Polyphony and polyphony. Essay

Continuing our music theory lessons, we gradually move on to more complex material. And today we will learn what polyphony, musical fabric is, and what musical presentation is like.

Musical presentation

Musical fabric called the totality of all the sounds of a musical work.

The character of this musical fabric is called texture, and musical presentation or warehouse letters.

• Monody. Monody is a single-voice melody, most often it can be found in folk singing.
• Doubling. Doubling lies between monophony and polyphony and is the doubling of the melody by octave, sixth or third. Can also be doubled with chords.

1. Homophony

Homophony – consists of a main melodic voice and other melodically neutral voices. Often the main voice is the top one, but there are other options.

Homophony can be based on:

• Rhythmic contrast of voices

• Rhythmic identity of voices (often found in choral singing)

2. Heterophony.

3. Polyphony.

Polyphony

We think you are familiar with the word “polyphony” itself, and perhaps you have an idea of ​​what it could mean. We all remember the general excitement when phones with polyphony appeared, and we finally replaced the flat mono ringtones with something more like music.

Polyphony- this is polyphony, based on the simultaneous sound of two or more melodic lines or voices. Polyphony is the harmonic fusion of several independent melodies together. While the sound of several voices in speech will become chaos, in music such sound will create something beautiful and caressing the ear.

Polyphony can be:

2. Imitation. Such polyphony develops the same theme, which imitatively moves from voice to voice. Based on this principle:

• Canon is a type of polyphony where the second voice repeats the melody of the first voice with a beat or several beats late, while the first voice continues its melody. A canon can have several voices, but each subsequent voice will still repeat the original melody
• A fugue is a type of polyphony in which several voices are heard, each repeating a main theme, a short melody that runs through the entire fugue. The melody is often repeated in a slightly modified form.

3. Contrasting thematic. In such polyphony, voices produce independent themes that may even belong to different genres.

Having mentioned the fugue and the canon above, I would like to show you them more clearly.

Canon

Fugue in C minor, J.S. Bach

Melodics of strict style

It is worth focusing on a strict style. Strict writing is a style of polyphonic music of the Renaissance (XIV-XVI centuries), which was developed by the Dutch, Roman, Venetian, Spanish and many others. composer schools. In most cases this style was intended for choral church singing a cappella (that is, singing without music), strict writing was less common in secular music. The imitative type of polyphony belongs to the strict style.

To characterize sound phenomena in music theory, spatial coordinates are used:

• Vertical, when sounds are combined at the same time.
• Horizontal, when sounds are combined at different times.

To make it easier for you to understand the difference between free and strict style, let's look at the differences:

The strict style is different:

• Neutral theme
• One epic genre
• Vocal music

Free style is different:

• Bright theme
• Variety of genres
• A combination of both instrumental and vocal music

The structure of music in a strict style is subject to certain (and, of course, strict) rules.

1. The melody needs to start:

• with I or V
• from any counting fraction

2. The melody should end on the first degree of the downbeat.

3. Moving, the melody should represent an intonation-rhythmic development, which occurs gradually and can be in the form of:

• repetition of the original sound
• moving away from the original sound up or down in steps
• intonation jump of 3, 4, 5 steps up and down
• movements according to the sounds of the tonic triad

4. It is often worth holding the melody on a strong beat and using syncopation (shifting the emphasis from a strong beat to a weak one).

5. Jumping should be combined with smooth movement.

As you can see, there are quite a lot of rules, but these are just the basic ones.

The austere style has an image of concentration and contemplation. Music in this style has a balanced sound and is completely devoid of expression, contrasts and any other emotions.

You can hear the austere style in Bach's chorale “Aus tiefer Not”:

And also the influence of strict style can be heard in later works Mozart:

In the 17th century, the strict style was replaced by the free style, which we mentioned above. But in the 19th century, some composers still used the strict style technique to give an ancient flavor and mystical touch to their works. And, despite the fact that the strict style in modern music not to be heard, he became the founder of the rules of composition, techniques and techniques in music that exist today.

Polyphony (from the Greek πολυ - “many”, φωνή - “sound”) is a type of polyphonic music in which several independent equal melodies sound simultaneously. This is its difference from homophony (from the Greek “homo” - “equal”), where only one voice is leading, and others accompany it (as, for example, in a Russian romance, a Soviet mass song or dance music). The main feature of polyphony is the continuity of development of musical presentation, fluidity, avoidance of periodically clear division into parts, uniform stops in the melody, and rhythmic repetitions of similar motifs. Polyphony and homophony, having their own characteristic forms, genres and methods of development, are nevertheless interconnected and organically intertwined in operas, symphonies, sonatas, and concerts.

In the centuries-old historical development of polyphony, two stages are distinguished. Strict style - polyphony of the Renaissance. It was distinguished by its harsh coloring and epic slowness, melodiousness and euphony. It is these qualities that are inherent in the works of the great master polyphonists O. Lasso and G. Palestrina. The next stage is free style polyphony (XVII–XX centuries). She introduced enormous variety and freedom into the modal intonation structure of the melody, enriched harmony and musical genres. The polyphonic art of free style found its perfect embodiment in the works of J. S. Bach and G. F. Handel, in the works of W. A. ​​Mozart, L. Beethoven, M. I. Glinka, P. I. Tchaikovsky, D. D. Shostakovich.

In composers' creativity, there are two main types of polyphony - imitative and non-imitative (multi-colored, contrasting). Imitation (from Latin - “imitation”) - carrying out the same theme alternately in different voices, often at different pitches. An imitation is called accurate if the theme is repeated completely, and inaccurate if there are some changes in it.

The techniques of imitative polyphony are varied. Imitations are possible in a rhythmic increase or decrease, when the theme is transferred to another voice and the duration of each sound is increased or shortened. There are imitations in circulation when ascending intervals turn into descending intervals and vice versa. All these varieties were used by Bach in The Art of Fugue.

A special type of imitation is canon (from the Greek “rule”, “norm”). In the canon, not only the theme is imitated, but also its continuation. Independent pieces are written in the form of a canon (canons for piano by A. N. Scriabin, A. K. Lyadov), parts large works(finale of the sonata for violin and piano by S. Frank). There are numerous canons in the symphonies of A.K. Glazunov. Classic examples of the vocal canon in opera ensembles - the quartet “What wonderful moment"from the opera "Ruslan and Lyudmila" by Glinka, the duet "Enemies" from the opera "Eugene Onegin" by Tchaikovsky.

In non-imitation polyphony, different, contrasting melodies sound simultaneously. Russian and oriental themes are combined in the symphonic painting “In Central Asia” by A.P. Borodin. Contrasting polyphony has found wide application in opera ensembles (quartet in last picture the opera “Rigoletto” by G. Verdi), choruses and scenes (the meeting of Khovansky in the opera “Khovanshchina” by M. P. Mussorgsky, the scene of the fair in the opera “The Decembrists” by Yu. A. Shaporin).

The polyphonic combination of two melodies, after its initial appearance, can be given in a new combination: the voices exchange places, that is, the melody sounding higher appears in the lower voice, and the lower melody in the upper one. This technique is called complex counterpoint. It was used by Borodin in the overture to the opera “Prince Igor”, in Glinka’s “Kamarinskaya” (see example 1).

IN contrasting polyphony Most often, no more than two dissimilar themes are combined, but three (in the overture to the opera “Die Meistersinger” by R. Wagner) and even five themes (in the finale of Mozart’s “Jupiter” symphony) can be heard together.

The most important of the polyphonic forms is fugue (from Latin - “flight”). The voices of the fugue seem to come after each other. A brief, expressive and easily recognizable theme every time it appears is the basis of a fugue, its main idea.

A fugue is composed for three or four voices, sometimes for two or five. The main technique is imitation. In the first part of the exposition, all the voices sing in turn the same melody (theme), as if imitating each other: first one of the voices enters without accompaniment, and then the second and third follow with the same melody. Each time a theme is carried out, it is accompanied by a melody in a different voice, called a counterposition. In a fugue there are sections - interludes - where the theme is absent. They enliven the flow of the fugue, create continuity of transition between its sections (Bach. Fugue in G minor. See example 2).

The second part - the development is distinguished by variety and freedom of structure, the flow of music becomes unstable and tense, interludes appear more often. Here there are canons, complex counterpoint and other techniques of polyphonic development. In the final part - the reprise - the original stable character of the music is resumed, the theme is seamlessly carried out in the main and similar keys. However, the fluidity and continuity of movement inherent in polyphony also penetrates here. The reprise is shorter than other parts; it often speeds up the musical presentation. This is stretta - a kind of imitation in which each subsequent implementation of the theme begins before it ends in a different voice. In some cases, in a reprise, the texture becomes thicker, chords appear, and free voices are added. Directly adjacent to the reprise is a coda that sums up the development of the fugue.

There are fugues written on two and very rarely on three themes. In them, themes are sometimes presented and imitated simultaneously, or each theme has its own independent exposition. The fugue reached its full flowering in the works of Bach and Handel. Russians and Soviet composers included fugue in opera, symphony, chamber music, into cantata-oratorio works. Special polyphonic works - a cycle of preludes and fugues - were written by Shostakovich, R. K. Shchedrin, G. A. Mushel, K. A. Karaev and others.

Among other polyphonic forms, the following stand out: fuguetta (diminutive of fugue) - a small fugue, modest in content; fugato - a type of fugue often found in symphonies; intervention; polyphonic variations based on repeated performance of a constant theme (in this case, accompanying melodies are played in other voices: passacaglia by Bach, Handel, Shostakovich’s 12th Prelude).

Subvocal polyphony is a form of Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian folk polyphonic song. During choral singing, a branch occurs from the main melody of the song and independent variants of the melody are formed - backing vocals. Every verse sounds new beautiful combinations voices: they, intertwining with each other, then diverge, then again merge with the voice of the singer. The expressive possibilities of subvocal polyphony were used by Mussorgsky in “Boris Godunov” (prologue), Borodin in “Prince Igor” (peasant choir; see example 3), S. S. Prokofiev in “War and Peace” (soldiers’ choirs), M.V. Koval in the oratorio “Emelyan Pugachev” (peasant choir).

T.M. Sinetskaya

TYPES OF POLYPHONY

(short lecture-summary on the polyphony course

for ChGAKI students)

In existing polyphonic music, it is customary to distinguish two types of polyphony: imitation and non-imitation. In turn, non-imitation polyphony is divided into subglottic and contrastive. In connection with the above, in some manuals there is a classification that includes three types: imitation, subvocal and contrasting, which is not of fundamental importance. Let us name the most significant characteristics of each of the named types.

Subvocal called a musical composition based on the simultaneous combination of the main tune and its variations. Thus, echo- This is a variant of the main tune. Sub-voices can be very close to the main melody, differ minimally from it (form a parallel movement, at times merge in unison, etc.), but they can also differ significantly, have a pronounced independence, thus approaching contrasting polyphony. The ability to form echoes with to varying degrees contrast opens up enormous prospects for the music creator, increases the number of ways of relating voices, which leads to a variety of semantic, dynamic and emotional content.

Subvocality is a fundamental feature of many national musical cultures, including Russian. In the process of centuries-old development of Russian folk choral polyphony, such stable features of subvocality have developed as: 1) single-voice chorus, 2) choral pickup, 3) gradual splitting of the unison into two, three or more voices based on the general tone, 4) gradual compression of polyphony in unison based on a common tone, 5) movement of parallel thirds and sixths, 6) parallel-alternating mode, 7) octave or unison cadences.

Outstanding Russian classical composers constantly studied Russian song, listened to its sound, character, principles of texture organization and sought to transfer the stylistic features of Russian songwriting into their work. Many choral scenes in the operas of Russian classical composers are excellent examples of penetration into the spirit of national culture, recreating the character of folk singing. Examples are numerous: M.I. Glinka – choruses “My Motherland” and “Walked and Spilled” from the opera “Ivan Susanin”, “Oh, you, light, Lyudmila” from the opera “Ruslan and Lyudmila”; A.P. Borodin – villagers’ choir from the opera “Prince Igor”, ritual scenes in the opera by N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov's "The Snow Maiden", choral scenes in the operas "Khovanshchina" and "Boris Godunov" by M.P. Mussorgsky and others.

ATTENTION!INDEPENDENT WORK: find 4-5 samples in collections of Russian songs that confirm subvocality as a leading feature; continue a number of examples in which the features of folk subvocality from Russian classical music are implemented.

Contrasting polyphony is based on the simultaneous combination of two or several voices (themes) that are independent in melodic and rhythmic patterns. There are different levels of contrast: contrast-complementarity, contrast-comparison, contrast-conflict. This type of polyphony is extremely common in music of different genres and styles: theatrical, symphonic, vocal, chamber, etc. A huge number of examples are evidence of the great expressive capabilities of contrasting polyphony: double and triple fugues by different composers (“Prelude in A major” from HTK I. S. Bach – triple fugue with joint exposure); Prelude in G major from the cycle “24 Preludes and Fugues for Piano”, reprise; Second piano concerto (beginning of the reprise of the 1st movement) and romances by S.V. Rachmaninov (for example, “Morning”, “Don’t sing, beauty, in front of me”), operas by G. Verdi, for example, the introduction, the final scene in the dungeon (“Aida”), numerous ensemble scenes in “Othello”, etc.

Imitation called polyphony, based on the sequential implementation of a theme or part of it in two or more voices. Originating in the 13th century, imitation became the basis for a number of independent forms and genres that emerged in subsequent centuries, the most important method for the development of both polyphonic and homophonic forms. Classical imitation genres: ricercar, polyphonic canzone, fugue, fuguette, invention, different types of canons, techniques - canonical imitation, canonical sequence.

The named types of polyphony in their pure form (over the course of an entire piece of music) are rare. In most cases, they are used as complementary, as a means of mutual enrichment. For example, with the leading role of the imitation technique in a fugue, contrasting polyphony is necessarily present, and subvocality can be used. Different types of polyphony are also an effective means of enriching the homophonic-harmonic structure. All of the above expands the expressive capabilities of different types of polyphony and makes it possible to endlessly vary their relationships.

ATTENTION! INDEPENDENT WORK. Find examples in the musical literature of different types of polyphony and their combination. Make a list of musical works in which one or another type of polyphony predominates or contain their complementarity (make explanations).

POLYPHONY is a type of polyphony based on the simultaneous combination of two or more independent melodic lines. The term "Polyphony" is of Greek origin (πολνς - many, φωνή - sound). Appeared in musical theory and practice in the 20th century. An earlier term is “counterpoint” (from the Latin punctus contra punctum - note against note), found in treatises after 1330. Until this time, the term discantus was used (voice attached to a given voice - cantus). Even earlier, in the 9th-12th centuries, polyphony was designated by the word diafonia.

Classification of types of polyphony(according to S. Skrebkov).

1. Contrasting or multi-themed polyphony. It is based on the simultaneous sound of melodies, contrasting in melodic and rhythmic patterns, and in vocal music, in text. A functional division of voices into a main (often borrowed) melody and a counterpoint (composed to it) melody is possible.

Example 1. J. S. Bach. Chorale prelude Es major “Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme” BWF 645.

2. Imitation polyphony. From the Latin Imitatio - imitation. It is based on the performance of the same melody by different voices alternately, that is, with a time shift. The voices are functionally equal (not divided into main and counterpointing), melodically identical or similar, but at every moment the sounds contrast, that is, they form counterpoint.

Example 2. Josquin Despres. Missa “L home arme (sexti toni).”

3. Subvocal polyphony as a variety heterophony. Heterophony (from the Greek ετερος - other and φωνή - sound) is the oldest type of polyphony existing in oral tradition folk music and liturgical singing. Written samples are either a recording of a sung version or a composer's pastiche.

Heterophony is based on the simultaneous sound of several variants of the same tune. Branches from monody arise over a short distance and form mainly duplications. One of the reasons for this phenomenon is the oral nature of monodic culture. Oral species creativity presuppose the existence in the mind of the performer of a certain melodic fundamental principle, according to which each voice sings its own version. The second reason is the natural differences in the ranges of performers' voices.

In subvocal polyphony, branches from the main melody are more independent than in other varieties of heterophony. In some areas, a contrasting polyphony is formed. The functions of the voices are divided into the main voice and the secondary voice.

2. episodic branches from the main tune (sub-voices) in the middle of a line (verse) during syllabic chant,

3. return to unison at the end of the line (verse),

5. simultaneous pronunciation of syllables of the text,

6. relatively free use of dissonances.

Example 3. Russian folk song “Green Grove”.

Main literature.

Simakova N. A. Strict style counterpoint and fugue. History, theory, practice. Part 1. Counterpoint of strict style as an artistic tradition and academic discipline. – M., 2002.

Skrebkov S.S. Textbook of polyphony. – M., 1965.

lat. polyphonia, from ancient Greek. πολυφωνία - literally: “multiple sounds” from ancient Greek. πολυ-, πολύς - “many” + ancient Greek. φωνή - “sound”

A type of polyphony based on simultaneity. the sound of two or more melodic sounds. lines or melodic. votes. “Polyphony, in its highest sense,” pointed out A. N. Serov, “must be understood as the harmonic merging together of several independent melodies, going in several voices simultaneously, together. In rational speech it is unthinkable that, for example, several persons spoke together, each your own, and so that confusion and incomprehensible nonsense do not come out of it, but, on the contrary, excellent general impression. In music such a miracle is possible; it constitutes one of the aesthetic specialties of our art." The concept of "P." coincides with the broad meaning of the term counterpoint. N. Ya. Myaskovsky attributed the combination of melodically independent voices and the simultaneous combination of several thematic elements to the field of contrapuntal mastery.

Polyphony is one of the most important means of music. compositions and arts. expressiveness. Numerous P.'s techniques serve to diversify the content of music. production, embodiment and development of art. images; by means of P. one can modify, compare and combine muses. Topics. P. is based on the laws of melody, rhythm, mode, and harmony. The expressiveness of P.'s techniques is also influenced by instrumentation, dynamics, and other components of music. Depending on the definition music The context may change the arts. the meaning of certain polyphonic means. presentation. There are different music forms and genres used to create works. polyphonic warehouse: fugue, fuguetta, invention, canon, polyphonic variations, in the 14th-16th centuries. - motet, madrigal, etc. Polyphonic. episodes (for example, fugato) also occur within other forms.

Polyphonic (contrapuntal) warehouse of muses. prod. is opposed to homophonic-harmonic (see Harmony, Homophony), where voices form chords and ch. melodic line, most often in the upper voice. The fundamental feature of polyphony. texture, which distinguishes it from the homophonic-harmonic one, is fluidity, which is achieved by erasing caesuras that separate constructions, and the imperceptibility of transitions from one to another. Polyphonic voices formations rarely cadence simultaneously; usually their cadences do not coincide, which gives rise to a feeling of continuity of movement as a special expression. quality inherent in P. While some voices begin to present a new one or repeat (imitate) the previous melody (theme), others have not yet finished the previous one:

Palestrina. Richerkar in I tone.

At such moments, knots of complex structural plexuses are formed, combining at the same time different functions of the muses. forms. Following this comes the definition. relaxation of tension, movement is simplified up to the next node of complex plexuses, etc. In such dramaturgical conditions the development of polyphonic takes place. production, especially if they allow large works of art. tasks differ in depth of content.

The combination of voices vertically is regulated in P. by the laws of harmony inherent in the definition. era or style. “As a result, no counterpoint can exist without harmony, for any combination of simultaneous melodies at their individual points forms consonances or chords. In genesis, no harmony is possible without counterpoint, since the desire to connect several melodies at the same time precisely gave rise to the existence of harmony” (G A. Laroche). In P. strict style 15-16 centuries. dissonances were located between consonances and required smooth movement, in the free style of the 17th-19th centuries. dissonances were not connected by smoothness and could transform into one another, pushing the modal-melodic resolution to a later time. In modern music, with its “emancipation” of dissonance, dissonant combinations of polyphonic. votes are allowed at any length.

The types of music are diverse and difficult to classify due to the great fluidity characteristic of this type of muses. lawsuit

In some people music In cultures, the subglottic type of P. is common, based on the ch. melodic voice, from which melodic sounds branch off. turns of other voices, echoes, varying and replenishing the main. a melody that at times merges with it, particularly in cadences (see Heterophony).

In prof. P.'s art has developed other melodic sounds. ratios that contribute to the expressiveness of voices and all polyphony. the whole. Here, the type of song depends on the horizontal components: when the melody (theme) is identical, imitatively performed in different voices, an imitation song is formed; when the combined melodies are different, a contrast song is formed. This distinction is conditional, because with imitation in circulation, increase, decrease, and even more so in the moving movement, the differences in melodies horizontally intensify and bring the song closer to contrasting:

J. S. Bach. Organ fugue in C major (BWV 547).

In some cases, polyphonic. the combination, starting as an imitation, is defined. the moment turns into a contrasting one and vice versa - from a contrasting one a transition to an imitation one is possible. This reveals an inextricable connection between two types of P. In its pure form, imitation. P. is presented in a one-topic canon, for example. in the 27th variation from Bach's Goldberg Variations (BWV 988):

To avoid monotony in music. In the content of the canon, the proposta is constructed here in such a way that there is a systematic alternation of melodic and rhythmic. figures. When carrying out a risposta, they lag behind the figures of the proposta, and intonation appears vertically. contrast, although horizontally the melodies are the same.

Method of increasing and decreasing intonation. activity in the proposta of the canon, which ensures the intensity of the form as a whole, was known even in P. of the strict style, as evidenced, for example, by the three-goal. Canon "Benedictes" of the Mass "Ad fugam" of Palestrina:

Thus, imitation. P. in the form of a canon is by no means alien to contrast, but this contrast arises vertically, while horizontally its components are devoid of contrast due to the identity of the melodies in all voices. This is what makes it fundamentally different from contrasting music, which unites horizontally unequal melodies. elements.

The final one-topic canon as a form of imitation. In the case of a free extension of his voices, P. becomes a contrasting P., which in turn can go into canon:

G. Dufay. Duo from the mass "Ave regina caelorum", Gloria.

The described form connects the types of P. in time, horizontally: one type is followed by another. However, music from different eras and styles is also rich in their simultaneous vertical combinations: imitation is accompanied by contrast, and vice versa. Some voices unfold imitatively, others create a contrast to them or in free counterpoint;

the combination of proposta and risposta here recreates the form of an ancient organum), or in turn forming an imitation. construction.

In the latter case, a double (triple) imitation or canon is formed if the imitation extends for a long time. time.

D. D. Shostakovich. 5th Symphony, Part I.

The interrelation of imitation and contrast P. in double canons sometimes leads to the fact that their initial sections are perceived as one-theme-imitation, and only gradually the propostas begin to differ. This happens when the entire work is characterized by a common mood, and the difference between the two elements is not only not emphasized, but, on the contrary, is masked.

In Et resurrexit of Palestrina's canonical mass, the double (two-volume) canon is veiled by the similarity of the initial sections of the propostas, as a result of which at the first moment a simple (one-volume) four-voice canon is heard and only subsequently the difference in the propostas becomes noticeable and the form of the two-volume canon is realized:

As diverse as the concept and manifestation of contrast is in music, so is contrasting P. In the simplest cases of this type of P., the voices are quite equal, which especially applies to contrapuntal. fabrics in production strict style, where polyphony has not yet been developed. topic as a concentrated one-goal. basic expression thoughts, basic music content. With the formation of such a theme in the works of J. S. Bach, G. F. Handel and their major predecessors and followers, contrasting P. allows the primacy of the theme over the voices accompanying it - opposition (in a fugue), counterpoints. At the same time, in cantatas and productions. In other genres, Bach variously presents contrasting music of another kind, formed from the combination of a chorale melody with a polygonal melody. fabric of other voices. In such cases, the differentiation of the components of contrasting voices becomes even clearer, bringing them to the genre specificity of polyphonic voices. the whole. In instr. music of later times, the differentiation of the functions of voices leads to special kind"P. plastov", combining single-headed. melodies in octave doublings and, often, imitations with whole harmonics. complexes: upper layer - melodic. bearer of thematic, middle - harmonious. complex, lower - melodic moving bass. "P. plastov" is extremely effective in dramaturgy. relation and is not used in a single stream over a long period, but in a certain way. production nodes, in particular in the culminating sections, being the result of build-up. These are the climaxes in the first movements of Beethoven's 9th Symphony and Tchaikovsky's 5th Symphony:

L. Beethoven. 9th Symphony, movement I.

P. I. Tchaikovsky. 5th Symphony, movement II.

The dramatically tense “P. Plastov” can be contrasted with the calmly epic. connection is self-contained. that which is exemplified by the reprise of the symphony. paintings by A.P. Borodin “In Central Asia”, combining two different themes - Russian and Eastern - and also being the pinnacle in the development of the work.

Opera music is very rich in manifestations of contrasting P., where various types of music are widely used. kind of combinations dep. voices and complexes that characterize the images of the heroes, their relationships, confrontation, conflicts and, in general, the entire situation of the action. The variety of forms of contrasting pianoforte cannot serve as a basis for abandoning this generalizing concept, just as musicology does not abandon the term, for example, “sonata form,” although the interpretation and application of this form by I. Haydn and D. D. Shostakovich, L. Beethoven and P. Hindemith are very different.

In Europe P. music originated in the depths of early polyphony (organum, treble, motet, etc.), gradually taking shape in its own right. view. The earliest information that has reached us about everyday polyphony in Europe dates back to the British Isles. On the continent, polyphony developed not so much under the influence of English as due to internal influences. reasons. The first to emerge is, apparently, the primitive form of contrastive P., formed from counterpoint to a given choral or other genre of melody. The theorist John Cotton (late 11th - early 12th centuries), outlining the theory of polyphony (two-voices), wrote: “Diaphony is a coordinated divergence of voices performed by at least two singers so that one leads the main melody, and the other skillfully wanders through other sounds; both of them at certain moments converge in unison or octave. This method of singing is usually called organum, because human voice, cleverly diverging (from the main one), sounds similar to an instrument called an organ. The word diaphony means double voice or divergence of voices." A form of imitation, apparently, folk origin- “very early on the people were able to sing strictly canonically” (R.I. Gruber), which led to the formation of independent singers. prod. using imitation. This is the double hexagon. the endless “Summer Canon” (c. 1240), written by J. Fornset, a monk from Reading (England), testifying not so much to maturity as to the prevalence of imitative (in this case, canonical) technology already by the middle. 13th century Scheme of the "Summer Canon":

The primitive form of contrastive polyphony (S.S. Skrebkov attributes it to the field of heterophony) is found in the early motet of the 13th-14th centuries, where polyphony was expressed in the combination of several. melodies (usually three) with different lyrics, sometimes in different languages. An example is the anonymous motet of the 13th century:

Motet "Mariac assumptio - Huius chori".

The lower voice contains the choral melody "Kyrie", in the middle and upper voice there are counterpoints to it with lyrics in Latin. and French languages, melodically close to chorale, but still possessing some independence. intonation-rhythm. drawing. The form of the whole - variations - is formed on the basis of the repetition of a chorale melody, acting as a cantus firmus with the upper voices melodically changing. In G. de Machaut's motet "Trop plus est bele - Biautе paree - Je ne suis mie" (c. 1350) each voice has its own melody from its own. text (all in French), and the lower one, with its more even movement, also represents a repeating cantus firmus, and as a result, a polyphonic form is also formed. variations. This is typical. examples of the early motet - a genre that undoubtedly played an important role on the path to the mature form of P. The generally accepted division of mature polyphonic. the claim for strict and free styles corresponds to both theoretical and historical. signs. Strict style painting is characteristic of the Dutch, Italian and other schools of the 15th and 16th centuries. It was replaced by free-style art, which continues to develop to this day. In the 17th century advanced along with other Germans. national school, which in the works of the greatest polyphonists Bach and Handel reached in the 1st half. 18th century polyphonic peaks lawsuit Both styles have been defined within their eras. evolution, closely connected with the general development of muses. art and its inherent laws of harmony, mode and other musical expressions. funds. The border between styles is the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, when, in connection with the birth of opera, the homophonic-harmonic style clearly took shape. warehouse and two modes were established - major and minor, on which the whole of Europe began to focus. music, incl. and polyphonic.

The works of the era of strict style “amaze with their sublimity of flight, stern grandeur, a kind of azure, serene purity and transparency” (Laroche). They used preim. wok genres and instruments were used to duplicate chanters. voices and extremely rarely - for independent people. execution. The ancient diatonic system prevailed. modes, in which the introductory intonations of the future major and minor gradually began to break through. The melody was smooth, the jumps were usually balanced by a subsequent move in the opposite direction, the rhythm, which obeyed the laws of mensural theory (see Mensural notation), was calm and unhurried. In combinations of voices, consonances predominated; dissonance rarely appeared as an independent voice. consonance, usually formed by passing and auxiliary. sounds on the weak beats of the bar or a prepared delay on the strong beat. "...All parts in res facta (here is a written counterpoint, as opposed to an improvised one) - three, four or more - all depend on each other, i.e. the order and laws of consonance in any voice must be applied in relation to to all other voices,” wrote the theorist Johannes Tinctoris (1446-1511). Basic genres: chanson (song), motet, madrigal (small forms), mass, requiem (large forms). Thematic techniques development: repetition, most of all represented by string imitation and canon, counterpointing, incl. mobile counterpoint, contrast of choir compositions. votes. Distinguished by the unity of mood, polyphonic. prod. strict style were created by the method of variation, which allows: 1) variational identity, 2) variational germination, 3) variational renewal. In the first case, the identity of some polyphonic components was preserved. the whole while varying others; in the second - melodic. the identity with the previous construction remained only in the initial section, but the continuation was different; in the third, thematic updates took place. material while maintaining the general character of intonation. The method of variation extended to the horizontal and vertical, to small and large forms, and suggested the possibility of melodiousness. changes made with the help of circulation, rake movement and its circulation, as well as varying the meter rhythm - increasing, decreasing, skipping pauses, etc. The simplest forms of variational identity are the transfer of ready-made contrapuntal. combinations to a different height (transposition) or the attribution of new voices to such a combination - see, for example, in “Missa prolationum” by J. de Ockeghem, where the melodic. the phrase to the words "Christe eleison" is sung first by alto and bass, and then repeated by soprano and tenor a second higher. In the same op. Sanctus consists of a repetition a sixth higher by the soprano and tenor parts of what was previously assigned to the alto and bass (A), which now counterpoint (B) to the imitating voices, changes in duration and melodicity. In the figure, the initial combination does not occur:

Variational renewal in a large form was achieved in those cases where the cantus firmus changed, but came from the same source as the first (see below about the “Fortuna desperata” masses, etc.).

The main representatives of the strict style of P. are G. Dufay, J. Okegem, J. Obrecht, Josquin Depres, O. Lasso, Palestrina. Remaining within the framework of this style, their production. demonstrate different attitude to the forms of musical-thematic. development, imitation, contrast, harmonious. fullness of sound, cantus firmus is used in different ways. Thus, one can see the evolution of imitation, the most important of polyphonics. means of music expressiveness. Initially, imitations in unison and octave were used, then other intervals began to be used, among which the fifth and fourth were especially important as they prepared a fugue presentation. Imitations developed thematically. material and could appear anywhere in the form, but gradually their dramaturgy began to be established. purpose: a) as a form of initial, expositional presentation; b) as a contrast to non-imitation constructions. Dufay and Ockeghem almost did not use the first of these techniques, while it became permanent in production. Obrecht and Josquin Despres and almost obligatory for polyphonics. Lasso and Palestrina forms; the second initially (Dufay, Ockeghem, Obrecht) came forward when the voice leading the cantus firmus fell silent, and later began to cover entire sections of a large form. Such are the Agnus Dei II in Josquin Despres's mass "L"homme armé super voces musicales" (see musical example from this mass in the article Canon) and in the masses of Palestrina, e.g. in the six-voice "Ave Maria". The canon in its various forms (in its pure form or with the accompaniment of free votes) is introduced here and in similar ones. samples at the final stage of a large composition as a generalization factor. In the future, in the practice of free style, the canon almost never appeared in such a role. In four goals. Palestrina's Mass "O Rex gloriae" has two sections - Be-nedictus and Agnus - written as exact two-headed. canons with free voices, creating a contrast of soulful and smooth to the more energetic sound of the previous and subsequent formations. In a number of canonical In the masses of Palestrina, the opposite technique is also found: the lyrical content of Crucifixus and Benedictus are based on non-imitation P., which contrasts with the other (canonical) parts of the work.

Large polyphonic forms of strict style in thematic. can be divided into two categories: those with cantus firmus and those without it. The former were more often created in the early stages of the development of the style, but in subsequent stages the cantus firmus gradually begins to disappear from creativity. practices, and large forms are created on the basis of the free development of thematic. material. At the same time, cantus firmus becomes the basis of the instrument. prod. 16 - 1st floor. 17th centuries (A. and G. Gabrieli, Frescobaldi, etc.) - ricercara, etc. and receives a new embodiment in the choral arrangements of Bach and his predecessors.

Forms in which there is a cantus firmus represent cycles of variations, since the same theme is carried out in them several times. once every other contrapuntal surroundings. Such a large form usually has introductory-interlude sections where the cantus firmus is absent, and the presentation is based either on its intonations or on neutral ones. In some cases, the relationships between sections containing cantus firmus and the introductory-interlude are subject to certain numerical formulas (the masses of J. Ockeghem, J. Obrecht), while in others they are free. The length of the introductory-interlude and cantus firmus-containing constructions can vary, but can also be constant for the entire work. The latter includes, for example, the above-mentioned mass “Ave Maria” by Palestrina, where both types of constructions have 21 bars each (in the conclusions the last sound is sometimes stretched over several bars), and this is how the whole form is formed: the cantus firmus is performed 23 times and so many same introductory-interlude constructions. P. of a strict style came to a similar form as a result of a long period of time. evolution of the very principle of variation. In a number of productions. cantus firmus conducted the borrowed melody in parts, and only concluded. section she appeared in full (Obrecht, masses “Maria zart”, “Je ne demande”). The latter was a thematic technique. synthesis, very important for the unity of the entire work. The changes made to the cantus firmus, usual for P.'s strict style (rhythmic increase and decrease, inversion, arching movement, etc.), hid, but did not destroy the variation. Therefore, variation cycles appeared in a very heterogeneous form. This is, for example, the cycle of the mass “Fortuna desperate” by Obrecht: the cantus firmus, taken from the middle voice of the chanson of the same name, is divided into three parts (ABC) and then the cantus from its upper voice (DE) is introduced. General cycle structure: Kyrie I - A; Kyrie II - A B C; Gloria - B AC (B A - in moving motion); Credo - CAB (C - in moving motion); Sanctus - A B C D; Osanna - ABC; Agnus I - A B C (and the same in decrease); Agnus III - D E (and the same in reduction).

Variation is presented here in the form of identity, in the form of germination, and even in the form of renewal, because in Sanctus and Agnus III the cantus firmus changes. Similarly, in the mass "Fortuna desperate" by Josquin Despres, three types of variation are used: the cantus firmus is first taken from the middle voice of the same chanson (Kyrie, Gloria), then from the upper voice (Credo) and from the lower voice (Sanctus), in the 5th Part of the mass uses the inversion of the upper voice of the chanson (Agnus I) and at the conclusion (Agnus III) the cantus firmus returns to the first melody. If we designate each cantus firmus with a symbol, we get the diagram: A B C B1 A. The form of the whole is based, therefore, on different types variability and also involves repetition. The same method is used in Josquin Despres's "Malheur me bat".

Opinion on neutralization of thematic material in polyphonic prod. strict style due to the stretching of durations in the voice leading the cantus firmus is only partly true. In plural In cases, composers resorted to this technique only in order to gradually approach the true rhythm of an everyday melody, lively and immediate, from long durations, to make its sound seem like the culmination of a thematic theme. development.

So, for example, the cantus firmus in Dufay’s mass “La mort de Saint Gothard” successively moves from long sounds to short ones:

As a result, the melody sounded, apparently, in the rhythm in which it was known in everyday life.

The same principle is used in Obrecht's "Malheur me bat" mass. We present its cantus firmus together with the published primary source - three-goal. Okeghem's chanson of the same name:

J. Obrecht. Mass "Malheur me bat".

J. Okegem. Chanson "Malheur me bat".

The effect of gradual discovery of the true basis of production. was extremely important in the conditions of that time: the listener suddenly recognized a familiar song. The secular art came into conflict with the demands made on the church. music by the clergy, which caused the persecution of the clergy against P. of the strict style. From a historical point of view, it happened the most important process freeing music from the power of religions. ideas.

The variational method of thematic development extended not only to a large composition, but also to its parts: cantus firmus in the form of a section. small revolutions, the ostinato was repeated, and subvariation cycles developed within the large form, especially frequent in production. Obrecht. For example, Kyrie II of the Mass "Malheur me bat" is a variation on short topic ut-ut-re-mi-mi-la, and Agnus III in the mass "Salve dia parens" - to the short formula la-si-do-si, gradually compressed from 24 to 3 bars.

Single repetitions immediately following their “theme” form a kind of period of two sentences, which is very important historically. point of view, because prepares a homophonic form. Such periods, however, are very fluid. They are rich in products. Palestrina (see example on column 345), they are also found in Obrecht, Josquin Depres, Lasso. Kyrie from Op. the last "Missa ad imitationem moduli "Puisque j"ai perdu"" is a period of the classical type of two sentences of 9 bars.

So inside the muses. forms of a strict style, principles matured, which in later classical. music, not so much in polyphonic as in homophonic-harmonic, were the main ones. Polyphonic prod. sometimes they included chordal episodes, which also gradually prepared the transition to homophony. Mode-tonal relations have also evolved in the same direction: the expositional sections of forms in Palestrina, as the finalist of a strict style, clearly gravitate towards tonic-dominant relations, then a departure towards the subdominant and a return to the main structure are noticeable. In the same spirit, the sphere of large-form cadences develops: the middle cadences usually end authentically in the key of the 5th century, the final cadences on the tonic are often plagal.

Small forms in strict style poetry depended on the text: within the stanza of the text, development occurred through repetition (imitation) of the theme, while changing the text entailed updating the thematic theme. material, which, in turn, could be presented imitatively. Music promotion forms occurred as the text progressed. This form is especially characteristic of the motet of the 15th-16th centuries. and was called the motet form. Madrigals of the 16th century were also constructed in this way, where a reprise-type form occasionally appears, for example. in Palestrina's madrigal "I vaghi fiori".

Large forms of P. strict style, where cantus firmus is absent, develop according to the same motet type: each new phrase text leads to education new music. topics developed imitatively. At short text it is repeated with new music. themes that introduce a variety of shades will be expressed. character. The theory does not yet have other generalizations about the structure of this kind of polyphonic. forms

The work of classical composers can be considered the connecting link between the strict and free styles of music. 16-17 centuries J. P. Sweelinka, G. Frescobaldi, G. Schutza, C. Monteverdi. Sweelinck often used variational techniques of a strict style (theme in magnification, etc.), but at the same time, he widely represented modal chromatisms, which are possible only in a free style; "Fiori musicali" (1635) and other organ opus. Frescobaldi contain variations on the cantus firmus in various modifications, but they also contain the beginnings of fugue forms; The diatonicism of ancient modes was colored by chromaticisms in themes and their development. Monteverdi dept. prod., ch. arr. church ones, bear the stamp of a strict style (Mass “In illo tempore”, etc.), while madrigals almost break with it and should be classified as a free style. Contrast P. in them is associated with characteristic. intonations that convey the meaning of the word (joy, sadness, sigh, flight, etc.). Such is the madrigal “Piagn”e sospira” (1603), where the initial phrase “I cry and sigh” is especially emphasized, contrasting with the rest of the narrative:

In instr. prod. 17th century - suites, ancient sonatas da chiesa, etc. - usually had polyphonics. parts or at least polyphonic. techniques, incl. fugated order, which prepared the formation of instruments. fugues as independent. genre or in combination with a prelude (toccata, fantasy). The work of I. J. Froberger, G. Muffat, G. Purcell, D. Buxtehude, I. Pachelbel and other composers was an approach to the high development of free style music in music. J. S. Bach and G. F. Handel. Free style p. is kept in the wok. genres, but her main achievement is instrumental. music, to the 17th century. separated from the vocal and rapidly developing. Melodics - basic factor P. - in instr. genres was freed from the restrictive conditions of the wok. music (range of singing voices, ease of intonation, etc.) and in its new form contributed to the diversity of polyphonics. combinations, breadth of polyphonic. compositions, in turn influencing the wok. P. Ancient diatonic. modes gave way to two dominant modes - major and minor. Dissonance gained greater freedom, becoming the strongest means of modal tension. Mobile counterpoint and imitation began to be used more fully. forms, among which inversion (inversio, moto contraria) and increase (augmentation) remained, but the arching movement and its circulation, which dramatically changed the entire appearance and express the meaning of the new, individualized theme of free style, have almost disappeared. A system of variational forms based on cantus firmus, gradually faded away, replaced by the fugue, which matured in the depths of the old style. “Of all genera musical composition fugue is the only kind of fugue that could always withstand all the whims of fashion. Entire centuries could in no way force it to change its form, and the fugues, composed a hundred years ago, are still as new as if they were composed today,” noted F. V. Marpurg.

The type of melody in free style P. is completely different from that in the strict style. The unconstrained soaring of melodic-linear voices is caused by the introduction of instruments. genres. “...In vocal writing, melodic formation is limited by the narrow scope of voices and their lower mobility compared to instruments,” pointed out E. Kurt. “And historical development came to true linear polyphony only with the development of instrumental style, starting from the 17th century. In addition, vocal works, not only due to the smaller volume and mobility of voices, generally tend towards chordal roundness. Vocal writing cannot have the same independence from the chord phenomenon as instrumental polyphony, in which we find examples of the freest combination of lines." However, the same can be attributed to the vocal works of Bach (cantatas, masses), Beethoven ("Missa solemnis" ), as well as to polyphonic works of the 20th century.

Intonationally, the thematicism of P.'s free style is to a certain extent prepared by the strict style. These are the recitations. melodic turns with repetition of sound, starting from a weak beat and going to a strong beat for a second, third, fifth, etc. upward intervals, moves a fifth from the tonic, outlining modal foundations (see examples) - these and similar intonations later formed in in a free style, the “core” of the theme, followed by the “development”, based on the general forms of melodic. movements (scale-like, etc.). The fundamental difference between the themes of the free style and the themes of the strict style lies in their design into independent, monophonic-sounding and complete constructions, concisely expressing the main content of the work, while the thematicism in the strict style was fluid, presented stretto in conjunction with other imitating voices and only in in combination with them its content was revealed. The contours of the theme of the strict style were lost in the continuous movement and introduction of voices. The following example compares intonationally similar thematic examples of strict and free styles - from the mass “Pange lingua” by Josquin Despres and from Bach’s fugue on a theme by G. Legrenzi.

In the first case, a two-goal is deployed. canon, the title phrases of which flow into general melodies. forms of non-cadence movement, in the second - a clearly defined theme is shown, modulating into the tonality of the dominant with a cadence ending.

Thus, despite the intonation. The similarities and thematic themes of both samples are very different.

The special quality of Bach's polyphonic thematicism (we mean, first of all, the themes of fugues) as the pinnacle of P. free style consists of composure, the richness of potential harmony, and tonal, rhythmic, and sometimes genre specificity. In polyphonic topics, in their same head. projections Bach generalized modal-harmonic. forms created by his time. These are: the TSDT formula, emphasized in the themes, the breadth of sequences and tonal deviations, the introduction of the second low (“Neapolitan”) degree, the use of a diminished seventh, a diminished fourth, a diminished third and a fifth, formed by pairing the leading tone in a minor with other degrees of the mode. Bach's thematic style is characterized by melodiousness, which comes from folklore. intonations and chorale melodies; at the same time, it has a strong instrumental culture. melodica. A melodious beginning may be characteristic of an instrument. themes, instrumental - vocal. An important connection between these factors is created by hidden melodicity. line in themes - it flows more measuredly, giving the theme melodious properties. Both intonation the origins are especially clear in cases where the melodious “core” finds development in the rapid movement of the continuing part of the theme, in the “unfolding”:

J. S. Bach. Fugue C major.

J. S. Bach. Duet a minor.

In complex fugues, the function of the “core” is often taken on by the first theme, the function of development by the second (The Well-Tempered Clavier, Vol. 1, Fugue cis-moll).

Fugu is usually classified in the genus Imitac. P., which is generally true, because the bright theme and its imitation dominate. But in general theoretical terms. In terms of fugue, it is a synthesis of imitation and contrasting P., because already the first imitation (answer) is accompanied by a counterposition that is not identical to the theme, and with the entry of other voices the contrast intensifies even more.

J. S. Bach. Organ fugue in A minor.

This point is especially important for Bach's fugue, where the counterposition often claims to be the second theme. In the general structure of the fugue, as well as in the sphere of thematicism, Bach reflected the main trend of his time - the tendency towards sonata, which was suitable for his classical style. stage - sonata form of the Viennese classics; a number of his fugues approach the sonata structure (Kyrie I of the Mass in B minor).

Contrasting music is represented in Bach not only by combinations of themes and counterpositions with themes in a fugue, but also by the counterpointing of genre melodies: chorales and standalones. accompanying voices, several. diff. melodies (for example, “Quodlibet” in the “Goldberg Variations”), finally, by combining P. with homophonic-harmonic. formations. The latter is constantly found in productions that use basso continuo as an accompaniment to polyphonic. construction. Whatever form Bach used - ancient sonata, ancient two or three movements, rondo, variations, etc. - the texture in them is most often polyphonic: constant imitation. sections, canonical sequences, mobile counterpoint, etc., which in general characterizes Bach as a polyphonist. Historical The significance of Bach's polyphony is that it established the most important principles of thematic and thematic. developments that allow the creation of highly artistic works. samples full of philosophical depth and vital spontaneity. Bach's polyphony was and remains a model for all subsequent generations.

What has been said about Bach’s thematicism and polyphony fully applies to Handel’s polyphony. Its basis, however, lay in the opera genre, which Bach did not touch at all. Polyphonic Handel's forms are very diverse and historically significant. Particular attention should be paid to the dramaturgic. the function of fugues in Handel's oratorios. Closely connected with the dramaturgy of these works, the fugues are arranged strictly systematically: in the initial Point (in the overture), in large crowd scenes of general content as an expression of the image of the people, in conclusion. section of an abstractly jubilant nature (“Hallelujah”).

Although in the era Viennese classics(2nd half of the 18th - early 19th centuries) the center of gravity in the field of texture moved towards homophony, yet P. gradually occupied an important place among them, although quantitatively smaller than before. In production J. Haydn and especially W. A. ​​Mozart are often found polyphonic. forms - fugues, canons, moving counterpoint, etc. Mozart's texture is characterized by activation of voices and saturation of their intonation. independence. Synthetic materials were formed. structures that combined sonata form with fugue, etc. Homophonic forms include small polyphonic ones. sections (fugato, systems of imitations, canons, contrastive counterpointing), their chain forms a large polyphonic. a form of a dispersed nature, systematically developing and in the vertex samples significantly influencing the perception of homophonic sections and the entire op. generally. Such peaks include the finale of Mozart’s “Jupiter” symphony (K.-V. 551) and his Fantasia in f minor (K.-V. 608). The path to them lay through the form of finales - Haydn's 3rd symphony, Mozart's G major quartet (K.-V. 387), the finales of his D major and Es major quintets (K.-V. 593, 614).

In production Beethoven's attraction to P. manifested itself very early and in his mature work led to the replacement of the sonata development with a fugue (finale of the sonata op. 101), the displacement of other final forms by the fugue (sonatas op. 102 No. 2, op. 106), and the introduction of the fugue at the beginning of the cycle (quartet op. 131), in variations (op. 35, op. 120, finale of the 3rd symphony, Allegretto of the 7th symphony, finale of the 9th symphony, etc.) and to the complete polyphonization of sonata form. The last of these techniques was logical. a consequence of the growth of a large polyphonic. a form that embraced all the constituent elements of the sonata allegro, when P. began to dominate its texture. These are the 1st movements of the sonata op. 111, 9th symphony. Fugue in Op. the late period of Beethoven's work - the image of effectiveness as an antithesis to the images of grief and reflection, but at the same time - and unity with them (sonata op. 110, etc.).

In the era of romanticism, P. received a new interpretation in the works of F. Schubert, R. Schumann, G. Berlioz, F. Liszt, R. Wagner. Schubert gave fugue forms a songlike quality in vocal (mass, “Miriam’s Victory Song”) and instrumental (Fantasy in F minor, etc.) works; Schumann's texture is saturated with internal singing voices (Kreisleriana, etc.); Berlioz was attracted to contrasting thematic themes. connections (“Harold in Italy”, “Romeo and Julia”, etc.); in Liszt, P. is influenced by images of opposite nature - demonic (sonata in B minor, symphony "Faust"), mournful and tragic (symphony "Dante"), choral and pacified ("Dance of Death"); the richness of Wagnerian texture lies in filling it with the movement of the bass and middle voices. Each of the great masters introduced into P. features inherent in his style. They used P.'s funds a lot and significantly expanded them in the 2nd half. 19 - beginning 20th centuries J. Brahms, B. Smetana, A. Dvorak, A. Bruckner, G. Mahler, who preserved the classic. tonal basis harmonious. combinations. P. was used especially widely by M. Reger, who recreated certain Bach polyphonics. forms, eg. completion of the cycle of variations with fugue, prelude and fugue as a genre; polyphonic completeness and diversity were combined with harmonious compaction. fabric and its chromatization. A new direction associated with dodecaphony (A. Schoenberg, A. Berg, A. Webern, etc.) breaks with the classic. tonality and to conduct the series uses the forms used in the production. strict style (direct and arching movements with their appeals). This similarity, however, is purely external due to the cardinal difference in thematic theme - a simple song melody taken from existing song genres (cantus firmus in a strict style), and an amelodic dodecaphonic series. Western-European 20th century music gave high examples of P. outside the dodecaphony system (P. Hindemith, as well as M. Ravel, I. F. Stravinsky).

Creatures contributions to P.'s art were made by Russians. classics 19 - early 20th centuries Rus. prof. Music later than Western European music took the path of developed polyphony - its earliest form (1st half of the 17th century) was ternary, representing a combination of a melody borrowed from the Znamenny chant (the so-called “path”) with voices assigned to it above and below (“top”, “bottom”), very sophisticated in rhythm. respect. Demestine polyphony also belongs to the same type (the 4th voice was called “demestva”). Triple lines and demestial polyphony were sharply criticized by contemporaries (I. T. Korenev) for the lack of harmonies. connections between voices and con. 17th century have exhausted themselves. Partes singing, which came from Ukraine in the beginning. 2nd floor 17th century, was associated with the widespread use of imitation techniques. P., incl. strett presentation of themes, canons, etc. The theorist of this form was N.P. Diletsky. The Partes style brought forward its own masters, the largest of whom was V.P. Titov. Rus. P. in the 2nd half. 18th century enriched classic Western-European fugue (M. S. Berezovsky - choral concert "Do not reject me in my old age"). In the general simulation system. P. at the beginning 19th century from D.S. Bortnyansky it received a new interpretation, arising from the songfulness characteristic of his style. Classic Russian stage P. is associated with the work of M. I. Glinka. He combined the principles of folk-subvocal, imitation and contrasting P. This was the result of the conscious aspirations of Glinka, who studied with the people. musicians and mastered the theory of modern to him P. “The combination of Western fugue with the conditions of our music” (Glinka) led to the formation of synthetic. forms (fugue in the introduction of the 1st episode of “Ivan Susanin”). The further stage in the development of Russian. fugues are the subordination of her symphonies. principles (fugue in the 1st suite of P. I. Tchaikovsky), monumentality of the general concept (fugues in ensembles and cantatas of S. I. Taneyev, fp. fugues of A. K. Glazunov). Contrast P. is widely represented in Glinka - a combination of a song and a recitative, two songs or bright independent themes (the scene "In the Hut" in the 3rd episode of "Ivan Susanin", a reprise of the overture from the music to "Prince Kholmsky", etc.) - continued to develop under A. S. Dargomyzhsky; it is especially richly represented in the works of composers " Mighty bunch". Among the masterpieces of contrasting P. are the musical play by M. P. Mussorgsky "Two Jews - Rich and Poor", the symphonic painting "In Central Asia" by Borodin, the dialogue between Ivan the Terrible and Stesha in the 3rd edition of "The Pskov Woman" by Rimsky-Korsakov , a number of arrangements of folk songs by A. K. Lyadov. The saturation of the musical fabric with singing voices is extremely characteristic of the works of A. N. Scriabin, S. V. Rachmaninov - from small forms of romance and php plays to large symphonic canvases.

In Sov. music P. and polyphonic. forms occupy an extremely important place, which is associated with the general rise of music, characteristic of music of the 20th century. Prod. N. Ya. Myaskovsky, S. S. Prokofiev, D. D. Shostakovich, V. Ya. Shebalin provide examples of excellent polyphonic mastery. a claim aimed at identifying ideological art. music content. The large polyphonic system inherited from the classics has found wide application. form, in a cut polyphonic. episodes systematically lead to logical. the top will express. character; The fugue form was also developed, which in Shostakovich’s work received fundamental significance both in the large concepts of symphonies (4th, 11th) and chamber ensembles (quintet op. 49, fis-moll, c-moll quartets, etc.), and in solo productions for fp. (24 preludes and fugues op. 87). The thematism of Shostakovich's fugues means. least stems from a folk song source, and their form - from verse variation. Will exclude. In the music of Prokofiev, Shostakovich, and Shebalin, ostinatus and the associated form of ostinato-type variations acquired significance, which also reflects the tendency that is characteristic of all modern music. music.

P. in Sov. music develops under the influence of the latest means of music. expressiveness. Its bright samples contain production. K. Karaev (4th notebook of preludes, 3rd symphony, etc.), B. I. Tishchenko, S. M. Slonimsky, R. K. Shchedrin, A. A. Pyart, N. I. Peiko , B. A. Tchaikovsky. The polyphonic one stands out especially. the beginning in the music of Shchedrin, who continues to develop the fugue and polyphonic music in general. forms and genres are independent. op. (“Basso ostinato”, 24 preludes and fugues, “Polyphonic Notebook”), and as parts of larger symphonic, cantata and theatrical works, where imitations. P., together with contrast, conveys an unusually broad picture of life phenomena.

“An appeal to polyphony can only be welcomed, because the possibilities of polyphony are practically limitless,” emphasized D. D. Shostakovich. “Polyphony can convey everything: the scope of time, the scope of thought, the scope of dreams, creativity.”

Concepts "P." and “counterpoint” relate not only to the phenomena of music, but also to theoretical. study of these phenomena. As a teacher the discipline of music is part of the system of music. education. Scientific Theorists of the 15th and 16th centuries were involved in the development of questions of P.: J. Tinktoris, Glarean, G. Tsarlino. The latter described the basics in detail. P.'s techniques are contrasting counterpointing, moving counterpoint, etc. The system of assigning counterpoints to a given voice (cantus firmus) with a gradual decrease in duration and an increase in the number of sounds (note against note, two, three, four notes against a note, flowery counterpoint) continued to be developed by theorists 17-18 centuries - J. M. Bononcini and others, while in the work of I. Fuchs “Gradus ad Parnassum” (1725) reached its peak (the young W. A. ​​Mozart studied P. strict writing from this book). In the same works we also find methods for studying fugue, the theory of which was more fully expounded by F.V. Marpurg. For the first time, I. Forkel gave a fairly complete description of J. S. Bach’s style. Mozart's teacher G. Martini insisted on the need to study counterpoint using canto fermo and cited examples from the literature on free style piano. Later manuals on counterpoint, fugue and canon by L. Cherubini, Z. Dehn, I. G. G. Bellerman, E. Prout improved the system of teaching P. strict writing and the use of other polyphonics. forms All R. 19th century row of German theorists opposed studying the foundations of the strict style, adopted, in particular, in the newly discovered Russian. conservatories. In his defense, G. A. Laroche published a series of articles. Proving the need for historical music method education, he at the same time characterized the role of music in the history of music, in particular music of the strict style. It was this idea that served as the impetus for the theoretical development and practice of pedagogical activities of S.I. Taneyev, summarized by him in his work “Moving counterpoint of strict writing” (Leipzig, 1909).

The most important stage in the theory of P. was the study of E. Kurt “Fundamentals of Linear Counterpoint” (1917, Russian translation - M., 1931), which revealed not only the principles of melodic. polyphony of J. S. Bach, but also gave the prospect of studying certain aspects of free style music, which had previously been forgotten.

Scientific work of owls theorists are devoted to polyphonic. forms, their dramaturgy. roles and historical evolution. Among them are “Fuga” by V. A. Zolotarev (M., 1932), “Polyphonic Analysis” by S. S. Skrebkov (M.-L., 1940), “Polyphony as a Factor of Formation” by A. N. Dmitriev (L ., 1962), “The History of Polyphony” by V.V. Protopopov (issue 1-2, M., 1962-65), a number of dep. works about polyphonic otile N. Ya. Myaskovsky, D. D. Shostakovich, P. Hindemith and others.

Literature: Musician grammar of Nikolai Diletsky, 1681, ed. St. Petersburg, 1910 (includes the treatise by I. T. Korenev “Musikia. On Divine Singing”); Rezvoy M.D., Conducting voices, in the book: Encyclopedic Lexicon, ed. A. Plyushara, t. 9, St. Petersburg, 1837; Gunke O.K., Guide to composing music, part 2, On counterpoint, St. Petersburg, 1863; Serov A. N., Music, music science, music pedagogy, "Epoch", 1864, No. 16, 12, the same, in his book: Izbr. articles, vol. 2, M., 1957; Larosh G. A., Thoughts on musical education in Russia, "Russian Bulletin", 1869, vol. 82, the same, in his book: Collection of musical-critical articles, vol. 1, M., 1913; his, Historical method of teaching music theory, "Musical leaflet", 1872-73, No. 2-5, the same, in his book: Collection of musical-critical articles, vol. 1, M., 1913; Taneyev S.I., Mobile counterpoint of strict writing, Leipzig, (1909), M., 1959; by him, From the scientific and pedagogical heritage, M., 1967; Myaskovsky N. 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V. V. Protopopov