Revolution in France 1792. Jacobin dictatorship, Thermidorian coup and establishment of the Consulate

1. Describe the historical conditions in France that developed by the end of the 18th century. Fill the table.

Historical conditions in France on the eve of the revolution were difficult. The king was pushed to convene the Estates General by both social and economic, as well as political reasons. Although France's ally was victorious in North America, France lost the war overall. The main thing is that France failed to seize significant possessions in the Caribbean region, and it was through them that the government hoped to cover military expenses thanks to the very profitable sugar trade at that time. Largely thanks to this, a revolutionary situation arose in the kingdom, caused primarily by economic reasons. However, they, naturally, were not the only ones.

2. For what purpose did the king convene the Estates General? How did the conflict between the king and the deputies develop?

The king convened the Estates General to approve the introduction of new taxes. Perhaps he wanted to propose the abolition of pensions and other payments to aristocrats, relying in this decision on the authority of all classes. But he did not have time to make such a proposal. The Estates General showed disobedience even when clarifying the question of the voting procedure: whether the decision would be made by the number of votes of the chambers (then the Third Estate was losing to the two highest ones), or by the number of deputy votes (representatives of the Third Estate made up half of the Estates General). In response to the king's order to disperse, the deputies refused to do so. Representatives of the Third Estate, together with some deputies from the two highest ones, formed the National Assembly on June 17, and the Constituent Assembly on July 9.

3. Highlight and characterize the main stages of the Great French Revolution.

Stages of the revolution.

The first period is characterized by the active struggle of the court and the Constituent Assembly with the victory of the latter. Marked by numerous victories of the revolution. It ended with the storming of the royal Tuileries Palace and the overthrow of the monarchy. At the same time, differences emerged in the revolutionary camp, which were most clearly manifested during the next period.

Characterized by the struggle between radical and moderate forces in the revolutionary camp. At the same time, the methods of struggle became more and more bloody, and it was then that the death sentence became a common means of political struggle. At the same time, wars with invaders and immigrants intensified on the external borders, which escalated the situation within the country.

Jacobin dictatorship. The period of the most radical transformations and at the same time the most massive terror.

Directory Board. In many ways, a return to pre-revolutionary luxury and part of the pre-revolutionary order, but the hosts at this new celebration of life were those who had become rich during the previous stages. Almost the end of the revolution.

4. What was the significance of the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen? What ideas formed its basis?

The main ideas of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen were:

Universal equality of rights;

State guarantees of natural rights;

Classless society;

The power is based only on the will of the people;

Freedom of personality and will, freedom of expression.

The Declaration was the first practical implementation of many of the ideas of the Enlightenment. It laid the foundation for almost all subsequent reforms during the revolution. To this day, the Declaration is one of the foundations of French legislation.

5. Why did the reforms of the first stage of the revolution not remove the contradictions in French society?

Many especially the economic demands of the poorest sections of the population were not satisfied. At the same time, the solution to these issues caused opposition from the propertied layers of the revolutionary camp. Thus, significant contradictions emerged in the revolutionary movement itself, without resolution of which the further program of action seemed vague. This conflict also reflected the contradiction in society as a whole, no longer between the privileged and the unprivileged, but between the haves and the have-nots.

6. Indicate the internal and external factors that contributed to the deepening of revolutionary processes.

External factors include France’s war with a number of European anti-French coalitions and the next offensives of their armies.

Internal factors are much more varied:

An unsuccessful attempt by Louis XVI and his family to flee abroad;

Public debates in political clubs that fueled passions;

Frequent changes of governments by the king;

7. Assess the policies of the Jacobin dictatorship. What methods did the Jacobins use to overcome economic and political difficulties?

Of course, the darkest page of the Jacobin dictatorship is the revolutionary terror, which claimed many lives. But this was not the only mistake on the part of the authorities of the First Republic. In fact, they were unable to offer solutions to the problems facing France: the country's economy was collapsing, its money was incredibly devalued, the poor were not living better, despite executions and confiscations, foreign policy problems were far from being resolved. At the same time, it was actually possible to solve many problems in the countryside and suppress counter-revolutionary protests. However, this did not remove urgent crisis phenomena for the state from the agenda.

8. Describe the internal and external policies of the Directory. Why did the Thermidorian regime lose its support in the country?

In foreign policy, the Directory achieved great success by demonstrating that it was much less revolutionary. In 1795, peace was concluded with Prussia and Spain. Holland, as a result of the victories of the French troops, was turned into the puppet Batavian Republic in the same year. In the following years, Directory commanders, including Napoleon Bonaparte, won a number of impressive victories in battles against the rest of the coalition. Therefore, it can be argued that foreign policy was successful: France’s position stabilized and began to improve noticeably.

The internal politics of the Directory was more controversial. On the one hand, it was possible to stabilize the economic situation by repealing the “maximum” law and other directive measures of the Jacobins. On the other hand, this caused a sharp rise in prices and a sharp deterioration in the lives of the poor. It was also important that the country's leaders openly abandoned revolutionary ideals and publicly demonstrated their wealth. Such a government cannot count on popular love.

9. What was the state structure and administration of France under the constitution of 1799? How did Napoleon gradually strengthen his power? How did he manage to reconcile different layers of French society?

According to the new constitution, the separation of powers, municipal power, independence of courts, freedom of speech, etc. were actually abolished. The government of the country was subject to a rigid vertical of power headed by three consuls. Initially, General Bonaparte was just the first of these consuls, and therefore became the only one for life. The rest of the system did not need to be changed because it was already subordinate to the consuls. Therefore, when Napoleon crowned himself emperor in 1804, he only accepted the title; in fact, the state had already been a monarchy.

Different layers of French society were tried in many ways even before Napoleon, during the stubborn struggle of the times of the revolution - the dissatisfied were simply destroyed or immigrated. As a result of the revolutionary wars, there was no force left in the country that could compete with the army (especially since, under conditions of universal conscription, it truly represented the majority of the population), and Napoleon had unquestioned authority in the army thanks to his victories.

10. What impact did the Great French Revolution have on European countries?

Initially, the revolution was greeted with enthusiasm by some enlightened circles in Europe. Over time, the ruling circles of the region also spoke out - the radicalism of the revolution frightened them, which is why a number of coalitions of European states were organized with the aim of suppressing the popular movement in France by force of arms. At the same time, Paris actively promoted the expansion of the revolution to other countries, proclaiming the slogan “Peace to the huts, war to the palaces.” Such calls sometimes met with warm responses in some circles, for example, Holland, Italy, etc. But pro-French sympathies never played a decisive role; a particular territory supported France only after the victory of French troops there. Over time, the population considered the occupying nature of these troops. During the Napoleonic Wars, cases of popular hatred and attitudes towards French troops simply as invaders are already known. Such sentiments were especially evident in Spain, where a real guerrilla war unfolded. It was under the influence of these anti-occupation sentiments that the national self-awareness of some peoples clearly manifested itself, and among others it received a powerful impetus.

11. Compare the course, stages of development and results of the English bourgeois revolution and the Great French Revolution. What similarities and differences can you identify?

Both revolutions have many similarities. Their stages were different because they were determined by the specific situation, but the course revealed many similarities. In both cases, the king was opposed by the legislative authorities, and both losing kings were executed according to court sentences. Both revolutions established republics. Both revolutions involved the struggle of different parties within the revolutionary camp and the rise to power of a successful commander. But in England and France these events took place in a different order.

However, the differences between the revolutions were more significant. In England, parliament acted within the framework of religious Protestant ideology. At the same time, it was initially intended only to consolidate the original rights of parliament; the idea of restructuring the state arose already during the revolution. French revolutionaries initially acted within the framework of a secular ideology and immediately sought a reasonable reorganization of society within the framework of the ideas proposed by the Enlightenment. That is why only the Great French Revolution had followers; it was on it that throughout the 19th century those who sought to transform the political system in their countries were guided.

1789-1804 – The French Revolution .

Stages of the Great French Revolution:

first – 07/14/1789-08/10/1792;

second – 08/10/1792-05/31/1793;

third – 06/02/1793-06/27/1794;

fourth – 06/27/1794-11/09/1799;

fifth – 09.11/1799-18.05/1804.

First stage

Troops loyal to the king gathered in Versailles and Paris. The Parisians spontaneously rose to fight. By the morning of July 14, most of the capital was already in the hands of the insurgent people.

14.07/1789 – storming of the Bastille.

08/26/1789 – adoption by the Constituent Assembly of the Kingdom of France Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. It proclaimed the sacred and inalienable rights of man and citizen: personal freedom, freedom of speech, freedom of conscience, security and resistance to oppression. The right of property was declared just as sacred and inviolable, and a decree was promulgated declaring all church property national.

The Constituent Assembly approved a new administrative division of the kingdom into 83 departments, abolished the class division and abolished all titles of nobility and clergy, feudal duties, class privileges, abolished guilds, and proclaimed freedom of enterprise.

05.10/1789 – women's march to Versailles.

06/21/1791 – attempted escape of Louis XVI and his family abroad.

09/14/1791 – signed by Louis XVI Constitutions of the Kingdom of France, dissolution Constituent Assembly of the Kingdom of France, convocation Legislative Assembly of the Kingdom of France.

Austria and Prussia entered into an alliance with each other and announced that they would prevent the spread of everything that threatened the monarchy in France and the security of all European powers.

1791-1797 – I Anti-French Coalition - Austria and Prussia, from 1793 - Great Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Naples and Tuscany, in 1795-1796 - Russia.

04/22/1792 – France declares war on Austria.

Second phase

10.08/1792 –uprising of the Paris Commune.

During this period, the Paris Commune became the body of Parisian city self-government. She closed many monarchist newspapers, arrested former ministers, abolished the property qualification, and all men over the age of 21 received voting rights.

Under the leadership of the Paris Commune, preparations began for the assault on the Tuileries Palace, where the king was located. Without waiting for the assault, the king and his family left the palace and came to the Legislative Assembly of the Kingdom of France. The rebels captured the Tuileries Palace.

08/11/1792 - resolution of the Legislative Assembly of the Kingdom of France on the removal of the king from power and the convening of a new supreme authority - National Convention of the French Kingdom. For trial "criminals of August 10" (supporters of the king) The Legislative Assembly of the Kingdom of France established Extraordinary Tribunal of the Kingdom of France.

09/20/1792 – defeat of the Prussians by the French in Battle of Valmy, opening National Convention of the French Republic.

The political leadership moved to Girondins , representing predominantly the commercial, industrial and agricultural bourgeoisie. They constituted the majority in the Convention. They were opposed Jacobins , which expressed the interests of the revolutionary-democratic bourgeoisie, acting in alliance with the peasantry and plebeians.

A sharp struggle developed between the Jacobins and Girondins. The Girondins were satisfied with the results of the revolution, opposed the execution of the king and opposed the further development of the revolution. The Jacobins considered it necessary to deepen the revolutionary movement.

09/21/1792 – proclamation French Republic.

01/21/1793 – execution of King Louis XVI.

Third stage

31.05-02.06/1793 – Jacobin rebellion– introduction Jacobin dictatorship led by M. Robespierre.

Power passed into the hands of radical strata of the bourgeoisie, which relied on the bulk of the urban population and the peasantry. At this moment, the grassroots had the greatest influence on the government.

The Jacobins recognized the centralization of state power as an indispensable condition. The National Convention of the French Republic remained the highest legislative body. The government was subordinate to him - Committee of Public Safety of the French Republic led by Robespierre. The Committee of Public Safety of the Convention was strengthened to combat counter-revolution, and revolutionary tribunals were activated.

The position of the new government was difficult. The war raged. In most departments of France, especially the Vendée, there were riots.

1793-1795 – I Vendée mutiny.

1793 – adoption of the new French Republic by the National Convention constitution, - France was declared a single and indivisible republic, the supremacy of the people, equality of people in rights, broad democratic freedoms were consolidated, the property qualification for participation in elections to government bodies was abolished, all men over the age of 21 received voting rights, and wars of conquest were condemned. However, the introduction of the constitution was delayed due to the national emergency.

The Committee of Public Safety carried out a number of important measures to reorganize and strengthen the army, thanks to which in a fairly short time France was able to create a large and well-armed army. By the beginning of 1794, the war was transferred to enemy territory.

07/13/1793 – murder of J.-P. Marata.

10/16/1793 – execution of Queen Marie Antoinette.

1793 – introduction of the French Republic by the National Convention revolutionary calendar . September 22, 1792, the first day of the existence of the Republic, was declared the beginning of a new era. The month was divided into 3 decades, the months were named according to their characteristic weather, vegetation, fruits or agricultural work. Sundays were abolished. Instead of Catholic holidays, revolutionary holidays were introduced.

The Jacobin Union was held together by the need for a joint struggle against the foreign coalition and counter-revolutionary revolts within the country. When victory was won on the fronts and the rebellions were suppressed, the danger of the restoration of the monarchy diminished, and a rollback of the revolutionary movement began. Internal divisions intensified among the Jacobins. The lower classes demanded deeper reforms. Most of the bourgeoisie, dissatisfied with the policies of the Jacobins, who pursued a restrictive regime and dictatorial methods, switched to counter-revolutionary positions. The leaders Lafayette, Barnave, Lamet, as well as the Girondins, also joined the camp of the counter-revolution. The Jacobin dictatorship increasingly lost popular support.

1793-1794 – Jacobin terror.

1793 - an agreement between Russia and Austria, Great Britain and Prussia, obliging them to help them with troops and money in the fight against France.

1794 - conspiracy in the National Convention of the French Republic against the Jacobins.

Fourth stage

27.07/1794 – Thermidorian coup (Coup of 9 Thermidor).

Thermidorians Now they used terror at their own discretion. They released their supporters from prison and imprisoned Robespierre's supporters. The Paris Commune was immediately abolished.

1795 – adoption by the National Convention of the French Republic of the new constitution- power passed to Directories of the French Republic And Council of Five Hundred of the French Republic And Council of Elders of the French Republic.

1795-1800 – II Vendée Mutiny.

1795-1796 – Triple Alliance between Austria, Great Britain and Russia.

1796-1815 – Napoleonic Wars .

1796-1797 – Italian campaign French.

1797 – French capture of Malta.

1798-1799 – Egyptian expedition French.

1798-1802 – II Anti-French Coalition – Austria, Great Britain, the Kingdom of Naples, the Ottoman Empire and, until 1799, Russia.

1798 - defeat of the French by the British in a naval battle under Abukir.

1799 – Russians capture the Ionian Islands, Corfu, Brindisi.

1799 – Italian and Swiss campaigns.

1799 – Russia’s alliance with France and severance of relations with Great Britain.

1799 - the existence of the Roman and Parthenopean Republic - on the site of the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples.

Fifth stage

09.11/1799 – Brumerian coup (Coup of 18 Brumaire)- appointment by the Council of Elders of the French Republic of Brigadier General Napoleon Bonaparte as commander of the army.

11/10/1799 – dissolution of the Directory of the French Republic, creation Consulates of the French Republic led by N. Bonaparte - regime Thermidorian reaction .

The consulate pursued policies in the interests of the big bourgeoisie. Laws were passed that assigned to the new owners the property they acquired during the revolution, and codes were drawn up to support the development of capitalist industry. Unions and strikes of workers were prohibited; in legal proceedings, the employer's testimony against workers was taken on faith.

1800 – French defeat of the Austrians in Battle of Marengo.

1800 – Convention on Armed Neutrality between Denmark, Prussia, Russia and Sweden.

1801 – preparation in Russia for Indian campaign.

1801 – Peace of Luneville between France and Austria - the south of the Benelux went to France, Austria recognized the Batavian, Helvenian, Ligurian and Cisalpine republics dependent on France, the transformation of the Tuscan Duchy into the Kingdom of Etruria.

1801 – Russia’s peace treaty with Great Britain and Russia’s peace treaty with France.

05/18/1804 – proclamation of N. Bonaparte Emperor of France Napoleon I.

In the interests of which the government also did a lot, taking great care of the “national wealth”, that is, the development of the manufacturing industry and trade. However, it turned out to be increasingly difficult to satisfy the desires and demands of both the nobility and the bourgeoisie, who in their mutual struggle sought support from the royal power.

On the other hand, both feudal and capitalist exploitation increasingly armed the masses against themselves, whose most legitimate interests were completely ignored by the state. In the end, the position of royal power in France became extremely difficult: every time it defended old privileges, it met with liberal opposition, which grew stronger - and every time new interests were satisfied, conservative opposition arose, which became more and more sharp.

Royal absolutism was losing credit in the eyes of the clergy, nobility and bourgeoisie, among whom the idea was asserted that absolute royal power was a usurpation in relation to the rights of estates and corporations (point of view) or in relation to the rights of the people (point of view).

General course of events from 1789 to 1799

Background

After a number of unsuccessful attempts to get out of a difficult financial situation, he announced in December that in five years he would convene the government officials of France. When he became a minister for the second time, he insisted that they be convened in 1789. The government, however, did not have any specific program. At court they thought least of all about this, at the same time considering it necessary to make a concession to public opinion.

Estates General

National Assembly

The National Assembly was saved, and Louis XVI again conceded: he even went to Paris, where he appeared to the people, wearing a tricolor national cockade on his hat (red and blue are the colors of the Parisian coat of arms, white is the color of the royal banner).

In France itself, the storming of the Bastille served as a signal for a number of uprisings in the provinces. Peasants were especially worried, refusing to pay feudal duties, church tithes and state taxes. They attacked castles, destroyed them and burned them, and several nobles or their stewards were killed. When alarming news began to arrive at Versailles about what was happening in the provinces, two liberal nobles introduced to the assembly a proposal to abolish feudal rights, some free of charge, others by ransom. Then the famous night meeting took place (q.v.), in which deputies of the upper classes began vying to renounce their privileges, and the meeting adopted decrees abolishing class advantages, feudal rights, serfdom, church tithes, privileges of individual provinces, cities and corporations and declaring equality all before the law in the payment of public taxes and the right to hold civil, military and ecclesiastical offices.

Noble emigration began. The emigrants’ threats to the “rebels” and their alliance with foreigners supported and intensified the anxiety among the people; The court and all the nobles remaining in France began to suspect of complicity with the emigrants. Responsibility for much of what subsequently happened in France therefore falls on the emigrants.

Meanwhile, the national assembly took up the new structure of France. A few days before the destruction of the Bastille, it adopted the name of constituent, officially recognizing for itself the right to give the state new institutions. The first task of the meeting was to draw up a declaration of human and civil rights, which was demanded by many. The court still did not want to make concessions and did not lose hope for a military coup. Although Louis XVI, after July 14, promised not to gather troops to Paris, nevertheless, new regiments began to arrive at Versailles. At one officers' banquet, in the presence of the king and his family, the military tore off their tricolor cockades and trampled them under their feet, and the ladies of the court handed them cockades made of white ribbons. This caused the second Parisian uprising and a march of a crowd of one hundred thousand, in which there were especially many women, to Versailles: they broke into the palace, demanding the king move to Paris (-). Louis XVI was forced to fulfill this demand, and after the king and the national assembly moved to Paris, they moved their meetings there, which, as it later turned out, limited his freedom: the extremely excited population more than once dictated its will to representatives of the entire nation.

Political clubs were formed in Paris, which also discussed the issue of the future structure of France. One of these clubs, called the Jacobin club, began to play a particularly influential role, because it had many very popular deputies and many of its members enjoyed authority among the population of Paris. Subsequently, he began to open his branches in all the main cities of France. Extreme opinions began to dominate in the clubs, and they also took over the political press.

In the national assembly itself, not only were there no organized parties, but it even seemed shameful to belong to any “faction.” Nevertheless, several different political directions emerged in the assembly: some (the higher clergy and nobility) still dreamed of preserving the old order; others (Mounier, Lalli-Tollendal, Clermont-Tonnerre) considered it necessary to provide the king with only executive power and, preserving the primacy of the clergy and nobility, to divide the national assembly into an upper and lower house; still others imagined the future constitution with nothing other than one chamber (, Bailly, ); further, there were figures who wanted to give greater influence to the Parisian population and clubs (Duport, Barnave, the Lamet brothers), and future figures of the republic were already emerging (Gregoire, Pétion, Buzot), who, however, remained monarchists at that time.

Legislative Assembly

Immediately after the constituent assembly ceased to function, its place was taken by a legislative assembly, to which new and inexperienced people were elected. The right side of the meeting room was occupied by constitutional monarchists ( Feuillants); people without sharply defined views took middle places; the left side consisted of two parties - Girondins And Montagnards. The first of these two parties consisted of very capable people and included several brilliant speakers; its most prominent representatives were Vergniaud, and. The Girondins were challenged for influence over the assembly and the people by the Montagnards, whose main strength was in the Jacobin and other clubs. The most influential members of this party were people who were not part of the assembly: , . The rivalry between the Girondins and the Jacobins began in the very first months of the legislative assembly and became one of the main facts of the history of the revolution.

The Legislative Assembly decided to confiscate the property of emigrants, and punish disobedient priests with deprivation of civil rights, deportation, and even prison. Louis XVI did not want to approve the decrees of the assembly on emigrants and unsworn clergy, but this only aroused extreme discontent among the people against himself. The king was increasingly suspected of secret relations with foreign courts. The Girondins, in the assembly, in clubs, and in the press, argued for the need to respond to the defiant behavior of foreign governments with a “war of peoples against kings” and accused ministers of treason. Louis XVI resigned the ministry and appointed a new one from like-minded people of the Gironde. In the spring of the year, the new ministry insisted on declaring war on Austria, where at that time Francis II already reigned; Prussia also entered into an alliance with Austria. This was the beginning that had a great influence on the history of all of Europe.

Soon, however, Louis XVI resigned from the ministry, which caused a popular uprising in Paris (); Crowds of insurgents took possession of the royal palace and, surrounding Louis XVI, demanded that he approve the decrees on emigrants and priests and the return of the Girondin ministers. When the commander-in-chief of the allied Austro-Prussian army, the Duke of Brunswick, issued a manifesto in which he threatened the French with executions, the burning of houses, and the destruction of Paris, a new uprising broke out in the capital (), accompanied by the beating of the guards who guarded the royal palace. Louis XVI and his family found a safe haven in the legislative assembly, but the latter, in his presence, decided to remove him from power and take him into custody, and to convene an emergency meeting called national convention.

National Convention

The system of intimidation, or terror, received more and more development; the Girondins wanted to put an end to it, but sought to strengthen it, relying on the Jacobin club and the lower strata of the Parisian population (the so-called sans-culottes). The Montagnards were only looking for a reason to reprisal the Girondins. In the spring of the year, he fled abroad with the son of the Duke of Orleans (“Philippe Egalité”), whom he wanted, with the help of troops, to place on the French throne (he became king of France only as a result). This was blamed on the Girondins, since Dumouriez was considered their general. The external danger was complicated by internal strife: that same spring, a large popular uprising, led by priests and nobles, broke out in I (northwestern corner of France) against the convention. To save the fatherland, the convention ordered the recruitment of three hundred thousand people and gave the system of terror an entire organization. Executive power, with the most unlimited powers, was entrusted to the Committee of Public Safety, which sent its commissioners from among the members of the convention to the provinces. The main instrument of terror became the revolutionary court, which decided cases quickly and without formalities and sentenced people to death by guillotine, often on the basis of suspicion alone. At the instigation of the Montagnard party, at the end of May and beginning of June, crowds of people twice broke into the convention and demanded that the Girondins be expelled as traitors and brought before a revolutionary court. The Convention yielded to this demand and expelled the most prominent Girondins.

Some of them fled from Paris, others were arrested and tried by the revolutionary court. The terror intensified even more when a fan of the Girondins, a young girl, killed with a dagger, who was distinguished by the greatest bloodthirstiness, and uprisings broke out in Normandy and some large cities (in,), in which the fleeing Girondins also took part. This gave reason to accuse the Girondins of federalism, that is, in an effort to fragment France into several union republics, which would be especially dangerous in view of foreign invasion. The Jacobins, therefore, vigorously advocated a tightly centralized "one and indivisible republic." After the fall of the Girondins, many of whom were executed and some committed suicide, the Jacobin terrorists, led by Robespierre, became masters of the situation. France was governed by the Committee of Public Safety, which controlled the state police (committee of general security) and the convention commissioners in the provinces, who everywhere organized revolutionary committees from the Jacobins. Shortly before their fall, the Girondins drafted a new constitution; the Jacobins reworked it into the constitution of 1793, which was adopted by popular vote. The dominant party decided, however, not to introduce it until all enemies of the republic were eliminated.

After the liquidation of the Girondins, Robespierre's contradictions with Danton and the extreme terrorist came to the fore. In the spring of the year, first Hébert and him, and then Danton, were arrested, tried by a revolutionary court and executed. After these executions, Robespierre no longer had rivals.

One of his first measures was the establishment in France, by decree of the convention, of the veneration of the Supreme Being, according to the idea of “civil religion” by Rousseau. The new cult was solemnly announced during a ceremony arranged by Robespierre, who played the role of high priest of the “civil religion.”

The terror was intensifying: the revolutionary court received the right to try members of the convention itself without the latter’s permission. However, when Robespierre demanded new executions, without naming the names of those against whom he was preparing to act as an accuser, the majority of the terrorists themselves, frightened by this, overthrew Robespierre and his closest assistants. This event is known as the 9th Thermidor (). The next day, Robespierre was executed, and with him his main followers (, etc.).

Bibliographic index

General histories of the revolution- Thiers, Minier, Buchet and Roux (see below), Louis Blanc, Michelet, Quinet, Tocqueville, Chassin, Taine, Cheret, Sorel, Aulard, Jaurès, Laurent (much has been translated into Russian);

popular books by Carnot, Rambaud, Champion (“Esprit de la révolution fr.”, 1887), etc.;
Carlyle, "French revolution" (1837);
Stephens, "History of fr. rev.";
Wachsmuth, "Gesch. Frankreichs im Revolutionszeitalter" (1833-45);
Dahlmann, "Gesch. der fr. Rev." (1845); Arnd, idem (1851-52);
Sybel, "Gesch. der Revolutionszeit" (1853 et seq.);
Häusser, “Gesch. der fr. Rev." (1868);
L. Stein, "Geschichte der socialen Bewegung in Frankreich" (1850);
Blos, "Gesch. der fr. Rev."; in Russian - op. Lyubimov and M. Kovalevsky.
Historical sketches about the French Revolution. In memory of V.M. Dalina (on her 95th birthday) / Institute of General History of the Russian Academy of Sciences. M., 1998.

Periodicals, specially dedicated to the history of the French Revolution:

"Revue de la révolution", ed. Ch. d'Héricault et G. Bord (published 1883-87);
"La Révolution franç aise" (from 1881, and edited by Aulard from 1887).

Essays on the convening of the States General and about the orders of 1789. In addition to the works of Tocqueville, Chassin, Poncins, Cherest, Guerrier, Kareev and M. Kovalevsky, indicated in respectively. article, see

A. Brette, “Recueil de documents relatifs à la convocation des états généraux de 1789”;
Edme Champion, "La France d'après les cahiers de 1789";
N. Lyubimov, “The Collapse of the Monarchy in France” (cahiers’ demands regarding public education);
A. Onou, “Orders of the Third Estate in France in 1789” (“Journal of the Ministry of Public Education”, 1898-1902);
his, “La comparution des paroisses en 1789”;
Richard, “La bibliographie des cahiers de doléances de 1789”;
V. Khoroshun, “Noble orders in France in 1789.”

Essays on individual episodes French Revolution.

E. et J. de Goncourt, “Histoire de la société française sous la révolution”;
Brette, “Le serment du Jeu de paume”;
Bord, "La prise de la Bastille";
Tournel, "Les hommes du 14 juillet";
Lecocq, "La prise de la Bastille; Flammermont, "Relations inédites sur la prise de la Bastille";
Pitra, "La journée du juillet de 1789"; N. Lyubimov, “The first days of Φ. revolutions according to unpublished sources";
Lambert, “Les fédérations et la fête du 14 juillet 1790”;
J. Pollio et A. Marcel, “Le bataillon du 10 août”;
Dubost, "Danton et les massacres de septembre";
Beaucourt, “Captivité et derniers moments de Louis XVI”;
Ch. Vatel, "Charlotte Corday et les girondins";
Robinet, "Le procès des dantonistes";
Wallon, "Le fédéralisme";
Gaulot, “Un complot sous la terreur”;
Aulard, “Le culte de la raison et le culte de l’Etre Suprème” (presentation in volume VI of the “Historical Review”);
Claretie, "Les derniers montagnards"
D'Héricault, "La révolution de thermidor";
Thurau-Dangin, “Royalistes et républicains”;
Victor Pierre, “La terreur sous le Directoire”;
his, “Le rétablissement du culte catholique en France en 1795 et 1802”;
H. Welschinger, “Le directoire et le concile national de 1797”;
Victor Advielles, "Histoire de Baboeuf et du babouvisme";
B. Lavigue, “Histoire de l’insurrection royaliste de l’an VII”;
Félix Rocquain, “L"état de la France au 18 brumaire";
Paschal Grousset, “Les origines d'une dynastie; le coup d"état de brumaire de l'an VIII".

Social significance of the French Revolution.

Lorenz Stein, “Geschichte der socialen Bewegung in Frankreich”;
Eugen Jäger, “Die francösische Revolution und die sociale Bewegung”;
Lichtenberger, “Le socialisme et la révol. fr.";
Kautsky, “Die Klassengegensätze von 1789” and others.

Essays on the history of legislation and institutions of the French Revolution.

Chalamel, “Histoire de la liberté de la presse en France depuis 1789”;
Doniol, “La féodalité et la révolution française”;
Ferneuil, “Les principes de 1789 et la science sociale”;
Gomel, “Histoire financière de la constituante”;
A. Desjardins, “Les cahiers de 1789 et la législation criminelle”;
Gazier, “Etudes sur l’histoire religieuse de la révolution française”;
Laferrière, “Histoire des principles, des institutions et des lois pendant la révolution française”; Lavergne, "Economie rurale en France depuis 1789";
Lavasseur, “Histoire de classes ouvrières en France depuis 1789”;
B. Minzes, “Die Nationalgüterveräusserung der franz. Revolution";
Rambaud, "Histoire de la civilization contemporaine";
Richter, “Staats- und Gesellschaftsrecht der francösischen Revolution”;
Sciout, “Histoire de la constitution civile du clergé”;
Valette, “De la durée persistante de l’ensemble du droit civil française pendant et après la révolution”;
Vuitry, “Etudes sur le régime financier de la France sous la révolution”;
Sagnac, “Législation civile de la révol. franc."

Links

The French Revolution. Articles from encyclopedias, chronicles of the revolution, articles and publications. Biographies of political figures. Cards.

When writing this article, material from (1890-1907) was used. The great French bourgeois revolution of 1789-1794, in contrast to the more local bourgeois revolutions in England and Holland that happened almost a century and a half earlier, shook the foundations of the world, because it occurred in the largest, most authoritative and most culturally developed state of Christian civilization and contributed to the final victory of the new socio-economic formation - capitalism - over the old - feudalism

The Great French Revolution was truly popular. All layers of French society took part in it: the urban mob, artisans, intelligentsia, petty and big bourgeoisie, peasants

Causes of the Great French Bourgeois Revolution

Objective

The discrepancy between the capitalist way of farming and the feudal order
- internal customs duties
- guild organization of handicrafts
- variety of systems of weights and measures: each province has its own
- restrictions on the purchase and sale of land
- protectionism
- arbitrariness of the authorities
obscurantism of the church

Subjective

flashy luxury of the aristocracy against the backdrop of popular poverty
unresolved peasant question
loss of authority by royal power:
- uncharismatic king
- extravagance, stupidity of the queen
- "The Case of the Necklace"
incompetent personnel policy: capable administrators Turgot, Necker, Calonne were not allowed to implement economic reforms
unsuccessful trade agreement with England in 1786, which reduced duties on English goods, and thereby caused
production decline and unemployment in France
crop failure in 1788, which led to higher food prices
an example of the revolutionary struggle for the independence of the North American states and the “Declaration of Independence” proclaimed by the US Congress
the activities of the so-called “enlightenment philosophers”, whose philosophical, economic treatises, works of art, pamphlets denounced the existing order and called for their change
- Montesquieu (1689-1755)
- Voltaire (1694-1778)
- Quesnay (1694-1774)
- Diderot (1713-1784)
- Helvetius (1715-1771)
- La Mettrie (1709-1751)
- Rousseau (1712-1778)
- Mably (1709-1785)
- Raynal (1713-1796)

In 1789, Abbé Sieyès’s pamphlet “What is the Third Estate?” was published. To the question “What is the third estate?” he answered “Everything” to the question “What has it been so far in political life?” The answer was “Nothing.” “What does it require?” - “Become at least something.” The author argued that the third estate is “the whole nation, but in chains and under oppression.” The brochure had a huge resonance among the people

At the end of the 1780s, France's economic situation worsened. The public debt reached 4.5 billion livres. It became impossible to obtain new loans. In 1787, the king convened a meeting of the so-called notables - appointed representatives of the three classes - to approve new taxes, including on the aristocracy. But the notables rejected the proposal. The king had to convene the Estates General, the highest estate-representative institution that had not met since 1614.

The course of the Great French Revolution. Briefly

1789, May 5 - Convocation of the Estates General
1789, June 17 - Transformation of the Estates General into the National Constituent Assembly
1789, July 14 - Parisian uprising. Storming of the Bastille
1789, August 4 - Elimination of absolutism. Establishment of a constitutional monarchy
1789, August 24 - Approval by the Constituent Assembly of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
Article 1 of the Declaration stated: “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social differences can be based on common benefits." Article 2 stated: “The purpose of every political union is the preservation of the natural and inalienable rights of man. These rights are: freedom, property, security and resistance to oppression.” Article 3 declared that the source of all sovereign power “situated in the nation.” Article 6 stated that “the law is the expression of the general will,” that all citizens are equal before the law and “shall be equally admitted to all occupations, places and public offices.” Articles 7, 9, 10, 11 asserted freedom of conscience, freedom of speech and press. Article 15 proclaimed the right of citizens to demand an account from every official. The last article 17 declared that “property is an inviolable and sacred right”
1789, June - Creation of the Jacobin Club and in 1790 - the Cordillera Club
1791, September 3 - Approval by the king of the constitution developed back in 1789
1791, October 1 - Opening of the National Legislative Assembly
1789-1792 - Unrest throughout the country: peasant uprisings, riots, counter-revolutionary conspiracies - some were not satisfied with the half-heartedness of the reforms, others were dissatisfied with their radicalism. Threat of intervention by European monarchies seeking to return the throne to the Bourbons
1792, February 7 - Creation of the anti-French coalition of Austria and Prussia.
1792, July 11 - Announcement by the Legislative Assembly “The Fatherland is in danger.” The beginning of revolutionary wars
1792, August 10 - Another Parisian popular uprising. Overthrow of the monarchy. "Marseillaise"

“La Marseillaise,” which became the anthem first of the Great French Revolution and then of France, was written in Strasbourg in June 1791 by officer Rouget de Lille. It was called "Song of the Army of the Rhine." It was brought to Paris by a battalion of federates from Marseilles, which took part in the overthrow of the monarchy.

1792, August 25 - The Legislative Assembly partially abolished feudal duties
1892, September 20 - victory of revolutionary troops over the Prussian army at Valmy
1792, September 22 - Introduction of a new calendar. 1789 was called the First Year of Freedom. The Republican calendar officially began to operate on the 1st of Vandémeer of the Second Year of Freedom
1792, October 6 - victory of the revolutionary troops over the Austrian army, annexation of Savoy, Nice, the left bank of the Rhine, part of Belgium to France
1792, September 22 - France declared a republic

Slogans of the Great French Revolution

- Freedom equality Brotherhood
- Peace to huts - war to palaces

1793, January 21 - execution of King Louis XVI
1793, February 1 - declaration of war on England
1793, spring - defeats of French troops in battles with coalition armies, deterioration of the economic situation of the people
1793, April 6 - the Committee of Public Safety was created, headed by Danton
1793, June 2 - the Jacobins came to power
1793, June 24 - the Jacobin Convention adopted a new constitution preceded by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

Equality, freedom, security, and property were declared natural human rights. Freedom of speech, press, general education, religious worship, the creation of popular societies, inviolability of private property, and freedom of enterprise were provided for. The will of the people was declared the source of supreme power. The right of the people to rebel against oppression was proclaimed

1793, July 17 - Decree on the complete and free abolition of all feudal payments and duties
1793, July 27 - Robespierre joined the Committee of Public Safety re-elected on June 10
1793, end of July - Invasion of anti-French coalition troops into France, occupation of Toulon by the British
1793, August 1 - Introduction of the metric system of measures
1793, August 23 - Mobilization. All single men from 18 to 25 years old were subject to conscription.
1793, September 5 - Huge demonstration of the Parisian lower classes demanding “put terror on the agenda”
1793, September 17 - The law on suspicious persons was adopted, according to which all persons who did not have a civil certificate (aristocrats, relatives of emigrants and others) were subject to arrest.
1793, September 22 - The Republican calendar officially came into effect
1793, October 10 - The Committee of Public Safety demanded emergency powers and proclaimed itself a revolutionary government.
1793, October 16 - Execution of Queen Marie Antoinette
1793, December 18 - decree on compulsory free primary education
1793, December 18 - Revolutionary troops liberated Toulon. Napoleon took part in the battle as an artillery captain.
1794, January - The territory of France is cleared of coalition troops
1794, May 7 - Decree on the “New Cult”, the introduction of a new moral cult of the “Supreme Being”
1794, June 10 - Decree on simplification of legal proceedings, abolition of preliminary interrogation, abolition of defense in cases of the revolutionary tribunal.

1794, July 27 - Thermidorian coup, which returned the big bourgeoisie to power. The French Revolution ended
1794, July 28 - Jacobin leaders Robespierre, Saint-Just, Couthon, and 22 more people became victims of terror
1794, July 29 - 70 more members of the Paris Commune were executed

Significance of the Great French Revolution

Accelerated the development of capitalism and the collapse of feudalism
Influenced the entire subsequent struggle of peoples for the principles of democracy
Became a lesson, example and warning to life transformers in other countries
Contributed to the development of national self-awareness of European peoples

History of modern times. Cheat sheet Alekseev Viktor Sergeevich

28. RESULTS OF THE GREAT FRENCH REVOLUTION

French Revolution 1789–1794 was truly a Great Revolution. She put an end to the feudal system, the remnants of the Middle Ages, and paved the way for the development of a new, progressive system for that time - capitalism. The Great French Revolution also put an end to the monarchy and established a new order that promoted the development of both the economy and social thought, art, science - all areas of the material and spiritual life of French society.

Over the next century, revolutionary movements in Europe and America used the experience of the Great French Revolution - its slogans about freedom, equality and fraternity, its practical actions to establish bourgeois democracy and order.

The French Revolution occurred almost a century and a half later than the English Revolution. If in England the bourgeoisie opposed royal power in alliance with the new nobility, then in France it opposed the king and the nobility, relying on the broad plebeian masses of the city and peasantry.

The participation of the popular masses left its mark on all the outstanding events of the revolution; It was at their request and under their direct pressure that the most important revolutionary acts and measures were carried out. The revolution developed along an ascending line, and it achieved its most daring and effective results in 1793 during the Jacobin dictatorship, when the influence of the popular masses was strongest. Based on this experience, the founder of scientific communism, K. Marx, in the middle of the 19th century, developed a theory about the need for the dictatorship of the proletariat when carrying out a socialist revolution.

The bourgeois-democratic content of the Great French Revolution consisted in the “cleansing” of the social relations (orders, institutions) of the country from the Middle Ages, from serfdom, from feudalism. The successes of this revolution led to the rapid growth of capitalism and at the same time contributed to the formation and growth of the proletariat. The French Revolution, despite its enormous progressive role and revolutionary influence on most countries and peoples, was bourgeois-limited in its results. It did not abolish the exploitation of man by man, but only replaced feudal forms of oppression with capitalist ones.

Under the influence of the events of the Great French Revolution, the Third Republic in the 19th century. made the Marseillaise its anthem, and the tricolor flag its banner. At the Sorbonne (Paris University), a course on the French Revolution was introduced, a special scientific journal was founded, and the publication of archival documents from the times of the revolution of 1789–1794 began with state subsidies. From that time on, researchers began to rely on a wide range of scientific material, and it was no coincidence that it arose in the 80s. XIX century The school of history of the French Revolution was called “scientific”. The first work in France that paid due attention to the socio-economic history of the Great French Revolution was “Socialist History” by J. Jaurès. This book was based on the use of vast archival material on the revolution of 1789–1794. and was written by J. Jaurès for ordinary workers and peasants.

The Great French Revolution “gave birth” to a great figure, the future Emperor of France - Napoleon Bonaparte, the creator of a huge empire at the beginning of the 19th century. in Europe. Napoleon's comrades were people from among the common people who had gone through the harsh school of the revolution of 1789–1794, and they were his support in his advancement to power. Thus, the Great French Revolution was an important and main prerequisite for the creation of the Napoleonic Empire.

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