, w, came to denote the Latin sound f, although Latin also had the sound w, and if the Romans had taken the alphabet directly from the Greeks, they would have had to use the Greek digamma to convey this sound, in at the same time, both for the sound w and for and in Latin the Greek letter υ (upsilon) was used,

The third letter of the Greek alphabet, gamma, received the form in the Etruscan alphabet ϶ (or WITH) and sound value k ; it retained this sound meaning in the Latin alphabet, where it served to express the sounds k and g (as stated above, the Etruscans did not distinguish between the sounds k and g); WITH and subsequently retained the meaning of the sound g in constant abbreviations of proper names WITH(instead of Gaius) and CN(instead of Gnaeus). At the same time, Greek had two other signs for the sound k - TO And Q, therefore we find in the South Etruscan alphabet the sign C(with k value) just before e and i, K before a and Q only before u (the Etruscan language, as we have seen, did not know the sound o). The Latin alphabet adopted all three of these letters with the same phonetic values, but over time lost the letter K, which, however, continued to be used as the initial letter in frequently used words or official terms, for example Kalendae or Kaeso, and began to use the letter C as for the sound g and for k. However, the letter Q retained the meaning of the sound k before u. Later, in the 3rd century. BC, the voiced sound g was given a special designation by adding a stroke to the lower end of the letter WITH, which thus turned into G.

The absence in the early Latin alphabet of a special sign for the combination x (ks), which existed in the Greek alphabet, including in its Chalcidian version, but which was not in the Etruscan one, serves as further evidence that the Latin alphabet originates from the Etruscan one.

A significant part of the Latin letter names inherited by the English and most modern alphabets are also borrowed from the Etruscans, and only a few names were invented by the Romans. , borrowed by the Greeks, were completely different. The Etruscan origin of the letter names is best evidenced by the names ce, ka and qu (explained by the above-mentioned use of these three letters). Another fact speaks to this: in Etruscan there were sonants, or syllable-forming smooth (ḷ, ṛ), and nasal (ṃ, ṇ), therefore the modern names of the letters l, m, n, r are vocalized as closed syllables (el, em, en, er), and the names of the remaining consonants are open syllables (be, de, etc.).

The creation of the Latin alphabet can be dated back to the 7th century. BC.

Evolution of the Latin alphabet

The original Etruscan alphabet consisted of 26 letters; the Romans borrowed only twenty-one of them. They abandoned the three Greek aspirates: theta, phi and hee, since in the Latin language there were no sounds corresponding to these letters, but they retained these signs to denote numbers. ☉, Ͼ, C came to mean 100, and later this sign was identified with the initial letter of the word centum “one hundred”; ⏀, ⊂|⊃, Ϻ came to stand for 1000, and this sign was identified with the initial letter of the word mille "thousand", D, half of the sign ⊂|⊃, became the symbol for 500; φ - ↓ - ┴ - └ began to mean 50.

Of the three Etruscan letters that conveyed the sound s, the Romans retained the Greek sigma. The presence in the Latin alphabet of the letters d and o, which were not used in the Etruscan language, is explained by the already mentioned circumstance that the Latin alphabet was created even before the Etruscans abandoned these letters. Use of letters S, K, Q And F already explained. The sign, which, as in the Etruscan alphabet, denoted aspiration, later received the form N. The sign I served for both the vowel and the consonant i. Sign X was added later to convey the combination of ks sounds and was placed at the end of the Latin alphabet.

Thus, the Latin alphabet looked like this: A, B, C(with sound value k), D, E, F, Z(Greek zeta), H, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, P(this was the original form R), S, T, V, X. Roughly speaking, it was a Semitic-Greek-Etruscan alphabet; the shape of some letters has undergone minor changes; Semitic Greek Δ became D; Greek Σ became S; R is a variant of the sign P, modified by adding a dash under the semicircle; the remaining letters remained unchanged. Later the seventh letter, that is, the Greek zeta (Ζ) , was omitted because the Latin language did not need it, and the new letter G took her place.

After the conquest of Greece in the era of Cicero (1st century BC), the Latin language began to widely borrow Greek words; signs were adopted from the Greek alphabet of that time Y And Z respectively for the sounds y and z (but only for transliteration of Greek words); these signs were placed at the end of the alphabet. Thus, the Latin alphabet began to have twenty-three characters; the signs themselves became more regular, slender, proportionate and graceful.

Although even in Roman times attempts were made to add new letters - for example, a variant of the letter M, introduced by Verrius Flaccus in the era of Augustus, and in particular the signs introduced by the emperor Claudius (10 BC - 54 AD), digamma inversum for the sound w/υ, to distinguish it in writing from u; antisigma, which is an inverted WITH(Ͽ), for the combination ps; half sign N(┠) for a sound intermediate between u and i - in general it can be said that the alphabet of 23 letters described above was used without changes with the same order of letters not only in the monumental writing of the Roman period, but also in medieval writing (as capital letters letters), and then in book printing up to the present day.

The only stable additions of the Middle Ages were signs U, W And J; more precisely, these were not additions, but variants of existing letters; sign U(for the vowel and, to distinguish it from the consonant υ) and consonant W were minor modifications V, a J(consonant i) - the result of a slight change in sign I. In the early Middle Ages, two of these letters, U And J(but not W, which appeared only in the 11th century) were used undifferentiated for both consonant and vowel sounds.

The most significant facts of the subsequent history of the Latin alphabet are as follows: 1) the adaptation of the Latin alphabet to various languages, and 2) the external change of individual letters in a “cursive” or “fluent” style.

In the 5th century BC e. Latin language(self-name Lingua Latina) was one of the many Italic languages ​​spoken in central Italy. Latin was used in the area known as Latium (modern name is Latium), and Rome was one of the cities in this area. The earliest inscriptions in Latin date back to the 6th century. BC e. and are made using an alphabet based on the Etruscan script.

Gradually, Rome's influence spread to other parts of Italy, and through them to Europe. Over time, the Roman Empire conquered Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Throughout the empire, Latin came to be used as the language of law and authority, and, increasingly, the language of everyday life. The Romans were literate, and many of them read the works of famous Latin authors.

Meanwhile, in the eastern Mediterranean, Greek remained the lingua franca, and educated Romans were bilingual. The earliest examples of Latin literature known to us are translations of Greek plays and Cato's agricultural manual into Latin, dating back to 150 BC. e.

Classical Latin, which was used in early works of Latin literature, differed in many ways from colloquial, so-called Vulgar Latin. However, some writers, including Cicero and Petronius, used Vulgar Latin in their writings. Over time, the spoken variants of the Latin language moved further and further away from the literary standard, and gradually, on their basis, Italic/Romance languages ​​(Spanish, Portuguese, etc.) appeared.

Even after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476, Latin continued to be used as a literary language in Western and Central Europe. A huge amount of medieval Latin literature appeared in a variety of styles - from scientific works of Irish and Anglo-Saxon writers to simple tales and sermons intended for the general public.

Throughout the 15th century. Latin began to lose its dominant position and title as the main language of science and religion in Europe. It has been largely replaced by written versions of local European languages, many of which are derived from or influenced by Latin.

Modern Latin was used by the Roman Catholic Church until the mid-20th century, and currently continues to exist to some extent, especially in the Vatican, where it is recognized as one of the official languages. Latin terminology is actively used by biologists, paleontologists and other scientists to name species and preparations, as well as by doctors and lawyers.

Latin alphabet

The Romans used only 23 letters to write Latin:

There were no lowercase letters in Latin. The letters I and V could be used as consonants and vowels. The letters K, X, Y and Z were used only to write words of Greek origin.

The letters J, U and W were added to the alphabet later to write languages ​​other than Latin.

The letter J is a variant of I and was first introduced into use by Pierre de la Ramais in the 16th century.

The letter U is a variant of V. In Latin, the sound /u/ was represented by the letter v, for example IVLIVS (Julius).

The letter W was originally a double v (vv) and was first used by Old English scribes in the 7th century, although the runic letter Wynn (Ƿ) was more commonly used to represent the /w/ sound in writing. After the Norman Conquest, the letter W became more popular and by 1300 had completely replaced Wynn.

Reconstructed phonetic transcription of classical Latin

Vowels and diphthongs

Consonants

Notes

  • Vowel length was not shown in writing, although modern editions of classical texts use a macron (ā) to indicate long vowels.
  • The pronunciation of short vowels in the medial position is different: E [ɛ], O [ɔ], I [ɪ] and V [ʊ].

Phonetic transcription of ecclesiastical Latin

Vowels

Diphthongs

Consonants

Notes

  • Double vowels are pronounced separately
  • C = [ʧ] before ae, oe, e, i or y, and [k] in any other positions
  • G = [ʤ] before ae, oe, e, i or y, and [g] in any other positions
  • H is not pronounced except in words mihi And nihil, where the sound /k/ is pronounced
  • S = [z] between vowels
  • SC = [ʃ] before ae, oe, e, i or y, and in any other positions
  • TI = before the vowel a and after all letters except s, t or x, and in any other positions
  • U = [w] after q
  • V = [v] at the beginning of a syllable
  • Z = at the beginning of a word before vowels, and before consonants or at the end of a word.

November 11th, 2013

Numerous reforms of the Russian language from the beginning of the 18th century to the present day have never allowed the possibility of replacing the Cyrillic alphabet with the Latin alphabet.

Peter introduced the civil alphabet, had a big quarrel with the church, brought guest workers into the country, but did not encroach on the Slavic letters.

At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, when - according to gr. To L. Tolstoy - the court and high society spoke exclusively French, and the vast majority of the population was illiterate, the moment was extremely convenient. However, the important issue of transformation was not even considered. The nobles chose to start riots on Senate Street.

In 1918, during the last major reform, the Bolsheviks abolished several letters, but did not introduce a foreign alphabet even in the light of the approaching world revolution.

The need to use the Latin alphabet grew every year, but the position of the Soviet leadership on this issue remained unshakable. It was not affected by the accession of the Baltic republics and part of Romania to the USSR, nor the creation of a socialist bloc in Eastern Europe, nor relations with distant Cuba and close Finland.

Then the presidents one by one missed their chance:
- Gorbachev (after the fall of the Berlin Wall);
- Yeltsin (after completion of privatization);
- Medvedev (after meeting with Jobs).

The current head of state started small but important, marking the upcoming Olympics with the mysterious words sochi zoich (or hioz upside down), but was not understood by his compatriots.

As a result, we are forced to spend millions of rubles on infographics in cities, duplicating all names in Latin letters. And who counted the number of man-hours spent on switching languages ​​on keyboards throughout the country?

However, enough words. The following is a new alphabet for Russia, integrated into the glittering Western world. Apparently, this is the least painful path for a country in which Chinese characters or Arabic calligraphy are about to triumph.

A A
B B
IN V
G G
D D
E E
Yo Yo
AND ZH
Z Z
AND I
Y J
TO K
L L
M M
N N
ABOUT O
P P
R R
WITH S
T T
U U
F F
X H
C C
H CH
Sh SH
SCH SCH
Kommersant -
Y Y
b "
E JE
YU J.U.
I JA

The letters Q, W and X disappear. However, the first one can be used in words such as isqusstvo, ququshka. W is two ves in a row or v with a soft sign. X is suitable for words starting with X. We leave Ё because the monument has already been built and the ё-mobile is about to appear.

A couple of excerpts for practice:

1. Ne lepo li ny bjashet-, bratie,
nachjati starymi slovesy
trudnyh- povestij o p-lku Igoreve,
Igorja Svjat-slavlicha?
Nachati zhe sja t-j pesni
po bylinam- sego vremeni,
a ne po zamyshleniju Bojanju!
Bojan-bo veschij,
asche komu xotyashe pesn" tvoriti,
to rastekashetsja mysliju po drevu,
serym v-lkom po zemli,
shizym orlom-pod-oblaky.

2. Ja pomnju chudnoe mgnoven"e:
Peredo mnoj javilas" ty,
How mimoletnoe seen"e,
How genij pure beauty.

I heartce b"etsja v upoen"e,
I dlja nego voznikli vnov"
I bozhestvo, i vdohnoven"e,
I zhizn", i slezy, i ljubov".

The last stanza should also be given in another tradition, where the soft sign is replaced by a double consonant, "в" - by "w", and "е" is retained wherever possible.

I heartce bbеtsja v upoenne,
I dlja nego voznikli vnow
I bozhestvo, I vdohnovenne,
I zhiznn, i slёzy, i ljubow.

All the same, as an unbiased reader can see, it turns out clumsily. Apparently the Russian language is such that the text, even if written in the most foreign letters, retains its wild Eurasian originality, contradictory essence and reluctance to integrate into world culture and civilization. What can we say about its bearers?

Latin alphabet (table), diphthongs, word stress, letter combinations, pronunciation in Latin.

The Latin alphabet has changed its composition throughout the history of the development of the Latin language. The very first alphabet consisted of 21 letters, then new letters began to be added in different eras. Some of them have fallen out of use, others remain. The result was the classical Latin alphabet, consisting of 23 letters (some of which were given by the Greek language).

After the disappearance of the Roman Empire as a state, the Latin alphabet remained the basis for almost all languages ​​of Europe, but in each of the variants there were some changes (the Romance languages ​​that were closest to the classical version of the Latin alphabet were Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, French).

The modern Latin alphabet consists of 25 letters (if with the letter W, then 26). The letters of the Latin alphabet can be found in the table below:

Uppercase

Lowercase

Name

Pronunciation

[G]*

[l]**

[To]***

In Latin the following are written with a capital letter:

  1. proper names;
  2. names of nationalities and months of the year;
  3. adjectives formed from proper names, as well as adverbs: Graecia Antiqua - Ancient Greece, Craece scribere - write in Greek

Diphthongs, letter combinations and pronunciation in Latin

The following diphthongs exist in Latin:

ae – pronunciation is similar to the Russian sound [e]

oe – pronounced like the German ö umlaut or the French diphthong, as in peur

au – similar to a combination of Russian sounds [ау]

ei – reads like [hey]

eu – similar to the sound of Russian sounds [eu]

It is worth noting that if one of the letters in a combination of diphthongs has two dots or a quantity sign, then the sounds in this combination will be pronounced separately: po ë ta, poēta

The letter “c” in Latin is read as [k]: crocodilus, cultura, colonia (knees)

The letter “c” + e, i, y, ae, eu, oe is read as the sound [ts]: Cicero, Cyprus, caelum (tselum)

* The letter h is similar in pronunciation to the Ukrainian sound [g]: humus (humus)

“J” - read as [th]: major. If a word begins with this letter, it is usually merged with the following vowel and pronounced as one sound: Januarius, Juppiter.

** The letter “l” is similar in pronunciation to [la, l]: Latinus (latinus), luna (lune).

l + i gives the sound [li], for example: liber (liber).

*** The letter “q” is always found in the combination qu + consonant and is read as [kv]: quadratus (quadratus). The exception is the word quum (godfather). In many publications you can find this word written as cum.

The letter “s” in Latin is read as: universitas (universitas), if the letter “s” is between two vowels, then it is pronounced as [z]: Asia (Asia).

Please note that the combination of letters ti + vowel is read as [qi]: constitution (constitution). Exceptions are: the word totius (totius), as well as s, x, t + ti, for example: ostium (ostium), Bruttium (bruttium), in Greek words, for example: Boeotia (boeotia).

Pronunciation of letter combinations: ngu and su:

ngu + vowel is read as [ngv]: lingua (lingua)

su + vowel is read as [sv], for example: suadeo (swadeo)

Accent in Latin

In words that consist of two syllables, the stress falls on the second syllable from the end: r o sa. In words that have more than two syllables, the stress falls on the second syllable from the end if it is long: nat u ra. If it is short - on the third from the end: f a brica.

Word + particles que, ve, ne shift the stress to the last syllable of a given word, for example: r o sa, but ros a que. If que is part of a word, then the stress is placed according to the general rule: it a que.

In the next article we will look at pronouns in Latin.



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