The main stages of the Thirty Years' War. Causes of the Thirty Years' War
Thirty Years' War(1618-1648) - the first military conflict in European history, which affected almost all European countries (including Russia) to one degree or another. The war began as a religious clash between Protestants and Catholics in Germany, but then escalated into a struggle against Habsburg hegemony in Europe. The last significant religious war in Europe, giving rise to the Westphalian system of international relations.
Since the time of Charles V, the leading role in Europe belonged to the House of Austria - the Habsburg dynasty. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Spanish branch of the house also owned, in addition to Spain, Portugal, the Southern Netherlands, the states of Southern Italy and, in addition to these lands, had at its disposal a huge Spanish-Portuguese colonial empire. The German branch - the Austrian Habsburgs - secured the crown of the Holy Roman Emperor and were kings of the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Croatia. Other major European powers tried in every possible way to weaken the Habsburg hegemony. Among the latter, the leading position was occupied by France, which was the largest of the national states.
There were several explosive regions in Europe where the interests of warring parties intersected. The greatest number of contradictions accumulated in the Holy Roman Empire, which, in addition to the traditional struggle between the emperor and the German princes, was split along religious lines. Another knot of contradictions was also directly related to the Empire - the Baltic Sea. Protestant Sweden (and also partly Denmark) sought to turn it into its inland lake and fortify itself on its southern coast, while Catholic Poland actively resisted Swedish-Danish expansion. Other European countries advocated free Baltic trade.
The third disputed region was the fragmented Italy, over which France and Spain fought. Spain had its opponents - the Republic of the United Provinces (Holland), which defended its independence in the war of 1568-1648, and England, which challenged Spanish dominance at sea and encroached on the colonial possessions of the Habsburgs.
War is brewing
The Peace of Augsburg (1555) temporarily ended the open rivalry between Lutheran Catholics in Germany. Under the terms of the peace, the German princes could choose the religion (Lutheranism or Catholicism) for their principalities at their discretion. At the same time, the Catholic Church wanted to regain lost influence. The Vatican in every possible way pushed the remaining Catholic rulers to eradicate Protestantism in their domains. The Habsburgs were ardent Catholics, but their imperial status obliged them to adhere to the principles of religious tolerance. Religious tensions grew. In an organized response to the growing pressure, the Protestant princes of South and West Germany united in the Evangelical Union, created in 1608. In response, Catholics united in the Catholic League (1609). Both unions were immediately supported by foreign countries. The reigning Holy Roman Emperor and King Matthias of the Czech Republic had no direct heirs, and in 1617 he forced the Czech Diet to recognize his nephew Ferdinand of Styria, an ardent Catholic and student of the Jesuits, as his successor. He was extremely unpopular in the predominantly Protestant Czech Republic, which was the reason for the uprising, which developed into a long conflict.
The Thirty Years' War is traditionally divided into four periods: Czech, Danish, Swedish and Franco-Swedish. On the side of the Habsburgs were: Austria, most of the Catholic principalities of Germany, Spain united with Portugal, the Papal Throne, and Poland. On the side of the anti-Habsburg coalition were France, Sweden, Denmark, the Protestant principalities of Germany, the Czech Republic, Transylvania, Venice, Savoy, the Republic of the United Provinces, and England, Scotland and Russia provided support. The Ottoman Empire (the traditional enemy of the Habsburgs) in the first half of the 17th century was busy with wars with Persia, in which the Turks suffered several serious defeats. Overall, the war turned out to be a clash of traditional conservative forces with the strengthening national states.
Periodization:
Czech period (1618-1623). Uprisings in the Czech Republic against the Habsburgs. The Jesuits and a number of senior figures of the Catholic Church in the Czech Republic were expelled from the country. The Czech Republic emerged from Habsburg rule for the second time. When Ferdinand 2 replaced Matthew on the throne in 1619, the Czech Sejm, in opposition to him, chose Frederick of the Palatinate, the leader of the Evangelical Union, as king of the Czech Republic. Ferdinand was deposed shortly before his coronation. At the beginning, the uprising developed successfully, but in 1621 Spanish troops, helping the emperor, invaded the Palatinate and brutally suppressed the uprising. Frederick fled from the Czech Republic, and then from Germany. The war continued in Germany, but in 1624 the final victory of the Catholics seemed inevitable.
Danish period (1624-1629). The troops of the emperor and the Catholic League were opposed by the North German princes and the Danish king, who relied on the help of Sweden, Holland, England and France. The Danish period ended with the occupation of Northern Germany by the troops of the Emperor and the Catholic League, and the withdrawal of Transylvania and Denmark from the war.
Swedish (1630-1634). During these years, Swedish troops, together with the Protestant princes who joined them and with the support of France, occupied most of Germany, but were still defeated by the combined forces of the Emperor and the Catholic League.
Franco - Swedish period 1635-1648. France enters into open struggle against the Habsburgs. The war becomes protracted and lasts until the participants are completely exhausted. France opposed Germany and Spain, having numerous allies on its side. On her side were Holland, Savoy, Venice, Hungary (Transylvania). Poland declared its neutrality, friendly to France. Military operations took place not only in Germany, but also in Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, Italy, and on both banks of the Rhine. The Allies were initially unsuccessful. The composition of the coalition was not strong enough. The Allies' actions were poorly coordinated. Only in the early 40s. the preponderance of forces was clearly on the side of France and Sweden. In 1646 The French-Swedish army invaded Bavaria. It became increasingly clear to the Viennese court that the war was lost. The imperial government of Ferdinand III was forced to enter into peace negotiations.
Results:
over 300 small German states received actual sovereignty, while nominally submitting to the Holy Roman Empire. This situation continued until the end of the first empire in 1806.
The war did not automatically lead to the collapse of the Habsburgs, but it changed the balance of power in Europe. Hegemony passed to France. The decline of Spain became obvious.
Sweden became a great power for about half a century, significantly strengthening its position in the Baltic. However, by the end of the 17th century, the Swedes lost a number of wars to Poland and Prussia, and the Northern War of 1700-1721. finally broke Swedish power.
Adherents of all religions (Catholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism) gained equal rights in the empire. The main result of the Thirty Years' War was a sharp weakening of the influence of religious factors on the life of European states. Their foreign policy began to be based on economic, dynastic and geopolitical interests.
At the beginning of the 17th century, Europe underwent a painful “reformatting”. The transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age could not be carried out easily and smoothly - any breakdown of traditional foundations is accompanied by a social storm. In Europe, this was accompanied by religious unrest: the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. The religious Thirty Years' War began, in which almost all countries in the region were drawn into.
Europe entered the 17th century, carrying with it from the previous century the burden of unresolved religious disputes, which also aggravated political contradictions. Mutual claims and grievances resulted in a war that lasted from 1618 to 1648 and was called “ Thirty Years' War" It is generally considered to be the last European religious war, after which international relations took on a secular character.
Reasons for the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War
- Counter-Reformation: an attempt by the Catholic Church to win back from Protestantism the positions lost during the Reformation
- The desire of the Habsburgs, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation and Spain, for hegemony in Europe
- Concerns of France, which saw in the Habsburg policies an infringement of its national interests
- The desire of Denmark and Sweden to monopolize control of the Baltic sea trade routes
- The selfish aspirations of numerous petty European monarchs who hoped to snatch something for themselves in the general chaos
The protracted conflict between Catholics and Protestants, the collapse of the feudal system and the emergence of the concept of a nation state coincided with the unprecedented strengthening of the imperial Habsburg dynasty.
The Austrian ruling house in the 16th century extended its influence to Spain, Portugal, Italian states, Bohemia, Croatia, Hungary; If we add to this the vast Spanish and Portuguese colonies, the Habsburgs could claim to be the absolute leaders of the then “civilized world.” This could not but cause discontent among the “neighbors in Europe.”
Religious problems were added to everything. The fact is that the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 resolved the issue of religion with a simple postulate: “Whose power, his faith.” The Habsburgs were zealous Catholics, and yet their possessions also extended to “Protestant” territories. The conflict was inevitable. His name is Thirty Years' War 1618-1648.
Stages of the Thirty Years' War
Results of the Thirty Years' War
- The Peace of Westphalia established the boundaries of European states, becoming the source document for all treaties until the end of the 18th century.
- German princes received the right to conduct a policy independent of Vienna
- Sweden has achieved dominance in the Baltic and North Sea
- France received Alsace and the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, Verdun
- Holland is recognized as an independent state
- Switzerland gained independence from the Empire
- It is customary to count the modern era in international relations with the Peace of Westphalia
The main thing is that the old hierarchy that had developed under the dictation of the Holy Roman Empire was destroyed. From now on, the heads of independent European states had equal rights with the emperor, which means that international relations reached a qualitatively new level.
The Westphalian system recognized the main principle of state sovereignty; Foreign policy was based on the idea of a balance of power, which does not allow any one state to strengthen at the expense of (or against) others. Finally, having formally confirmed the Peace of Augsburg, the parties gave guarantees of freedom of religion to those whose religion differed from the official one.
It was the largest of the nation states.
There were several explosive regions in Europe where the interests of warring parties intersected. The greatest number of contradictions accumulated in the Holy Roman Empire, which, in addition to the traditional struggle between the emperor and the German princes, was split along religious lines. Another knot of contradictions was also directly related to the Empire -. The Protestant (and also, partly) sought to turn it into their internal lake and strengthen themselves on its southern coast, while the Catholic actively resisted the Swedish-Danish expansion. Other European countries advocated free Baltic trade. The third disputed region was the fragmented Italy, for which France fought with. Spain had its opponents - (), which defended its independence in the war - gg., and, which challenged Spanish dominance at sea and encroached on the colonial possessions of the Habsburgs.
War is brewing
Periodization of war. Opposing parties.
The Thirty Years' War is traditionally divided into four periods: Czech, Danish, Swedish and Franco-Swedish. There were several separate conflicts outside Germany: the Polish-Swedish War, etc.
On the side of the Habsburgs were: , the majority of the Catholic principalities of Germany, united with, . On the side of the anti-Habsburg coalition, the Protestant principalities of Germany provided support, and. (the traditional enemy of the Habsburgs) at that time was busy with the war and did not interfere in the European conflict. Overall, the war turned out to be a clash between traditional conservative forces and the strengthening of national states.
The Habsburg bloc was more monolithic; the Austrian and Spanish houses maintained contact with each other, often conducting joint military operations. Richer Spain provided financial support to the emperor. There were major contradictions in the camp of their opponents, but they all retreated into the background before the threat of a common enemy.
Progress of the war
Czech period
In the autumn of the same year, 15,000 imperial soldiers led by and entered the Czech Republic. The Czech Directory formed an army led by Count Thurn, in response to requests from the Czechs, the Evangelical Union sent 2,000 soldiers under the command. Dampier was defeated and Buqua had to retreat to.
Thanks to the support of the Protestant part of the Austrian nobility, Count Thurn approached Vienna, but met stubborn resistance. At this time, Buquois defeated Mansfeld near ( ), and Thurn had to retreat to the rescue. At the end of the year, the Transylvanian prince with a strong army also moved against Vienna, but the Hungarian magnate Druget Gomonai hit him in the rear and forced him to retreat from Vienna. Protracted battles were fought on the territory of Bohemia with varying success.
Meanwhile, the Habsburgs achieved certain diplomatic successes. Mr. Ferdinand was elected emperor. After this, he managed to obtain military support from Bavaria and Saxony. For this, the Saxon Elector was promised Silesia and Lusatia, and the Duke of Bavaria was promised the possessions of the Elector of the Palatinate and his electorate. Spain sent 25 thousand troops under the command to help the emperor.
Danish period
Another period of war ended, but the Catholic League sought to regain the Catholic possessions lost in the Peace of Augsburg. Under her pressure, the emperor issued the Edict of Restitution (). According to it, 2 archbishoprics, 12 bishoprics and hundreds of monasteries were to be returned to Catholics. Mansfeld and Bethlen Gabor, the first of the Protestant military commanders, died that same year. Only the port of Stralsund, abandoned by all allies (except Sweden), held out against Wallenstein and the Emperor.
Swedish period
Both Catholic and Protestant princes, as well as many from the Emperor’s entourage, believed that Wallenstein himself wanted to seize power in Germany. Ferdinand II fired Wallenstein. However, when the Swedish offensive began, they had to call him again.
Sweden was the last major state capable of changing the balance of power. , the king of Sweden, like Christian IV, sought to stop Catholic expansion as well as establish his control over the Baltic coast of northern Germany. Like Christian IV, he was generously subsidized by the first minister of the king of France.
Before this, Sweden was kept from war by the war with Poland in the struggle for the Baltic coast. By the year Sweden had ended the war and had secured the support of Russia ().
The Swedish army was armed with advanced small arms and. There were no mercenaries in it, and at first it did not rob the population. This fact had a positive effect. In the year Sweden sent 6 thousand soldiers under the command to help Stralsund. At the beginning of the year, Leslie captured the island, resulting in control of the Stralsund Strait. And then, the king of Sweden, landed on the continent, at the mouth of the Oder.
Ferdinand II had been dependent on the Catholic League since he disbanded Wallenstein's army. At the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631), Gustavus Adolphus defeated the Catholic League under Tilly. A year later they met again, and again the Swedes won, and General Tilly died (). With Tilly's death, Ferdinand II again turned his attention to Wallenstein.
Wallenstein and Gustav Adolf fought in the fierce Battle of Lützen (1632), where the Swedes barely won, but Gustav Adolf died. In March, Sweden and the German Protestant principalities formed the League of Heilbronn; all military and political power in Germany passed to an elected council headed by Swedish Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna. But the absence of a single authoritative military leader began to affect the Protestant troops, and the previously invincible Swedes suffered a serious defeat at the Battle of Nördlingen (1634).
Ferdinand II's suspicions again prevailed when Wallenstein began to conduct his own negotiations with the Protestant princes, the leaders of the Catholic League and the Swedes (). In addition, he forced his officers to take a personal oath to him. Wallenstein was arrested and killed on suspicion of treason ( ).
After this, the princes and the emperor began negotiations, which ended the Swedish period of the war with the Peace of Prague (). Its terms provided:
- “Edict of Restitution” and the return of possessions to the framework of the Peace of Augsburg.
- The unification of the army of the emperor and the armies of the German states into one army of the “Holy Roman Empire”.
- A ban on the formation of coalitions between princes.
- Legalization.
This peace, however, could not suit France, since the Habsburgs, as a result, became stronger.
Franco-Swedish period
Having exhausted all diplomatic reserves, France entered the war itself (war was declared on Spain). With her intervention, the conflict finally lost its religious overtones, since the French were Catholics. France involved its allies in Italy - the Duchy of Savoy, the Duchy of Mantua and the Venetian Republic - into the conflict. She managed to prevent a new war between Sweden and, which allowed the Swedes to transfer significant reinforcements from across the Vistula to Germany. The French attacked Lombardy and the Spanish Netherlands. In response, a Spanish-Bavarian army under the command of Prince Ferdinand of Spain crossed the Somme River and entered Compiègne, while Imperial General Matthias Galas attempted to capture Burgundy.
Other conflicts at the same time
- War between Spain and France
- Danish-Swedish War (1643-1645)
Peace of Westphalia
Under the terms of the peace, France received Southern Alsace and the Lorraine bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, Sweden - the island of Rügen, Western Pomerania and the Duchy of Bremen, plus an indemnity of 5 million. Saxony - Lusatia, Brandenburg - Eastern Pomerania, the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and the Bishopric of Minden. Bavaria - Upper Palatinate, Bavarian Duke became.
Consequences
The Thirty Years' War was the first war to affect all segments of the population. In Western memory, it remained one of the most difficult pan-European conflicts among the predecessors of the World Wars. The greatest damage was caused to Germany, where, according to some estimates, 5 million people died.
The immediate result of the war was that St. The 300 small German states received full sovereignty under nominal membership of the Holy Roman Empire. This situation continued until the end of the first empire.
The war did not automatically lead to the collapse of the Habsburgs, but it changed the balance of power in Europe. Hegemony passed to France. The decline of Spain became obvious. In addition, Sweden became a great power, significantly strengthening its position in the Baltic.
It is customary to count the modern era in international relations with the Peace of Westphalia.
Military tactics and strategy
The study by military theorists of the successes of the Swedish troops under the leadership of Gustav Adolf yielded results. The advanced armies of Europe began to place their main emphasis on increasing the effectiveness of fire. The role of field artillery increased. The structure of the infantry changed - by the end of the war, musketeers began to outnumber pikemen.
During the war, armies were often forced to retreat due to lack of supplies even after victories. Many states, following the example of Gustav Adolf, began to create an organized supply of troops with ammunition and provisions. “Shops” (warehouses for military supplies) began to appear. The role of transport communications has increased.
Shops and communications, as well as the troops themselves, began to be viewed as objects of attack and defense. Through a series of skillful maneuvers it was possible to interrupt enemy communications and force him to retreat without losing a single soldier. The concept of “maneuver warfare” appeared.
At the same time, the Thirty Years' War marked the peak of the era of mercenary armies. Both camps used landschetov, recruited from various social strata and without regard to religion. They served for money and turned military affairs into a profession. The concept itself was born in the era of war. Its origin is associated with the name of one of two famous commanders who bore the surname Merode and took part in the Thirty Years' War: a German, General Count Johann Merode, or a Swede, Colonel Werner von Merode.
Causes:
1. The religious clash between Protestants and Catholics in Germany then developed into a struggle against Habsburg hegemony in Europe.
2. Confrontation between France and the coalition of Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs. It was in France's interests to keep the empire fragmented and prevent the two Habsburg monarchies from uniting their actions. It had territorial claims in Alsace, Lorraine, the Southern Netherlands, Northern Italy, and the territories bordering Spain. France was ready to support the Evangelical League despite the difference in confessions.
3. The Republic of the United Provinces saw the Evangelical League as a natural ally against the Habsburgs
4. Denmark and Sweden tried to protect themselves from competition in the northern sea routes
5. England constantly fought with Spain at sea, and for her the anti-Habsburg policy seemed natural. But, at the same time, it competed in foreign trade with the countries of the anti-Habsburg coalition.
Progress of the war:
The Thirty Years' War is traditionally divided into four periods: Czech (1618–1623). , Danish(1625–1629), Swedish(1630–1635) and Franco-Swedish(1635–1648).
Conflicts outside Germany took the form of local wars: the Spanish War with the Netherlands, the War of the Mantuan Succession, the Russo-Polish War, the Polish-Swedish War.
The war began with the Czech uprising (“Prague Defenestration”) against Habsburg rule. In 1620, the Czech Republic was defeated, which gave. The Habsburgs had a noticeable advantage. In 1625, Protestant Denmark came out against them. France tried to drag strong Sweden into the war, but it failed. The Catholic camp won a number of victories and forced Denmark to withdraw from the war in May 1629. In 1628, clashes between France and the Habsburg forces began in northern Italy; they lasted three years and proceeded extremely sluggishly. In 1630 - and! Sweden entered the war, its troops marched throughout Germany and on September 17, 1631 won a victory at Breitenfeld, in May 1632 they occupied Munich, and in November at Lützen they defeated the Habsburg army. In 1632, Russia entered into a war with Poland, but, not receiving the expected reinforcements, the Russian army was defeated, and in 1634 Russia concluded the Peace of Polyanovsky. The Swedes belatedly moved to Poland, but in September 1634 at Nördlingen they were defeated by the united troops of the Catholic Coalition. In 1635, Sweden signed the Treaty of Paris with the Habsburgs, which was joined by some German Protestant princes; in the same year, Sweden concluded the Treaty of Stumsdorf with Poland and the Treaty of Saint-Germain with France. The final, decisive period of the war began, during which France waged military operations against Spain and Germany. Gradually, military superiority leaned towards the opponents of the Catholic Coalition. After a series of victories over the Habsburgs (at Rocroi, Nördlingen), France and Sweden began to divide Germany. According to the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, Sweden received the mouths of the navigable rivers of Northern Germany, France - Alsace, Verdun, Metz and Toul; Holland gained independence from Spain. Swedish troops remained in Germany for another 5 years, and the war between France and Spain continued until 1659.
Results:
1. The Peace of Westphalia was concluded on October 24, 1648. Under the terms of the peace, France received Southern Alsace and the Lorraine bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, Sweden - the island of Rügen, Western Pomerania and the Duchy of Bremen, plus an indemnity of 5 million thalers. Saxony - Lusatia, Brandenburg - Eastern Pomerania, the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and the Bishopric of Minden. Bavaria - Upper Palatinate, the Bavarian Duke became Elector. All princes are legally recognized as having the right to enter into foreign political alliances. Consolidation of the fragmentation of Germany.
2. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) - one of the first pan-European military conflicts, which to one degree or another affected almost all European countries (including Russia), with the exception of Switzerland and Turkey
3. After the Thirty Years' War, hegemony in the international life of Western Europe passed from the Habsburgs to France. However, the Habsburgs were not completely crushed and remained a serious international force.
2. a sharp weakening of the influence of religious factors on the life of European states. Their foreign policy began to be based on economic, dynastic and geopolitical interests.
The Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648 affected almost all European countries. This struggle for the hegemony of the Holy Roman Empire became the last European religious war.
Causes of the conflict
There were several reasons for the Thirty Years' War.
The first is the clashes between Catholics and Protestants in Germany, which eventually grew into a larger conflict - the struggle against the hegemony of the Habsburgs.
Rice. 1. German Protestants.
The second is France’s desire to leave the Habsburg Empire fragmented in order to retain the right to part of its territories.
And the third is the struggle between England and France for naval dominance.
TOP 4 articleswho are reading along with this
Periodization of the Thirty Years' War
Traditionally, it is divided into four periods, which will be clearly presented in the table below.
|
Years |
Period |
|
Swedish |
|
|
Franco-Swedish |
Outside Germany, there were local wars: the Netherlands fought with Spain, the Poles fought with the Russians and Swedes.
Rice. 2. A group of Swedish soldiers from the Thirty Years' War.
Progress of the Thirty Years' War
The beginning of the Thirty Years' War in Europe is associated with the Czech uprising against the Habsburgs, which, however, was defeated by 1620, and five years later Denmark, a Protestant state, opposed the Habsburgs. France's attempts to drag strong Sweden into the conflict were unsuccessful. In May 1629, Denmark is defeated and leaves the war.
In parallel, France begins a war against Habsburg rule, which in 1628 enters into confrontation with them in northern Italy. But the fighting was sluggish and protracted - it ended only in 1631.
The year before, Sweden entered the war, which covered the whole of Germany in two years and eventually defeated the Habsburgs at the Battle of Lützen.
The Swedes lost about one and a half thousand people in this battle, and the Habsburgs lost twice as many.
Russia also took part in this war, opposing the Poles, but was defeated. After this, the Swedes moved to Poland, who were defeated by the Catholic Coalition and in 1635 they were forced to sign the Treaty of Paris.
However, over time, superiority still turned out to be on the side of the opponents of Catholicism, and in 1648 the war was ended in their favor.
Results of the Thirty Years' War
This long religious war had a number of consequences. Thus, among the results of the war we can name the conclusion of the Treaty of Westphalia, which was important for everyone, which took place in 1648, on October 24.
The terms of this agreement were as follows: Southern Alsace and part of the Lorraine lands went to France, Sweden received a significant indemnity and also actual power over Western Pomerania and the Duchy of Bregen, as well as the island of Rügen.
Rice. 3. Alsace.
The only ones who were not affected by this military conflict were Switzerland and Türkiye.
Hegemony in international life ceased to belong to the Habsburgs - after the war, their place was taken by France. However, the Habsburgs still remained a significant political force in Europe.
After this war, the influence of religious factors on the life of European states sharply weakened - interfaith differences ceased to be important. Geopolitical, economic and dynastic interests came to the fore.
Average rating: 4.5. Total ratings received: 368.