Literature of Russian abroad, writers and works. Three waves of Russian emigrant literature

After the October Revolution of 1917, more than two million Russian people left Russia. Mass emigration from Russia began in 1919-1920. It was during these years that the concept of Russian abroad and the great Russian emigration appeared, since, in fact, the first wave of Russian emigration managed to preserve “both the spirit and the letter” of pre-revolutionary Russian society and Russian culture. Emigration, according to the poetess Z. Gippius, “represented Russia in miniature.” Russian emigration is representatives of all classes of the former Russian Empire: nobility, merchants, intelligentsia, clergy, military personnel, workers, peasants. But the culture of the Russian diaspora was created mainly by people from the creative elite. Many of them were expelled from Soviet Russia in the early 20s. Many emigrated on their own, fleeing the “Red Terror.” Prominent writers, scientists, philosophers, artists, musicians, and actors ended up in exile. Among them are world-famous composers S. Rachmaninov and I. Stravinsky, singer F. Chaliapin, actor M. Chekhov, artists I. Repin, N. Roerich, K. Korovin, chess player A. Alekhine, thinkers N. Berdyaev, S. Bulgakov, S. Frank, L. Shestov and many others. Russian literature split. Symbolists D. Merezhkovsky and Z. Gippius, K. Balmont, V. Ivanov ended up abroad. Among the futurists, the most important figure outside Russia was I. Severyanin, who lived in Estonia. The most prominent prose writers I. Bunin, A. Remizov, I. Shmelev, B. Zaitsev left Russia. After living abroad for some time, A. Bely, A. Tolstoy, M. Gorky, M. Tsvetaeva returned. L. Andreev lived out his last years at a dacha in Finland. The “Russian dispersion” spread throughout the world, but several centers played a particularly important role in the formation and development of Russian foreign literature and culture: Berlin, Paris, Prague, Belgrade, Warsaw, Sofia, Constantinople, “Russian China” (Harbin and Shanghai) and "Russian America". The Berlin and Parisian Russian diasporas turned out to be decisive for the formation of the Russian diaspora.

At the beginning of the 20s, Berlin was the capital of Russian emigration. A regional feature of the literary life of Berlin can be considered the intensity of cultural contacts between emigration and the metropolis, accompanied by an unprecedented publishing boom (from 1918 to 1928, 188 Russian publishing houses were registered in Germany). In the literary circles of Berlin there was

The idea of “building bridges” between the two streams of Russian literature is popular. This task was set for themselves by the magazines “Russian Book”, “Epic” (edited by A. Bely), “Conversation” (prepared by Gorky, Khodasevich and Bely for readers of Soviet Russia). As well as the newspaper “Days” (1922-1925), where the prose of I. Bunin, Z. Gippius, B. Zaitsev, A. Remizova, I. Shmeleva and others was published, and “Rul”, with which the literary fate is largely connected V. Nabokov.

By the mid-20s, ideas about the future of Russia among the emigrants had changed. If from the beginning the emigrants hoped for changes in Russia, then later it became obvious that the emigrantsI J /'tion - this is for a long time, if not forever. In the mid-20s, an economic crisis occurred in Germany, which led to the departure of Russian writers to other countries. The literary life of the Russian diaspora began to move to Paris, which became, before its occupation by the Nazis, the new capital of Russian culture. One of the most famous in the literature of the Russian diaspora was the Parisian magazine “Modern Notes” (1920-1940), which was distinguished by its breadth of political views and aesthetic tolerance. “Walking in Torment” by A. Tolstoy, “The Life of Arsenyev” by I. Bunin, novels by M, Adlanov, works by B. Zaitsev, M. Osorgin, D. Merezhkovsky, A. Remizov, I. Shmelev, A. Bely were published here. Of the master poets, M. Tsvetaeva, G. Ivanov, Z. Gippius, V. Khodasevich, K. Balmont regularly published in the magazine. The pride of “Modern Notes” was the literary and philosophical section, where N. Berdyaev, N. Lossky, F. Stepun presented articles. The Sunday readings at the Merezhkovskys’ apartment in Paris were also a unifying center for the Russian emigration. Here N. Teffi, V. Khodasevich, I. Bunin, N. Berdyaev, L. Shestov, B. Poplavsky and others gave readings of poetry and reports on Russian culture. In 1927, the literary association “Green Lamp” arose in Paris. , whose main goal was to maintain “light and hope” in emigrant circles. Literary masters, the “old men,” united in the “Union of Writers and Journalists.” And emigrant youth created the “Union of Young Writers and Poets.”

The life and literature of the emigration did not contribute to the artist’s harmonious worldview. There was a need to create new means of expression adequate to the modern tragic era. It was in Paris that the “artistic multi-style” was formed, which was called the “Parisian note” - a metaphorical state of soul of artists, in whichrum combined “solemn, bright and hopeless notes”, a feeling of doom and a keen sense of life collided.

The overwhelming majority of writers of the first wave of Russian emigration considered themselves the guardians and continuers of the traditions of Russian national culture, the humanistic aspirations of A. Pushkin, L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky. In their works they preached the priority of the individual over the state, the idea of conciliarity, the merging of man with the world, society, nature, and space. At the same time, many of them were heirs to the literature of the Silver Age, which expressed the tragedy of the destruction of world harmony

The running theme of all Russian literature abroad is Russia and the longing for it. Bunin's "Life of Arsenyev" (1927-1952) is permeated with memories of the bright past. With nostalgic sadness and at the same time warmth, the writer draws Russian nature. Its simplest manifestations are full of lyricism and poetry: from afar, the past life seems bright and kind to the writer. His main thoughts in this work are about the feeling of the unity of man with his family, his ancestors, as a guarantee of “continuity of blood and nature.” In Ivan Bunin’s journalistic book-diary “Cursed Days” (1928), in the description of lost pre-revolutionary Russia, phrases lengthen, become slow-moving, and in stories about revolutionary events, on the contrary, short and torn. The stylistically harmonious vocabulary of the old Russian language is contrasted with the rude and tongue-tied speech of the new time. The revolution is shown here as the destruction of culture, chaos.

As D. Merezhkovsky believed, Russian emigrants were “not in exile, but in exile.” “If my Russia ends, I die,” said Z. Gippius. They were afraid of the “Coming Ham” (the future Soviet man who had lost his cultural roots) and saw their main goal in the first years of emigration as telling the West about the bloody horror of the Russian revolution. The Notebooks of D. Merezhkovsky became an angry denunciation of the destructive power of the revolution. As a symbolist, he looked for a prophetic meaning behind real events and facts and tried to discern divine intent. The poetic heritage of 3. Gippius is small, but it left a deep mark on Russian literature. It showed not only the best ideas of the Silver Age, but also innovation in form. Her poetry is imbued with the love-hate of exiles for their homeland. Hope and fear, contradictions, “split” of the inner world of man and the idea of Christian love - these are the integral properties of the characters in her poetry (“Pro-
Member of graphic works about a beautiful, happy childhood (“BoTbmolye”, “The Summer of the Lord” by Y. Shmelev, the trilogy “Gleb’s Travels” by B. Zaitsev, “Nikita’s Childhood, or a Tale of Many Excellent Things” by A. Tolstoy). And the catastrophic and ugly present, the new Russia, is described, for example, in I. Shmelev’s masterpiece story “About an Old Woman” (1925) as a punishment for the destruction of what was “reliable from time immemorial,” for unrest. Ivan Shmelev (1873-1950), who largely continues the traditions of F. Dostoevsky, is also characterized by the translation of everyday text into an existential, philosophically generalized plane. The plot of the road in this story allows the writer to give an epic picture - the life of a righteous woman, an eternal worker, has been destroyed - and everyone suffers

The older generation of Russian writers has retained an attachment to the neorealism of the turn of the century, to the pure Russian word. Younger artists were looking for a “golden aesthetic mean.” Thus, V. Khodasevich (1886-1939) follows the classical traditions of Derzhavin, Tyutchev, Annensky. With the help of reminiscences, the poet restores what is long gone, but dear (“Through the wild voice of catastrophes”, “Tears of Rachel”, the poem “John Bottom”, the book of poems “European Night”). Such fidelity to Russian classics expressed the need to preserve the great Russian language. But pushing away from the literature of the 19th century while retaining all the best was also inevitable - life and literature were changing rapidly. Many old poets understood this.of our generation." V. Khodasevich also tried, in part, to convey in a new way the unpoeticism of emigrant reality through rhythmic disharmony (lack of rhymes, multi- and multi-foot iambic). M. Tsvetaeva, echoing the innovation of Mayakovsky, created poems based on the style of folk songs and colloquial speech (“Lane Streets,” “Well done”), But above all, the young generation of writers, formed in emigration, was carried away by innovative searches: V. Nabokov, B. Poplavsky, G. Gazdanov and others. V. Nabokov, for example, gravitated towards Western modernism. In the works of B. Poplavsky and G. Gazdanov, researchers discover surreal tendencies.The genre of the historical novel, as well as the biographical novel, is becoming widespread - especially in the works of M. Aldanov. But the most common theme of literary abroad is the life of the emigration itself. Everyday prose is gaining popularity, typical representatives of which are Irina Odoevtseva (1895-1990) with her memoirs “On the Banks of the Seine” and novels from emigrant life, and Nina Berberova (1901-1993). The everyday prose of A. Averchenko and Teffi was distinguished by a combination of drama and comedy, lyricism and humor.

The poetry of Boris Poplavsky (1903-1935) is a reflection of the continuous aesthetic and philosophical quest of the “unnoticed generation” of Russian emigration. This is the poetry of questions and guesses, not answers and solutions. His surreal images (“sharks of trams”, “laughing engines”, “the face of fate covered with freckles of sadness”) express an invariably tragic attitude. Mystical analogies convey the “horror of the subconscious”, which is not always amenable to rational interpretation (the poem “Black Madonna”, books of poems “Flags” (1931), “Airship of an unknown direction” (1935), “Snow Hour” (1936)).

Gaito Gazdanov (1903-1971) also wrote prose works of a non-classical type, without plots, with a mosaic composition, where parts of the text are connected according to the associative principle (“Evening at Claire’s” (1929)). G. Gazdanov’s favorite themes are the search for the meaning of life, the conflict between the present and memory, the illusory nature of dreams, the absurdity of existence. The emphasis on the inner world of the characters determines the impressionistic composition of his works, the “stream of consciousness” style.

The question of the degree of unity of Russian culture - the metropolis and abroad - still remains relevant. Today, when almost all previously banned emigrant works have already been published in the authors’ homeland, it is clear that Soviet and Russian emigrant literature are in many ways consonant and even complement each other. If Soviet writers managed to show the active side of the Russian character, then existential truths, the search for God, and the individualistic aspirations of human nature were forbidden topics for them. It was these questions that were developed mainly by artists from the Russian diaspora. The playful, laughter principle, combined with experiments in the field of artistic form and violenceessentially “removed” from Soviet literature (OBERIUTY, B. Pilnyak, I. Babel, A. Kruchenykh, Y. Olesha), was picked up by A. Remizov (1877-1957), the only successor to the tradition of ancient Russian laughter culture, folk word play, literary mischief by A. Pushkin and V. Khlebnikov (chronicle novel “Whirlwind Russia” (1927)). Another advantage of the “literature of dispersion” was that, unlike the official Soviet one, it developed in the context of world literature. The work of young writers from abroad was influenced by M. Proust and D. Joyce, then almost unknown in the USSR. In turn, V. Nabokov, who wrote in both Russian and English, had a huge influence on world and American literature.

Preview:

Lesson topic: Russian abroad. Russian literature and literature of Russian abroad.

Names and works returned to Russian literature

Lesson objectives:

1. Introduce students to one of the most dramatic pages in the history of the Fatherland.

2. Help students understand the reasons and meaning of emigration, its impact on the development of Russian and foreign culture.

3. Develop students’ intelligence, replenish their active vocabulary, develop the ability to logically and consistently present educational material.

4. Using examples from the biographies and destinies of cultural figures and their works, instill in students love for their homeland, moral culture, and aesthetic taste.

Equipment: epidiascope, magnetic board, tape recorder (or multimedia projector), portraits of F. I. Chaliapin, I. Bunin, M. Tsvetaeva, S. Rachmaninov, K. Balmont, reproductions from paintings by N. Roerich, music (“Polonaise” by M. Oginsky , romances).

Lesson type: integrated lesson.

Interdisciplinary connections:literature, history, aesthetics.

Methodological goal of the lesson:active forms of training and education of students based on the integrated use of didactic and technical means, advanced task techniques.

During the classes

1. Organizational moment.

P. Updating of reference knowledge.

1. What do you think is the main content of the pre-October period of our history?

2. What do you think is the main content of the Soviet period of our history?

3. What moral lessons does the Russian history of the 20th century teach us?

III. Learning new material.

“Polonaise” by M. Oginsky sounds.

How many of you know the title of this work? (Farewell to the Motherland). It was not by chance that I chose this music, because today we will talk about the Motherland and people who were forced for one reason or another to leave their Motherland - Russian emigrants.

Various motives prompted them to do this: political, economic, religious, etc. Today, the Russian diaspora appears before us in all its diversity. This is our common drama and tragedy, not fully realized and revealed.

Many people fled from Russia in different eras - Prince Kurbsky and the writer A. Herzen, Doukhobors, schismatics, enemies of tsarism - Narodnaya Volya and Social Democrats. However, the turning point that changed the meaning of the previous concept of “emigration” was October 1917.

The purpose of our lesson: to understand and feel the drama of human destinies, to understand the reasons and meaning of emigration, its influence on the development of Russian and foreign culture

Students write down the topic of the lesson and the epigraph:

You are in my heart, Russia!

You are the goal and the footstool,

You are in the murmur of blood, in the confusion of dreams!

And should I get lost in this age of roadlessness?

You still shine for me...

V.Nabokov.

1). The reasons for the emergence of the “first wave” of Russian emigration.

The disasters of the First World War, the shocks of two revolutions, finally, the troubled time of intervention, the Civil War, the “Red” and “White” terrors, famine, rampant crime - all this became the main reasons that hundreds of thousands of Russian citizens were forced to leave their homeland. The mass exodus of refugees began in early 1919 and reached its peak in 1920, when the troops of Denikin and Wrangel left Novorossiysk and Crimea. The fact that the Bolsheviks not only did not interfere with the emigration process, but also practiced forced repatriation themselves, also played a role. Thus, more than 250 thousand people were officially expelled from the country alone: one can recall the infamous “philosophical ship”, on which about 300 Russian thinkers were expelled in 1922. By the mid-20s. In connection with the “Iron Curtain” policy established by the Bolsheviks, the flow of emigrants is drying up: many Russian citizens are trying in vain to obtain permission to leave, but instead of expulsion, the authorities are increasingly practicing the extermination of dissidents or sending them to concentration camps. Almost the last of the Russian writers who managed to leave the country legally, E. Zamyatin, after long ordeals and written appeals to Stalin, obtained permission to leave in 1931. In total, according to the League of Nations, as a result of the October Revolution and the events that followed it, 1 million 600 thousand Russian citizens left the country and registered as refugees; emigrant organizations put the figure at 2 million. There was also a reverse process - before the war, no more than 182 thousand Russians returned to their homeland, among them were such famous writers as A. Bely (1923), A. N. Tolstoy (1923), M. Gorky (1928, finally in 1933), I. Ehrenburg (1934), A. Kuprin (1937), M. Tsvetaeva (1939) and some others.

2). Composition of the Russian emigration.

The “first wave” of Russian emigration was mainly made up of people of a fairly high educational, cultural, professional and material level: first of all, these were Russian white officers, professors, bureaucrats, people employed in non-productive spheres (lawyers, doctors, teachers, entrepreneurs, etc.) . p.), including representatives of creative professions - writers, musicians, actors, artists, leaders of parties opposition to the Bolsheviks. Therefore, it is not surprising that a powerful culture was created (or, one might say, preserved and continued) in exile. Among those who make up the galaxy of major figures in world culture are our compatriots who lived far from Russia: singer F. I. Chaliapin; composers S. Rachmaninov, A. Glazunov, writers and poets I. Bunin, A. Kuprin, M. Tsvetaeva, K. Balmont, ballerina A. Pavlova, artist K. Korovin. (Their portraits are shown through the epidiascope.) Among the biographies of famous compatriots who lived abroad, the unusual life story of the famous artist N. Roerich stands out. (Biographical information, through an epidiascope - a portrait, reproductions of his paintings.)

If you take a good look at the reproductions of his paintings, you will feel the great miracle of harmony between the human soul and the cosmos.

The pride of Russia, the embodiment of the best features of the Russian people, their deep talent is F. I. Chaliapin (portrait). A story about a singer (audio recordings).

Music by S. Rachmaninov and a portrait of the composer are playing. A story about him.

Tragic was the fate of I. Bunin, who lived with memories of that Russia that was close and understandable to him (portrait, story about the poet, poem “Motherland”).

Living most of their lives abroad, many poets were never able to find peace and solitude there. The homeland was always constant, before my eyes. Their poems, letters, and memoirs speak about this. The name of Konstantin Balmont was widely known in the literary world (portrait, short story about the poet, poem “In the Dead Days”). The Russian diaspora had its own network of higher educational institutions (Russian University, Technical Institute, Agricultural School in Prague).

In the early 20s, in Prague, Belgrade, and Paris, using state financial support, associations of Russian zemstvo and city leaders (Zemgor) arose. In Paris, Zemgor was headed by Prince G. Lvov, the former prime minister of the Provisional Government. With the help of Zemgor, Russian schools were created similar to the old gymnasiums. The Russian gymnasium in Paris was created in the fall of 1920 and existed for 40 years. Russian emigration organized various scientific societies: engineers, chemists, etc. Igor Sikorsky made a great contribution to science.

3). “Second wave” of Russian emigration: reasons, composition.

The “second wave” of emigration was caused by the events of the Second World War. The main stream of emigrants, according to one of the leading researchers of this period, V. Agenosov, “...citizens of the Baltic republics who did not want to recognize Soviet power; prisoners of war who rightly feared returning home; young people taken from Nazi-occupied territory to Germany as cheap labor; finally... people who consciously took the path of fighting Soviet totalitarianism.” Data on the number of emigrants of the “second wave” differ significantly, since before the 1951 convention, which actually marked the beginning of the Cold War, representatives of the Soviet Repatriation Commission traveled freely throughout Europe and where, by persuasion, and where by force, they forced emigrants to return to their homeland, and many, fearing repatriation, hid their true citizenship, nationality and name. Therefore, according to the League of Nations, only 130 thousand people registered as official refugees, while according to other data, in Europe alone by 1952 there were 452 thousand, and in the USA by 1950 there were 548 thousand displaced persons from the USSR. Basically, the “second wave” emigrants concentrated in Germany and (the majority) in the USA.

4). Main representatives. Literary fate.

The composition of the “second wave” of emigrants, in contrast to the “first”, was more random: among the displaced people there were many people who were culturally unenlightened, and this was the main reason why the “second wave” did not become as powerful a cultural phenomenon as the “first” " The biggest names among the writers of this period are the poets and prose writers Ivan Burkin, Ivan Elagin, Yuri Ivask, Dmitry Klenovsky, Vladimir Maksimov, Nikolai Morshen, Vladimir Markov, Nikolai Narokov, Leonid Rzhevsky, Boris Filippov and Boris Shiryaev. In 1946, the “magazine of literature, art and social thought” “Grani” began to be published, and in Paris it was resumed as the magazine “Renaissance” (1949-1974), in New York since 1942 and still exists “New Journal "(by the end of 1999, more than 214 issues were published).

5). “The third wave” of Russian emigration: reasons, composition.

Disappointment of the “sixties” in the short duration of the “thaw”, the onset of “stagnation” in the social and cultural life of the country; a change in the policy of the Soviet state, again, as in the era of Lenin’s reign, which replaced the physical elimination or isolation of those undesirable with their deportation abroad; Western support for the dissident movement in the USSR caused by the Cold War; Israel's policy of “reunification” of Jews - all this became the reasons for the emergence of the 2nd half of the 60s. "third wave" of Russian emigration. The first official emigrant was the writer Valery Tarsis (1966); in the 70s the process of departure became widespread. The main countries receiving Russian emigrants were the USA, Israel and Germany, and to a lesser extent France, Canada and Australia.

6). The main representatives of the literature of the “third wave” of Russian emigration.

Vasily Aksenov (1980), Joseph Brodsky (1972, exiled), Vladimir Voinovich (1980), Alexander Galich (1974), Anatoly Gladilin (1976), Friedrich Gorenstein (1980), Sergei Dovlatov (1978), Alexander Zinoviev (1977), Naum Korzhavin (1973), Yuri Kublanovsky (1982), Eduard Limonov (1983), Vladimir Maksimov (1974), Viktor Nekrasov (1974), Sasha Sokolov (1975), Andrei Sinyavsky (1973), Alexander Solzhenitsyn (1974, exiled), Boris Khazanov (1982) and many others. etc.

7). Features of the literature of the “third wave” of Russian emigration.

There is a belief that the best works of “third wave” emigrant writers published abroad were, at least in general terms, written in their homeland. Unlike the authors of the “first wave,” these writers mainly developed as creative individuals in the context and logic of Soviet literature and culture (it is not without reason that some critics find features of the poetics of socialist realism in A. Solzhenitsyn’s prose), although they were also influenced by foreign literature. literature, primarily works published during the Khrushchev “thaw” (E. M. Remarque, E. Hemingway, F. Kafka), as well as works of the Silver Age and the 20s, gradually published in the 60-70s . or those who went to “samizdat” (A. Akhmatova, M. Tsvetaeva, O. Mandelstam, B. Pasternak, I. Babel, B. Pilnyak, D. Kharms and many others). In fact, the works of the authors of the “third wave” of emigration are distinguished only by a greater degree of political courage and aesthetic emancipation in comparison with the works that found an official path to the reader in the USSR.

8). The literary process of the “third wave” of Russian emigration.

In exile, many writers were forced to combine literary activity with journalism, working on radio stations broadcasting in the USSR (Voice of America, Svoboda, Deutsche Welle, BBC, etc.), as well as in emigrant periodicals - magazines "Grani" (Frankfurt am Main, Germany), "Echo" (Paris), "Time and We" (Tel Aviv, New York, Paris), "Continent" (Munich), "Vestnik RHD" ( Paris, Munich, New York), “Syntax” (Paris), “New Journal” (New York), etc. The same publications published works of art by emigrant authors. There were several fairly large Russian publishing houses that published both writers from Russia abroad and disgraced authors who remained in their homeland. The most famous of these publishing houses: named after A.P. Chekhov (New York), YMCA-Press (Paris), Posev (Frankfurt am Main). However, according to the testimony of many exiles, the literary environment of the Russian diaspora was torn apart by contradictions: there was a serious struggle between representatives of either the real and national conservative camps, rivalry over funding, many emigrants were forced to observe “political correctness” in relation to countries and organizations, their sheltered. In a word, there was much less unity among the emigrant writers of the “third wave” than among their predecessors. With the fall of the Iron Curtain and the beginning of liberalization of the Russian economy and politics, Russian emigration lost its political significance: some (like A. Solzhenitsyn and Sasha Sokolov) chose to return, others (like V. Voinovich, E. Limonov) spend most of their time in Russia, while others (I. Brodsky (1996), A. Galich (1977), S. Dovlatov (1999), V. Nekrasov (1987), etc.) will never return. At the same time, some critics have started talking about the “fourth wave” of emigration, which is based on reasons of a material or psychological rather than a political nature: many prominent writers now prefer to live abroad, while remaining participants in the Russian literary process, and among them is E. Yevtushenko, T. Tolstaya et al.

How do you understand the words of V. Nabokov: “The result is a striking paradox: inside Russia there is an external order, outside Russia there is an internal one”!

Faith in their special writing mission, a sense of duty to Russia led to the fact that, having parted with their homeland, emigrant writers turned all their creativity to it, and if Soviet authors were forced, in accordance with the dogmas of socialist realism, to idealize the Soviet reality surrounding them , then the authors of the Russian diaspora did the same in relation to the recent past.

We have turned over only a few pages from the life of Russians abroad.

According to the Rodina society, in 1999 the number of our compatriots abroad was more than 30 million people. About 10 million Russians live in the USA alone.

V. Consolidation of the topic. Conclusions.

The global significance of the culture of Russian emigration.

Tragic events of the 20th century. determined the emergence of such a unique phenomenon as the literature of Russian diaspora. Its main feature in all periods was that, even enriched as a result of contacts with neighboring literatures, it retained spiritual ties with the national culture, remaining its most important and inseparable part.

The significance for world culture of the tragic history of the expulsion of the creative elite of Russia from their native country is difficult to overestimate: the music of S. Rachmaninov I. Stravinsky, the painting of the father and son of the Roerichs and V. Kandinsky, the ballet of V. Nijinsky and S. Lifar, the singing gift of F. Chaliapin and P. Leshchenko, the philosophical works of L. Shestov and N. Berdyaev, the scientific achievements of the economist V. Leontyev and the inventor I. Sikorsky and many others. etc. - all this was a precious contribution of Russian culture and science to the world. The global recognition of Russian literature abroad is evidenced by the fact that among its representatives there are two Nobel Prize laureates (I. Bunin 1934 and I. Brodsky 1987), which is also claimed by D. Merezhkovsky and I. Shmelev, whose works, like books

M. Aldanova, R. Gulya, N. Berberova and many others. etc., are also translated into different languages and find resonance in the world. It is safe to say that the contribution - intellectual, cultural, material, even genetic - of the best representatives of our people, whom their native country abandoned, played a role in the rapid development of the countries of the West and America.

V. Lesson summary.

VI. Homework: select material about emigrant writers, read V.V. Nabokov’s work “The Circle.”

The content of the article

LITERATURE OF RUSSIAN ABROAD. Literature of Russian abroad is a branch of Russian literature that arose after 1917 and was published outside the USSR and Russia. There are three periods or three waves of Russian emigrant literature. The first wave - from 1918 to the beginning of the Second World War, the occupation of Paris - was massive. The second wave arose at the end of World War II (I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, L. Rzhevsky, N. Morshen, B. Fillipov).

The third wave began after Khrushchev’s “thaw” and carried the greatest writers outside Russia (A. Solzhenitsyn, I. Brodsky, S. Dovlatov). The works of writers of the first wave of Russian emigration have the greatest cultural and literary significance.

FIRST WAVE OF EMIGRATION (1918–1940)

The situation of Russian literature in exile

The concept of “Russian abroad” arose and took shape after the October Revolution of 1917, when refugees began to leave Russia en masse. After 1917, about 2 million people left Russia. In the centers of dispersion - Berlin, Paris, Harbin - “Russia in miniature” was formed, preserving all the features of Russian society. Russian newspapers and magazines were published abroad, schools and universities were opened, and the Russian Orthodox Church was active. But despite the preservation of all the features of Russian pre-revolutionary society by the first wave of emigration, the situation of the refugees was tragic. In the past they had the loss of family, homeland, social status, a way of life that had collapsed into oblivion, in the present - a cruel need to get used to an alien reality. The hope for a quick return did not materialize; by the mid-1920s it became obvious that Russia could not be returned and that Russia could not return. The pain of nostalgia was accompanied by the need for hard physical labor and everyday instability; most emigrants were forced to enlist in Renault factories or, what was considered more privileged, to master the profession of a taxi driver.

The flower of the Russian intelligentsia left Russia. More than half of the philosophers, writers, and artists were expelled from the country or emigrated. Religious philosophers N. Berdyaev, S. Bulgakov, N. Lossky, L. Shestov, L. Karsavin found themselves outside their homeland. The emigrants were F. Chaliapin, I. Repin, K. Korovin, famous actors M. Chekhov and I. Mozzhukhin, ballet stars Anna Pavlova, Vaslav Nijinsky, composers S. Rachmaninov and I. Stravinsky. Among the famous writers who emigrated: Iv. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev, A. Averchenko, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, Don-Aminado, B. Zaitsev, A. Kuprin, A. Remizov, I. Severyanin, A. Tolstoy, Teffi, I. Shmelev, Sasha Cherny. Young writers also went abroad: M. Tsvetaeva, M. Aldanov, G. Adamovich, G. Ivanov, V. Khodasevich. Russian literature, which responded to the events of the revolution and civil war, depicting the pre-revolutionary way of life that had collapsed into oblivion, turned out to be one of the spiritual strongholds of the nation in emigration. The national holiday of Russian emigration was Pushkin's birthday.

At the same time, in emigration, literature was placed in unfavorable conditions: the absence of a mass reader, the collapse of socio-psychological foundations, homelessness, and the need of the majority of writers were bound to inevitably undermine the strength of Russian culture. But this did not happen: in 1927, Russian foreign literature began to flourish, and great books were created in Russian. In 1930, Bunin wrote: “In my opinion, there has been no decline over the last decade. Of the prominent writers, both foreign and “Soviet,” not one, it seems, has lost his talent; on the contrary, almost all have strengthened and grown. And, in addition, here, abroad, several new talents have appeared, undeniable in their artistic qualities and very interesting in terms of the influence of modernity on them.”

Having lost loved ones, homeland, any support in life, support anywhere, exiles from Russia received in return the right of creative freedom. This did not reduce the literary process to ideological disputes. The atmosphere of emigrant literature was determined not by the political or civil lack of accountability of writers, but by the variety of free creative searches.

In new unusual conditions (“Here there is neither the element of living life nor the ocean of living language that feeds the artist’s work,” defined B. Zaitsev), the writers retained not only political, but also internal freedom, creative wealth in confrontation with the bitter realities of emigrant existence.

The development of Russian literature in exile went in different directions: writers of the older generation professed the position of “preserving covenants”, the intrinsic value of the tragic experience of emigration was recognized by the younger generation (the poetry of G. Ivanov, the “Parisian note”), writers oriented towards the Western tradition appeared (V. Nabokov , G. Gazdanov). “We are not in exile, we are in exile,” D. Merezhkovsky formulated the “messianic” position of the “elders.” “Be aware that in Russia or in exile, in Berlin or Montparnasse, human life continues, life with a capital letter, in a Western way, with sincere respect for it, as the focus of all content, all the depth of life in general...” , - this was the task of a writer for the writer of the younger generation B. Poplavsky. “Should we remind you once again that culture and art are dynamic concepts,” G. Gazdanov questioned the nostalgic tradition.

The older generation of emigrant writers.

The desire to “keep that truly valuable thing that inspired the past” (G. Adamovich) is at the heart of the work of writers of the older generation, who managed to enter literature and make a name for themselves back in pre-revolutionary Russia. The older generation of writers includes: Bunin, Shmelev, Remizov, Kuprin, Gippius, Merezhkovsky, M. Osorgin. The literature of the “elders” is represented mainly by prose. In exile, prose writers of the older generation created great books: Life of Arsenyev(Nobel Prize 1933), Dark alleys Bunin; Sun of the dead, Summer of the Lord, Pilgrimage Shmeleva; Sivtsev Vrazhek Osorgina; Gleb's journey, Venerable Sergius of Radonezh Zaitseva; Jesus Unknown Merezhkovsky. Kuprin releases two novels Dome of St. Isaac of Dalmatia And Juncker, story Wheel of Time. A significant literary event is the appearance of a book of memoirs Living faces Gippius.

Among the poets whose work developed in Russia, I. Severyanin, S. Cherny, D. Burlyuk, K. Balmont, Gippius, Vyach. Ivanov went abroad. They made a minor contribution to the history of Russian poetry in exile, losing the palm to young poets - G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, V. Khodasevich, M. Tsvetaeva, B. Poplavsky, A. Steiger and others. The main motive of the literature of the older generation was the theme nostalgic memory of a lost homeland. The tragedy of exile was opposed by the enormous heritage of Russian culture, the mythologized and poeticized past. The topics most often addressed by prose writers of the older generation are retrospective: longing for “eternal Russia,” the events of the revolution and civil war, Russian history, memories of childhood and youth. The meaning of the appeal to “eternal Russia” was given to biographies of writers, composers, and biographies of saints: Iv. Bunin writes about Tolstoy ( Liberation of Tolstoy), M. Tsvetaeva - about Pushkin ( My Pushkin), V. Khodasevich - about Derzhavin ( Derzhavin), B. Zaitsev - about Zhukovsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Sergius of Radonezh (biographies of the same name). Autobiographical books are created in which the world of childhood and youth, not yet affected by the great catastrophe, is seen “from the other shore” as idyllic and enlightened: Iv. Shmelev poetizes the past ( Pilgrimage, Summer of the Lord), the events of his youth are reconstructed by Kuprin ( Juncker), the last autobiographical book of a Russian writer-nobleman is written by Bunin ( Life of Arsenyev), the journey to the “origins of days” is captured by B. Zaitsev ( Gleb's journey) and Tolstoy ( Nikita's childhood). A special layer of Russian emigrant literature consists of works that evaluate the tragic events of the revolution and civil war. These events are interspersed with dreams and visions, leading into the depths of the people's consciousness, the Russian spirit in Remizov's books Swirling Rus', Music teacher, Through the fire of sorrows. Bunin's diaries are filled with mournful accusatoryness. Damned days. Roman Osorgina Sivtsev Vrazhek reflects the life of Moscow in the war and pre-war years, during the revolution. Shmelev creates a tragic narrative about the Red Terror in Crimea - an epic Sun of the dead, which T. Mann called “a nightmarish document of the era, shrouded in poetic brilliance.” Dedicated to understanding the causes of the revolution Ice trek R. Gulya, Beast from the Abyss E. Chirikov, historical novels by Aldanov, who joined the writers of the older generation ( Key, Escape, Cave), three volume Rasputin V. Nazhivina. Contrasting “yesterday’s” and “today’s”, the older generation made a choice in favor of the lost cultural world of old Russia, not recognizing the need to get used to the new reality of emigration. This also determined the aesthetic conservatism of the “elders”: “Is it time to stop following in Tolstoy’s footsteps? - Bunin was perplexed. “Whose footsteps should we follow?”

The younger generation of writers in exile

A different position was held by the younger “unnoticed generation” of writers in emigration (the term of the writer, literary critic V. Varshavsky), who rose in a different social and spiritual environment, refusing to reconstruct what was hopelessly lost. The “unnoticed generation” included young writers who did not have time to create a strong literary reputation for themselves in Russia: V. Nabokov, G. Gazdanov, M. Aldanov, M. Ageev, B. Poplavsky, N. Berberova, A. Steiger, D. Knut , I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya, V. Smolensky, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Y. Mandelstam, Y. Terapiano and others. Their fates were different. Nabokov and Gazdanov won pan-European, and in Nabokov’s case, even world fame. Aldanov, who began actively publishing historical novels in the most famous emigrant magazine “Modern Notes”, joined the “elders”. Almost none of the younger generation of writers could make a living from literary work: Gazdanov became a taxi driver, Knut delivered goods, Terapiano worked in a pharmaceutical company, many earned a penny extra. Characterizing the situation of the “unnoticed generation” that lived in the small cheap cafes of Montparnasse, V. Khodasevich wrote: “The despair that owns the souls of Montparnasse... is fed and supported by insults and poverty... People are sitting at the tables of Montparnasse, many of whom have not had dinner during the day, and in the evening find it difficult to ask get yourself a cup of coffee. In Montparnasse they sometimes sit until the morning because there is nowhere to sleep. Poverty also deforms creativity itself.” The most acute and dramatic hardships that befell the “unnoticed generation” were reflected in the colorless poetry of the “Parisian note” created by G. Adamovich. An extremely confessional, metaphysical and hopeless “Parisian note” sounds in Poplavsky’s collections ( Flags), Otsupa ( In the smoke), Steiger ( This life, Two by two is four), Chervinskaya ( Approximation), Smolensky ( Alone), Knut ( Parisian nights), A. Prismanova ( Shadow and body), Knorring ( Poems about yourself). If the older generation was inspired by nostalgic motives, the younger generation left documents of the Russian soul in exile, depicting the reality of emigration. The life of the “Russian Montparneau” is captured in Poplavsky’s novels Apollo Bezobrazov, Home from Heaven. Also enjoyed considerable popularity Romance with cocaine Ageeva. Everyday prose has also become widespread: Odoevtseva Angel of Death, Isolde, Mirror, Berberova The last and the first. A novel from emigrant life.

Researcher of emigrant literature G. Struve wrote: “Perhaps the most valuable contribution of writers to the general treasury of Russian literature will have to be recognized as various forms of non-fiction literature - criticism, essays, philosophical prose, high journalism and memoir prose.” The younger generation of writers made significant contributions to memoirs: Nabokov Other shores, Berberova Italics are mine, Terapiano Meetings, Warsaw The Unsung Generation, V. Yanovsky Champs Elysees, Odoevtseva On the banks of the Neva, On the banks of the Seine, G. Kuznetsova Grasse Diary.

Nabokov and Gazdanov belonged to the “unnoticed generation”, but did not share its fate, having adopted neither the bohemian-beggarly lifestyle of the “Russian Montparnots”, nor their hopeless worldview. They were united by the desire to find an alternative to despair, exile restlessness, without participating in the mutual responsibility of memories characteristic of the “elders.” Gazdanov's meditative prose, technically witty and fictionally elegant, was addressed to the Parisian reality of the 1920s - 1960s. At the heart of his worldview is the philosophy of life as a form of resistance and survival. In the first, largely autobiographical novel Evening at Claire's Gazdanov gave a peculiar twist to the theme of nostalgia, traditional for emigrant literature, replacing longing for what was lost with the real embodiment of a “beautiful dream.” In novels Night roads, The Ghost of Alexander Wolf, Return of Buddha Gazdanov contrasted the calm despair of the “unnoticed generation” with heroic stoicism, faith in the spiritual powers of the individual, in his ability to transform. The experience of a Russian emigrant was refracted in a unique way in V. Nabokov’s first novel Mashenka, in which a journey to the depths of memory, to “deliciously precise Russia” freed the hero from the captivity of a dull existence. Nabokov portrays brilliant characters, victorious heroes who triumphed in difficult and sometimes dramatic life situations Invitation to execution, Gift, Ada, Feat. The triumph of consciousness over the dramatic and wretched circumstances of life - such is the pathos of Nabokov’s work, hidden behind the play doctrine and declarative aestheticism. In exile, Nabokov also created: a collection of short stories Spring in Fialta, global bestseller Lolita, novels Despair, Pinhole camera, King, Queen, Jack, Look at the harlequins, Pnin, Pale Flame and etc.

In an intermediate position between the “older” and “younger” were the poets who published their first collections before the revolution and quite confidently declared themselves in Russia: Khodasevich, Ivanov, Tsvetaeva, Adamovich. In emigrant poetry they stand apart. Tsvetaeva experienced a creative takeoff in exile and turned to the genre of the poem, “monumental” verse. In the Czech Republic, and then in France, they wrote to her Tsar Maiden, Poem of the Mountain, Poem of the End, Poem of the Air, Pied Piper, Ladder, New Year's, Room attempt. Khodasevich publishes his top collections in exile Heavy lyre, European night, becomes a mentor to young poets united in the group “Crossroads”. Ivanov, having survived the lightness of the early collections, received the status of the first poet of emigration, published poetry books included in the golden fund of Russian poetry: Poetry, Portrait without likeness, Posthumous diary. Ivanov’s memoirs occupy a special place in the literary heritage of emigration St. Petersburg winters, Chinese shadows, his famous prose poem Atomic decay. Adamovich publishes a program collection Unity, a famous book of essays Comments.

Scattering centers

The main centers of dispersion of Russian emigration were Constantinople, Sofia, Prague, Berlin, Paris, Harbin. The first place of refugee was Constantinople - the center of Russian culture in the early 1920s. The Russian White Guards who fled with Wrangel from Crimea ended up here and then scattered throughout Europe. In Constantinople, the weekly Zarnitsy was published for several months, and A. Vertinsky spoke. A significant Russian colony also arose in Sofia, where the magazine “Russian Thought” was published. In the early 1920s, Berlin became the literary capital of the Russian emigration. The Russian diaspora in Berlin before Hitler came to power amounted to 150 thousand people. From 1918 to 1928, 188 Russian publishing houses were registered in Berlin, Russian classics - Pushkin, Tolstoy, works of modern authors - Bunin, Remizov, Berberova, Tsvetaeva were published in large editions, the House of Arts was restored (in the likeness of Petrograd), a community of writers, musicians, artists "Vereteno", the "Academy of Prose" worked. An essential feature of Russian Berlin is the dialogue between two branches of culture - foreign and those remaining in Russia. Many Soviet writers travel to Germany: M. Gorky, V. Mayakovsky, Yu. Tynyanov, K. Fedin. “For us, in the field of books, there is no division between Soviet Russia and emigration,” declared the Berlin magazine “Russian Book”. When the hope for a quick return to Russia began to fade and an economic crisis began in Germany, the center of emigration moved to Paris, from the mid-1920s the capital of the Russian diaspora.

By 1923, 300 thousand Russian refugees settled in Paris. The following people live in Paris: Bunin, Kuprin, Remizov, Gippius, Merezhkovsky, Khodasevich, Ivanov, Adamovich, Gazdanov, Poplavsky, Tsvetaeva, etc. The activities of the main literary circles and groups are connected with Paris, the leading position among which was occupied by the Green Lamp. The “Green Lamp” was organized in Paris by Gippius and Merezhkovsky, and G. Ivanov became the head of the society. At the Green Lamp meeting, new books and magazines were discussed, and the works of older Russian writers were discussed. The “Green Lamp” united “seniors” and “youngers” and was the busiest literary center in Paris throughout the pre-war years. Young Parisian writers united in the “Kochevye” group, founded by the philologist and critic M. Slonim. From 1923 to 1924, a group of poets and artists called “Through” also met in Paris. Parisian emigrant newspapers and magazines were a chronicle of the cultural and literary life of the Russian diaspora. Literary discussions took place in the cheap cafes of Montparnasse, and a new school of emigrant poetry, known as the “Parisian note,” was created. The literary life of Paris will come to naught with the outbreak of World War II, when, according to Nabokov, “it will become dark on Russian Parnassus.” Russian emigrant writers will remain faithful to the country that sheltered them, occupied Paris. The term “Resistance” will arise and take root among Russian emigrants, many of whom will be its active participants. Adamovich will sign up as a volunteer for the front. The writer Z. Shakhovskaya will become a sister in a military hospital. Mother Maria (poetess E. Kuzmina-Karavaeva) will die in a German concentration camp, Gazdanov, Otsup, Knut will join the Resistance. During the bitter years of occupation, Bunin will write a book about the triumph of love and humanity ( Dark alleys).

The eastern centers of dispersion are Harbin and Shanghai. The young poet A. Achair organizes the literary association “Churaevka” in Harbin. His meetings included up to 1000 people. Over the years of the existence of “Churaevka” in Harbin, more than 60 poetry collections of Russian poets were published. The Harbin magazine “Rubezh” published poets A. Nesmelov, V. Pereleshin, M. Kolosova. A significant direction of the Harbin branch of Russian literature will be ethnographic prose (N. Baykov In the wilds of Manchuria, Great Wang, Around the world). From 1942 literary life shifted from Harbin to Shanghai.

For a long time Prague was the scientific center of Russian emigration. The Russian People's University was founded in Prague, and 5 thousand Russian students studied there for free. Many professors and university teachers also moved here. The Prague Linguistic Circle played an important role in the preservation of Slavic culture and the development of science. The work of Tsvetaeva, who creates her best works in the Czech Republic, is associated with Prague. Before the start of World War II, about 20 Russian literary magazines and 18 newspapers were published in Prague. Among the Prague literary associations are the “Skete of Poets” and the Union of Russian Writers and Journalists.

The Russian dispersion also affected Latin America, Canada, Scandinavia, and the USA. The writer G. Grebenshchikov, having moved to the USA in 1924, organized the Russian publishing house “Alatas” here. Several Russian publishing houses were opened in New York, Detroit, and Chicago.

Main events in the life of Russian literary emigration

One of the central events in the life of the Russian emigration will be the controversy between Khodasevich and Adamovich, which lasted from 1927 to 1937. Basically, the controversy unfolded on the pages of the Parisian newspapers “Last News” (published by Adamovich) and “Vozrozhdenie” (published by Khodasevich). Khodasevich believed that the main task of Russian literature in exile was the preservation of the Russian language and culture. He stood up for mastery, insisted that emigrant literature should inherit the greatest achievements of its predecessors, “graft a classical rose” onto the emigrant wild. The young poets of the “Crossroads” group united around Khodasevich: G. Raevsky, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Yu. Mandelstam, V. Smolensky. Adamovich demanded from young poets not so much skill as simplicity and truthfulness of “human documents,” and raised his voice in defense of “drafts, notebooks.” Unlike Khodasevich, who contrasted the harmony of Pushkin’s language with the dramatic realities of emigration, Adamovich did not reject the decadent, mournful worldview, but reflected it. Adamovich is the inspirer of the literary school, which entered the history of Russian foreign literature under the name of the “Parisian note” (A. Steiger, L. Chervinskaya, etc.). The emigrant press, the most prominent critics of emigration A. Bem, P. Bicilli, M. Slonim, as well as V. Nabokov, V. Varshavsky, joined the literary disputes between Adamovich and Khodasevich.

Disputes about literature also took place among the “unnoticed generation.” Articles by Gazdanov and Poplavsky on the situation of young emigrant literature contributed to the understanding of the literary process abroad. In the article Oh young emigrant literature Gazdanov recognized that the new social experience and status of the intellectuals who left Russia made it impossible to maintain the hierarchical appearance and artificially maintained atmosphere of pre-revolutionary culture. The absence of modern interests, the spell of the past turns emigration into a “living hieroglyph.” Emigrant literature faces the inevitability of mastering a new reality. "How to live? – Poplavsky asked in the article About the mystical atmosphere of young literature in emigration. – Perish. Smile, cry, make tragic gestures, walk smiling at great depths, in terrible poverty. Emigration is an ideal environment for this.” The suffering of Russian emigrants, which should feed literature, is identical to revelation; they merge with the mystical symphony of the world. Exiled Paris, according to Poplavsky, will become “the seed of future mystical life”, the cradle of the revival of Russia.

The atmosphere of Russian literature in exile will be significantly influenced by the polemics between Smenovekhists and Eurasians. In 1921 a collection was published in Prague Change of milestones(authors N. Ustryalov, S. Lukyanov, A. Bobrishchev-Pushkin - former White Guards). Smenovekhites called for accepting the Bolshevik regime and for the sake of the homeland to compromise with the Bolsheviks. Among the Smenovekhites, the idea of national Bolshevism and the use of Bolshevism for national purposes arose. Change of leadership will play a tragic role in the fate of Tsvetaeva, whose husband S. Efron worked for the Soviet secret services. Also in 1921, a collection was published in Sofia Exodus to the East. Premonitions and accomplishments. Eurasian statements. The authors of the collection (P. Savitsky, P. Suvchinsky, Prince N. Trubetskoy, G. Florovsky) insisted on a special intermediate position for Russia - between Europe and Asia, and saw Russia as a country with a messianic destiny. The magazine “Versty” was published on the Eurasian platform, in which Tsvetaeva, Remizov, and Bely were published.

Literary and social publications of the Russian emigration

One of the most influential socio-political and literary magazines of the Russian emigration was “Modern Notes”, published by the Socialist Revolutionaries V. Rudnev, M. Vishnyak, I. Bunakov (Paris, 1920–1939, founder I. Fondaminsky-Bunyakov). The magazine was distinguished by its breadth of aesthetic views and political tolerance. A total of 70 issues of the magazine were published, in which the most famous writers of Russian diaspora were published. The following was published in Modern Notes: Luzhin's defense, Invitation to execution, Gift Nabokov, Mitya's love And Life Arsenyev Bunin, poems by Ivanov, Sivtsev Vrazhek Osorgina, The Road to Calvary Tolstoy, Key Aldanov, autobiographical prose of Chaliapin. The magazine provided reviews of the majority of books published in Russia and abroad in almost all fields of knowledge.

Since 1937, the publishers of “Modern Notes” also began to publish the monthly magazine “Russian Notes” (Paris, 1937–1939, ed. P. Milyukov), which published works by Remizov, Achair, Gazdanov, Knorring, and Chervinskaya.

The main printed organ of the writers of the “unnoticed generation”, who for a long time did not have their own publication, became the magazine “Numbers” (Paris, 1930–1934, editor Otsup). Over 4 years, 10 issues of the magazine were published. “Numbers” became the mouthpiece of the ideas of the “unnoticed generation”, the opposition to the traditional “Modern Notes”. “Numbers” cultivated the “Parisian note” and published Ivanov, Adamovich, Poplavsky, Bloch, Chervinskaya, Ageev, Odoevtseva. Poplavsky defined the meaning of the new magazine this way: “Numbers” is an atmospheric phenomenon, almost the only atmosphere of boundless freedom where a new person can breathe.” The magazine also published notes about cinema, photography, and sports. The magazine was distinguished by high quality of printing, at the level of pre-revolutionary publications.

Among the most famous newspapers of the Russian emigration is the organ of the republican-democratic association “Last News” (Paris, 1920–1940, ed. P. Milyukov), the monarchist which expressed the idea of the white movement “Renaissance” (Paris, 1925–1940, ed. P. Struve ), newspapers “Link” (Paris, 1923–928, ed. Milyukov), “Days” (Paris, 1925–1932, ed. A. Kerensky), “Russia and the Slavs” (Paris, 1928–1934, ed. Zaitsev ) and etc.

The fate and cultural heritage of the writers of the first wave of Russian emigration is an integral part of Russian culture of the 20th century, a brilliant and tragic page in the history of Russian literature.

SECOND WAVE OF EMIGRATION (1940s – 1950s)

The second wave of emigration, generated by the Second World War, was not as massive as the emigration from Bolshevik Russia. With the second wave of the USSR, prisoners of war and displaced persons - citizens deported by the Germans to work in Germany - left the USSR. Most of the second wave of emigrants settled in Germany (mainly in Munich, which had numerous emigrant organizations) and America. By 1952, there were 452 thousand former citizens of the USSR in Europe. By 1950, 548 thousand Russian emigrants arrived in America.

Among the writers carried out with the second wave of emigration outside their homeland were I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, Yu. Ivask, B. Nartsisov, I. Chinnov, V. Sinkevich, N. Narokov, N. Morshen, S. Maksimov, V. Markov, B. Shiryaev, L. Rzhevsky, V. Yurasov and others. Those who left the USSR in the 1940s faced difficult trials. This could not but affect the worldview of writers: the most common themes in the works of writers of the second wave were the hardships of war, captivity, and the horrors of the Bolshevik terror.

In emigrant poetry of the 1940–1950s, political themes predominate: Elagin writes Political feuilletons in verse, Morshen publishes anti-totalitarian poems ( Seal, On the evening of November 7). Criticism most often names Elagin as the most prominent poet of the second wave. He called citizenship, refugee and camp themes, horror of machine civilization, and urban fantasy the main “nodes” of his work. In terms of social emphasis, political and civic pathos, Elagin’s poems turned out to be closer to Soviet wartime poetry than to the “Parisian note.”

Ivask, Klenovsky, and Sinkevich turned to philosophical, meditative lyrics. Religious motives are heard in Ivask’s poems. Acceptance of the world - in Sinkevich’s collections Coming of the day, Flowering herbs, I live here. Optimism and harmonious clarity mark the lyrics of D. Klenovsky (books Palette, Trace of life, Towards the sky, Touch, Outgoing sails, Singing burden, Warm evening e R, Last thing). Chinnova, T. Fesenko, V. Zavalishin, I. Burkina also made significant contributions to emigrant poetry.

Heroes who did not come to terms with Soviet reality are depicted in the books of prose writers of the second wave. The fate of Fyodor Panin in Yurasov’s novel is tragic Parallax. S. Markov polemicizes with Sholokhov Virgin soil upturned in the novel Denis Bushuev. B. Filippov addresses the camp theme (stories Happiness, People, In the taiga, Love, Motif from La Bayadère), L. Rzhevsky (story Bunker Girl (Between two stars)). Scenes from the life of besieged Leningrad are depicted by A. Darov in the book Blockade, Shiryaev writes about the history of Solovki ( Unquenchable lamp). Rzhevsky's books stand out Dina And Two lines of time, which tell the story of the love of an elderly man and a girl, of overcoming misunderstandings, life’s tragedy, and barriers to communication.

Most of the writers of the second wave of emigration were published in the New Journal published in America and in the magazine Grani.

THIRD WAVE OF EMIGRATION (1960–1980s)

With the third wave of emigration, mainly representatives of the creative intelligentsia left the USSR. The emigrant writers of the third wave, as a rule, belonged to the generation of the “sixties”; the fact of its formation in war and post-war times played an important role for this generation. The “children of war,” who grew up in an atmosphere of spiritual uplift, pinned their hopes on Khrushchev’s “thaw,” but it soon became obvious that the “thaw” did not promise fundamental changes in the life of Soviet society. The beginning of the curtailment of freedom in the country is considered to be 1963, when N.S. Khrushchev visited an exhibition of avant-garde artists in the Manege. The mid-1960s was a period of new persecution of the creative intelligentsia and, first of all, writers. The first writer exiled abroad was V. Tarsis in 1966.

In the early 1970s, the intelligentsia, cultural and scientific figures, including writers, began to leave the USSR. Many of them were deprived of Soviet citizenship (A. Solzhenitsyn, V. Aksenov, V. Maksimov, V. Voinovich, etc.). With the third wave of emigration, the following are leaving abroad: Aksenov, Yu. Aleshkovsky, Brodsky, G. Vladimov, V. Voinovich, F. Gorenshtein, I. Guberman, S. Dovlatov, A. Galich, L. Kopelev, N. Korzhavin, Yu. Kublanovsky, E. Limonov, V. Maksimov, Yu. Mamleev, V. Nekrasov, S. Sokolov, A. Sinyavsky, Solzhenitsyn, D. Rubina, etc. Most writers emigrate to the USA, where a powerful Russian diaspora is being formed (Brodsky, Korzhavin, Aksenov, Dovlatov, Aleshkovsky, etc.), to France (Sinyavsky, Rozanova, Nekrasov, Limonov, Maksimov, N. Gorbanevskaya), to Germany (Voinovich, Gorenshtein).

Writers of the third wave found themselves in emigration in completely new conditions; in many ways they were not accepted by their predecessors and were alien to the “old emigration.” Unlike emigrants of the first and second waves, they did not set themselves the task of “preserving culture” or capturing the hardships experienced in their homeland. Completely different experiences, worldviews, even different languages prevented the formation of connections between generations. The Russian language in the USSR and abroad has undergone significant changes over 50 years; the work of representatives of the third wave was formed not so much under the influence of Russian classics, but under the influence of American and Latin American literature popular in the 1960s, as well as the poetry of M. Tsvetaeva, B. Pasternak, prose by A. Platonov. One of the main features of Russian emigrant literature of the third wave will be its attraction to the avant-garde and postmodernism. At the same time, the third wave was quite heterogeneous: writers of a realistic direction (Solzhenitsyn, Vladimov), postmodernists (Sokolov, Mamleev, Limonov), and anti-formalist Korzhavin ended up in emigration. Russian literature of the third wave in emigration, according to Korzhavin, is a “tangle of conflicts”: “We left in order to be able to fight with each other.”

Two major writers of the realistic movement who worked in exile are Solzhenitsyn and Vladimov. Solzhenitsyn creates an epic novel in exile Red wheel, which addresses key events in Russian history of the 20th century. Vladimov publishes a novel General and his army, which also touches on a historical theme: at the center of the novel are the events of the Great Patriotic War, which abolished the ideological and class confrontation within Soviet society. Dedicates his novel to the fate of the peasant family Seven days of creation V. Maksimov. V. Nekrasov, who received the Stalin Prize for his novel In the trenches of Stalingrad, publishes after departure Notes from an onlooker, A little sad story.

The work of Aksenov, deprived of Soviet citizenship in 1980, reflects the Soviet reality of the 1950–1970s, the evolution of his generation. Novel Burn gives a panorama of post-war Moscow life, brings to the fore the heroes of the 1960s - a surgeon, writer, saxophonist, sculptor and physicist. Aksenov also acts as a chronicler of the generation in Moscow saga.

In Dovlatov’s work there is a rare, not typical for Russian literature, combination of a grotesque worldview with a rejection of moral invective and conclusions. His stories and tales continue the tradition of depicting the “little man.” In his short stories, he conveys the lifestyle and attitude of the generation of the 1960s, the atmosphere of bohemian gatherings in Leningrad and Moscow kitchens, Soviet reality, and the ordeals of Russian emigrants in America. Written in exile Foreign woman Dovlatov ironically depicts emigrant existence. 108th Street Queens, pictured in Foreign woman, – a gallery of cartoons of Russian emigrants.

Voinovich is trying his hand at the dystopian genre abroad - in a novel Moscow 2042, which parodies Solzhenitsyn and depicts the agony of Soviet society.

Sinyavsky publishes in exile Walking with Pushkin, In the shadow of Gogol.

Sokolov, Mamleev, and Limonov include their work in the postmodernist tradition. Sokolov's novels School for fools, Between a dog and a wolf, Rosewood are sophisticated verbal structures, they reflect the postmodernist attitude towards playing with the reader, shifting time plans. The marginality of the text is in the prose of Mamleev, who has now regained his Russian citizenship. The most famous works of Mamleev are Wings of Terror, Drown my head, Eternal Home, Voice from nothing. Limonov imitates socialist realism in the story We had a wonderful era, denies the establishment in the books It's me – Eddie, Diary of a Loser, Teenager Savenko, Young scoundrel.

A prominent place in the history of Russian poetry belongs to Brodsky, who received the Nobel Prize in 1987 for the “development and modernization of classical forms.” In exile, he publishes poetry collections and poems.

Finding themselves isolated from the “old emigration,” representatives of the third wave opened their own publishing houses and created almanacs and magazines. One of the most famous magazines of the third wave, Continent, was created by Maximov and was published in Paris. The magazine “Syntax” was also published in Paris (M. Rozanova, Sinyavsky). The most famous American publications are the New American and Panorama newspapers, and the Kaleidoscope magazine. The magazine “Time and We” was founded in Israel, and “Forum” was founded in Munich. In 1972, the Ardis publishing house began operating in the USA, and I. Efimov founded the Hermitage publishing house. At the same time, such publications as “New Russian Word” (New York), “New Journal” (New York), “Russian Thought” (Paris), “Grani” (Frankfurt am Main) retain their positions. .

Tatiana Skryabina

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Literature of the Russian Abroad is a branch of Russian literature that arose after the Bolshevik revolution of 1917. There are three periods or three waves of Russian emigrant literature. The first wave - from 1918 until the start of the Second World War and the occupation of Paris - was massive. The second wave arose at the end of World War II (I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, L. Rzhevsky, N. Morshen, B. Fillipov). The third wave began after Khrushchev’s “thaw” and carried the greatest writers outside Russia (A. Solzhenitsyn, I. Brodsky, S. Dovlatov). The works of writers of the first wave of Russian emigration have the greatest cultural and literary significance. literature abroad emigrant writer

First wave of emigration(1918-1940)

The concept of “Russian abroad” arose and took shape after the October revolution, when refugees began to leave Russia en masse. After 1917, about 2 million people left Russia. In the centers of dispersion - Berlin, Paris, Harbin - "Russia in miniature" was formed, preserving all the features of Russian society.

Russian newspapers and magazines were published abroad, schools and universities were opened, and the Russian Orthodox Church operated. But, despite the preservation by the first wave of emigration of all the features of Russian pre-revolutionary society, the situation of refugees was tragic: in the past - the loss of family, homeland, social status, a way of life that had collapsed into oblivion, in the present - the cruel need to get used to an alien reality. The hope for a quick return did not materialize; by the mid-20s it became obvious that Russia could not be returned and that Russia could not return. The pain of nostalgia was accompanied by the need for hard physical labor and everyday instability: most emigrants were forced to enlist in Renault factories or, what was considered more privileged, to master the profession of a taxi driver.

The flower of the Russian intelligentsia left Russia. More than half of the philosophers, writers, and artists were expelled from the country or emigrated for life. Religious philosophers N. Berdyaev, S. Bulgakov, N. Lossky, L. Shestov, L. Karsavin found themselves outside their homeland. The emigrants were F. Chaliapin, I. Repin, K. Korovin, famous actors M. Chekhov and I. Mozzhukhin, ballet stars Anna Pavlova, Vaslav Nijinsky, composers S. Rachmaninov and I. Stravinsky. Among the famous writers who emigrated: Iv. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev, A. Averchenko, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, Don-Aminado, B. Zaitsev, A. Kuprin, A. Remizov, I. Severyanin, A. Tolstoy, Teffi, I. Shmelev, Sasha Cherny. Young writers also went abroad: M. Tsvetaeva, M. Aldanov, G. Adamovich, G. Ivanov, V. Khodasevich. Russian literature, which responded to the events of the revolution and civil war, depicting the pre-revolutionary way of life that had collapsed into oblivion, turned out to be one of the spiritual strongholds of the nation in emigration. The national holiday of Russian emigration was Pushkin's birthday.

At the same time, in emigration, literature was placed in unfavorable conditions: lack of readers, collapse of socio-psychological foundations, homelessness, need for the majority of writers should inevitably undermine the strength of Russian culture. But this did not happen: in 1927, Russian foreign literature began to flourish, and great books were created in Russian. In 1930, Bunin wrote: “In my opinion, there has been no decline over the last decade. Of the prominent writers, both foreign and “Soviet,” not one seems to have lost their talent; on the contrary, almost all have strengthened and grown. And “In addition, here, abroad, several new talents have appeared, undeniable in their artistic qualities and very interesting in terms of the influence of modernity on them.”

Seniorgeneration of emigrant writers

The desire to “keep that truly valuable thing that inspired the past” (G. Adamovich) is at the heart of the work of writers of the older generation, who managed to enter literature and make a name for themselves back in pre-revolutionary Russia. The older generation of writers includes: Iv. Bunin, Iv. Shmelev, A. Remizov, A. Kuprin, Z. Gippius, D. Merezhkovsky, M. Osorgin. The literature of the “elders” is represented mainly by prose. In exile, prose writers of the older generation created great books: “The Life of Arsenyev” (Nobel Prize 1933), “Dark Alleys” by Iv. Bunin; “Sun of the Dead”, “Summer of the Lord”, “Pilgrim of Iv. Shmelev”; "Sivtsev Vrazhek" by M. Osorgin; "The Journey of Gleb", "Reverend Sergius of Radonezh" by B. Zaitsev; "Jesus the Unknown" by D. Merezhkovsky. A. Kuprin publishes two novels, “The Dome of St. Isaac of Dalmatia and Juncker,” and the story “The Wheel of Time.” A significant literary event was the appearance of the book of memoirs “Living Faces” by Z. Gippius.

The main motive of the literature of the older generation was the motive of nostalgic memory of the lost homeland. The tragedy of exile was opposed by the enormous heritage of Russian culture, the mythologized and poeticized past. The topics most often addressed by prose writers of the older generation are retrospective: longing for “eternal Russia,” the events of the revolution and civil war, the historical past, memories of childhood and youth.

The meaning of the appeal to “eternal Russia” was given to the biographies of writers, composers, and the lives of saints: Iv. Bunin writes about Tolstoy (The Liberation of Tolstoy), M. Tsvetaeva - about Pushkin (My Pushkin), V. Khodasevich - about Derzhavin (Derzhavin), B. Zaitsev - about Zhukovsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Sergius of Radonezh (biographies of the same name), M. Tsetlin about the Decembrists and the mighty handful (Decembrists: the fate of one generation, Five and others). Autobiographical books are created in which the world of childhood and youth, not yet affected by the great catastrophe, is seen “from the other shore” as idyllic, enlightened: Iv. Shmelev poetizes the past (Bogomolye, Summer of the Lord), the events of his youth are reconstructed by A. Kuprin (Junker), the last The autobiographical book of the Russian writer-nobleman is written by Iv. Bunin (The Life of Arsenyev), the journey to the “origins of days” is captured by B. Zaitsev (The Journey of Gleb) and A. Tolstoy (The Childhood of Nikita). A special layer of Russian emigrant literature consists of works that evaluate the tragic events of the revolution and civil war.

Comparing “yesterday” and “today,” the older generation made a choice in favor of the lost cultural world of old Russia, not recognizing the need to get used to the new reality of emigration. This also determined the aesthetic conservatism of the “elders”: “Is it time to stop following in Tolstoy’s footsteps?” Bunin was perplexed.And whose footsteps should we follow?"

The younger generation of writers in exile. A different position was held by the younger “unnoticed generation” (the term of the writer and literary critic V. Varshavsky), dependent on a different social and spiritual environment, who refused to reconstruct what was hopelessly lost. The “unnoticed generation” included young writers who did not have time to create a strong literary reputation for themselves in Russia: V. Nabokov, G. Gazdanov, M. Aldanov, M. Ageev, B. Poplavsky, N. Berberova, A. Steiger, D. Knut , I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya, V. Smolensky, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Y. Mandelstam, Y. Terapiano and others. Their fates were different. V. Nabokov and G. Gazdanov won pan-European, and in Nabokov’s case, even world fame. M. Aldanov, who began actively publishing historical novels in the most famous emigrant magazine "Modern Notes", joined the "elders".

V. Nabokov and G. Gazdanov belonged to the “unnoticed generation”, but did not share its fate, having adopted neither the bohemian-beggarly lifestyle of the “Russian Montparnots”, nor their hopeless worldview. They were united by the desire to find an alternative to despair, exile restlessness, without participating in the mutual responsibility of memories characteristic of the “elders.” G. Gazdanov's meditative prose, technically witty and fictionally elegant, was addressed to the Parisian reality of the 20s - 60s. At the heart of Gazdanov’s worldview is the philosophy of life as resistance and survival.

In his first, largely autobiographical novel, “An Evening at Claire’s,” Gazdanov gave a peculiar twist to the traditional theme of nostalgia in emigrant literature, replacing longing for what was lost with the real embodiment of a “beautiful dream.” In the novels “Night Roads”, “The Ghost of Alexander Wolf”, “The Return of the Buddha”, Gazdanov contrasted the calm despair of the “unnoticed generation” with heroic stoicism, faith in the spiritual powers of the individual, in his ability to transform.

The experience of the Russian emigrant was refracted in a unique way in V. Nabokov’s first novel “Mashenka”, in which a journey to the depths of memory, to “deliciously precise Russia” freed the hero from the captivity of a dull existence. Nabokov depicts brilliant characters, victorious heroes who achieved victory in difficult and sometimes dramatic life situations in his novels “Invitation to Execution”, “The Gift”, “Ada”, “Feat”. The triumph of consciousness over the dramatic and wretched circumstances of life - such is the pathos of Nabokov’s work, hidden behind the playful doctrine and declarative aestheticism. In exile, Nabokov also created: the collection of short stories "Spring in Fialta", the world bestseller "Lolita", the novels "Despair", "Camera Obscura", "King, Queen, Jack", "Look at the Harlequins", "Pnin", "Pale" flame" etc.

Scattering centers. The main centers of dispersion of Russian emigration were Constantinople, Sofia, Prague, Berlin, Paris, Harbin. The first place of refugee was Constantinople - the center of Russian culture in the early 20s. The Russian White Guards who fled with Wrangel from Crimea ended up here and then scattered throughout Europe. In Constantinople, the weekly Zarnitsy was published for several months, and A. Vertinsky spoke. A significant Russian colony also arose in Sofia, where the magazine “Russian Thought” was published. In the early 20s, Berlin became the literary capital of the Russian emigration. The Russian diaspora in Berlin before Hitler came to power amounted to 150 thousand people.

From 1918 to 1928, 188 Russian publishing houses were registered in Berlin, and Russian classics were printed in large quantities. When hope for a quick return to Russia began to fade and an economic crisis began in Germany, the center of emigration moved to Paris - from the mid-20s - the capital of the Russian diaspora.

By 1923, 300 thousand Russian refugees settled in Paris. The activities of the main literary circles and groups are associated with Paris, the leading position among which was occupied by the Green Lamp. The “Green Lamp” was organized in Paris by Z. Gippius and D. Merezhkovsky, and G. Ivanov became the head of the society. At the Green Lamp meeting, new books and magazines were discussed, and the conversation was about Russian writers of the older generation. The "Green Lamp" united the "seniors" and the "youngers", and during all the pre-war years it was the busiest literary center in Paris.

The eastern centers of dispersion are Harbin and Shanghai. The young poet A. Achair organizes the literary association "Churaevka" in Harbin. Churaevka meetings included up to 1000 people. Over the years of the existence of "Churaevka" in Harbin, more than 60 poetry collections of Russian poets were published. The Harbin magazine "Rubezh" published poets A. Nesmelov, V. Pereleshin, M. Kolosova. A significant direction of the Harbin branch of Russian literature will be ethnographic prose (N. Baikov “In the Wilds of Manchuria”, “The Great Wang”, “Across the World”). From 1942 literary life shifted from Harbin to Shanghai. For a long time Prague was the scientific center of Russian emigration.

The Russian dispersion also affected Latin America, Canada, Scandinavia, and the USA. The writer G. Grebenshchikov, having moved to the USA in 1924, organized the Russian publishing house "Alatas" here. Several Russian publishing houses were opened in New York, Detroit, and Chicago.

The atmosphere of Russian literature in exile will be significantly influenced by the polemics between Smenovekhists and Eurasians. In 1921, the collection Change of Milestones was published in Prague (authors N. Ustryalov, S. Lukyanov, A. Bobrishchev-Pushkin - former White Guards). Smenovekhites called for accepting the Bolshevik regime and for the sake of the homeland to compromise with the Bolsheviks. National Bolshevism - “the use of Bolshevism for national purposes” - would emerge among the Smenovekhites. Change of leadership will play a tragic role in the fate of M. Tsvetaeva, whose husband S. Efron was recruited by Soviet services. Also in 1921, the collection “Exodus to the East” was published in Sofia. The authors of the collection (P. Savitsky, P. Suvchinsky, Prince N. Trubetskoy, G. Florovsky) insisted on a special intermediate position for Russia - between Europe and Asia, and saw Russia as a country with a messianic destiny. The magazine "Versty" was published on the Eurasian platform, in which M. Tsvetaeva, A. Remizov, A. Bely were published.

Literary and social publications of the Russian emigration. One of the most influential socio-political and literary magazines of the Russian emigration was “Modern Notes”, published by the Socialist Revolutionaries V. Rudnev, M. Vishnyak, I. Bunakov (Paris, 1920-1939, founder I. Fondaminsky-Bunyakov). The magazine was distinguished by its breadth of aesthetic views and political tolerance. A total of 70 issues of the magazine were published, in which the most famous writers of Russian diaspora were published. In "Modern Notes" the following were published: Luzhin's Defense, Invitation to Execution, V. Nabokov's Gift, Mitya's Love and the Life of Arsenyev Iv. Bunin, poems by G. Ivanov, Sivtsev Vrazhek M. Osorgin, Walking through the Torment of A. Tolstoy, Key M. Aldanov, autobiographical prose of Chaliapin. The magazine provided reviews of the majority of books published in Russia and abroad in almost all fields of knowledge.

Since 1937, the publishers of "Modern Notes" also began to publish the monthly magazine "Russian Notes", which published works by A. Remizov, A. Achair, G. Gazdanov, I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya.

The main printed organ of the writers of the “unnoticed generation”, who for a long time did not have their own publication, became the magazine “Numbers” (Paris, 1930-1934, ed. N. Otsup). Over 4 years, 10 issues of the magazine were published. "Numbers" became the mouthpiece of the ideas of the "unnoticed generation", the opposition to the traditional "Modern Notes". “Numbers” cultivated the “Parisian note” and published G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, B. Poplavsky, R. Bloch, L. Chervinskaya, M. Ageev, I. Odoevtseva. B. Poplavsky defined the meaning of the new magazine as follows: "Numbers" is an atmospheric phenomenon, almost the only atmosphere of boundless freedom where a new person can breathe." The magazine also published notes about cinema, photography, and sports. The magazine was distinguished by its high, at the level of pre-revolutionary publications, quality of printing execution.

Second wave of emigration(1940-1950)

The second wave of emigration, generated by the Second World War, was not as massive as the emigration from Bolshevik Russia. With the second wave of the USSR, prisoners of war, the so-called displaced persons, were leaving the USSR - citizens deported by the Germans to work in Germany, those who did not accept the totalitarian regime. Most of the second wave of emigrants settled in Germany (mainly in Munich, which had numerous emigrant organizations) and America. By 1952, there were 452 thousand former citizens of the USSR in Europe. By 1950, 548 thousand Russian emigrants arrived in America.

Among the writers carried out with the second wave of emigration outside the homeland: I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, Yu. Ivask, B. Nartsisov, I. Chinnov, V. Sinkevich, N. Narokov, N. Morshen, S. Maksimov, V. Markov, B. Shiryaev, L. Rzhevsky, V. Yurasov and others. Those who left the USSR in the 40s faced no less difficult trials than refugees from Bolshevik Russia: war, captivity, the Gulag, arrests and torture. This could not but affect the worldview of writers: the most common themes in the works of writers of the second wave were the hardships of war, captivity, and the horrors of Stalin’s terror. In emigrant poetry of the 40s and 50s, political themes predominate.

Third wave of emigration(1960-1980)

With the third wave of emigration, mostly artists and creative intelligentsia left the USSR. In 1971, 15 thousand Soviet citizens left the Soviet Union, in 1972 this figure will increase to 35 thousand. The emigrant writers of the third wave, as a rule, belonged to the generation of the “sixties”, which welcomed the 20th Congress of the CPSU and the dethronement of the Stalinist regime with hope. V. Aksenov will call this time of heightened expectations “the decade of Soviet quixoticism.” An important role for the generation of the 60s was played by the fact of its formation in war and post-war times. B. Pasternak characterized this period as follows: “In relation to the entire previous life of the 30s, even in freedom, even in the prosperity of university activities, books, money, amenities, the war turned out to be a cleansing storm, a stream of fresh air, a breath of deliverance. Tragically difficult The war period was a living period: a free, joyful return of a sense of community with everyone." The “children of war,” who grew up in an atmosphere of spiritual uplift, pinned their hopes on Khrushchev’s “thaw.”

However, it soon became obvious that the “thaw” did not promise fundamental changes in the life of Soviet society. Romantic dreams were followed by 20 years of stagnation. The beginning of the curtailment of freedom in the country is considered to be 1963, when N.S. Khrushchev visited an exhibition of avant-garde artists in the Manege. The mid-60s was a period of new persecution of the creative intelligentsia and, first of all, writers. The works of A. Solzhenitsyn are prohibited from publication. A criminal case was initiated against Yu. Daniel and A. Sinyavsky, A. Sinyavsky was arrested. I. Brodsky was convicted of parasitism and exiled to the village of Norenskaya. S. Sokolov is deprived of the opportunity to publish. The poet and journalist N. Gorbanevskaya (for participating in a protest demonstration against the invasion of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia) was placed in a psychiatric hospital. The first writer deported to the West was V. Tarsis in 1966.

Persecution and bans gave rise to a new flow of emigration, significantly different from the previous two: in the early 70s, the intelligentsia, cultural and scientific figures, including writers, began to leave the USSR. Many of them were deprived of Soviet citizenship (A. Solzhenitsyn, V. Aksenov, V. Maksimov, V. Voinovich, etc.).

Writers of the third wave found themselves in emigration in completely new conditions; they were largely not accepted by their predecessors and were alien to the “old emigration.” Unlike the emigrants of the first and second waves, they did not set themselves the task of “preserving culture” or capturing the hardships experienced in their homeland. Completely different experiences, worldviews, even different languages (as A. Solzhenitsyn published the Dictionary of Language Expansion, which included dialects and camp jargon) prevented the emergence of connections between generations.

The Russian language has undergone significant changes over the 50 years of Soviet power, the work of representatives of the third wave was formed not so much under the influence of Russian classics, but under the influence of American and Latin American literature popular in the 60s in the USSR, as well as the poetry of M. Tsvetaeva, B. Pasternak, prose by A. Platonov. One of the main features of Russian emigrant literature of the third wave will be its attraction to the avant-garde and postmodernism.

The two largest writers of the realistic movement who worked in exile are A. Solzhenitsyn and G. Vladimov. A. Solzhenitsyn, having been forced to go abroad, creates in exile the epic novel “The Red Wheel”, in which he addresses the key events of Russian history of the 20th century, interpreting them in an original way. Having emigrated shortly before perestroika (in 1983), G. Vladimov publishes the novel “The General and His Army”, which also touches on a historical theme: in the center of the novel are the events of the Great Patriotic War, which abolished the ideological and class confrontation within Soviet society, muzzled by the repressions of the 30s years. V. Maksimov dedicates his novel “Seven Days” to the fate of the peasant family. V. Nekrasov, who received the Stalin Prize for his novel “In the Trenches of Stalingrad,” after leaving, published “Notes of an Onlooker” and “A Little Sad Tale.”

Among the poets who found themselves in exile are N. Korzhavin, Y. Kublanovsky, A. Tsvetkov, A. Galich, I. Brodsky. A prominent place in the history of Russian poetry belongs to I. Brodsky, who received the Nobel Prize in 1987 for the “development and modernization of classical forms.” In exile, Brodsky published collections of poetry and poems: “Stop in the Desert”, “Part of Speech”, “The End of a Beautiful Era”, “Roman Elegies”, “New Stanzas for Augusta”, “Autumn Cry of a Hawk”.

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Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

"Astrakhan State Technical University"

Separate structural unit "Volga-Caspian Marine Fishery College"

on the topic: “Literature of Russian abroad”

Literature of Russian abroad is a branch of Russian literature that arose after 1917 and was published outside the USSR and Russia. There are three periods or three waves of Russian emigrant literature. The first wave - from 1918 until the start of World War II, the occupation of Paris - was massive. The second wave arose at the end of World War II (I. Elagin, D. Klenovsky, L. Rzhevsky, N. Morshen, B. Fillipov).

The development of Russian literature in exile went in different directions: writers of the older generation professed the position of “preserving covenants”, the intrinsic value of the tragic experience of emigration was recognized by the younger generation (the poetry of G. Ivanov, “Parisian note”), writers oriented towards the Western tradition appeared (V. Nabokov , G. Gazdanov). “We are not in exile, we are in exile,” D. Merezhkovsky formulated the “messianic” position of the “elders.” “Be aware that in Russia or in exile, in Berlin or Montparnasse, human life continues, life with a capital letter, in a Western way, with sincere respect for it, as the focus of all content, all the depth of life in general...” , - this was the task of a writer for the writer of the younger generation B. Poplavsky. “Should we remind you once again that culture and art are dynamic concepts,” G. Gazdanov questioned the nostalgic tradition.

The older generation of emigrant writers. The desire to “keep that truly valuable thing that inspired the past” (G. Adamovich) is at the heart of the work of writers of the older generation, who managed to enter literature and make a name for themselves back in pre-revolutionary Russia. The older generation of writers includes: Bunin, Shmelev, Remizov, Kuprin, Gippius, Merezhkovsky, M. Osorgin. The literature of the “elders” is represented mainly by prose. In exile, prose writers of the older generation created great books: Life of Arsenyev(Nobel Prize 1933), Dark alleys Bunin; Sun of the dead, Summer of the Lord, Pilgrimage Shmeleva; Sivtsev Vrazhek Osorgina; Gleb's journey, Venerable Sergius of Radonezh Zaitseva; Jesus Unknown Merezhkovsky. Kuprin releases two novels Dome of St. Isaac of Dalmatia And Juncker, story Wheel of Time. A significant literary event is the appearance of a book of memoirs Living faces Gippius.

Among the poets whose work developed in Russia, I. Severyanin, S. Cherny, D. Burliuk, K. Balmont, Gippius, Vyach went abroad. Ivanov. They made a minor contribution to the history of Russian poetry in exile, losing the palm to young poets - G. Ivanov, G. Adamovich, V. Khodasevich, M. Tsvetaeva, B. Poplavsky, A. Steiger and others. The main motive of the literature of the older generation was the theme nostalgic memory of a lost homeland. The tragedy of exile was opposed by the enormous heritage of Russian culture, the mythologized and poeticized past. The topics most often addressed by prose writers of the older generation are retrospective: longing for “eternal Russia,” the events of the revolution and civil war, Russian history, memories of childhood and youth. The meaning of the appeal to “eternal Russia” was given to biographies of writers, composers, and biographies of saints: Iv. Bunin writes about Tolstoy ( Liberation of Tolstoy), M. Tsvetaeva - about Pushkin ( My Pushkin), V. Khodasevich - about Derzhavin ( Derzhavin), B. Zaitsev - about Zhukovsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Sergius of Radonezh (biographies of the same name). Autobiographical books are created in which the world of childhood and youth, not yet affected by the great catastrophe, is seen “from the other shore” as idyllic and enlightened: Yves poetizes the past. Shmelev ( Pilgrimage, Summer of the Lord), the events of his youth are reconstructed by Kuprin ( Juncker), the last autobiographical book of a Russian writer-nobleman is written by Bunin ( Life of Arsenyev), the journey to the “origins of days” is captured by B. Zaitsev ( Gleb's journey) and Tolstoy ( Nikita's childhood). A special layer of Russian emigrant literature consists of works that evaluate the tragic events of the revolution and civil war. These events are interspersed with dreams and visions, leading into the depths of the people's consciousness, the Russian spirit in Remizov's books Swirling Rus', Music teacher, Through the fire of sorrows. Bunin's diaries are filled with mournful accusatoryness. Damned days. Roman Osorgina Sivtsev Vrazhek reflects the life of Moscow in the war and pre-war years, during the revolution. Shmelev creates a tragic narrative about the Red Terror in Crimea - an epic Sun of the dead, which T. Mann called “a nightmarish document of the era, shrouded in poetic brilliance.” Dedicated to understanding the causes of the revolution Ice trek R. Gulya, Beast from the Abyss E. Chirikova, historical novels by Aldanov, who joined the writers of the older generation ( Key, Escape, Cave), three volume Rasputin V. Nazhivina. Contrasting “yesterday’s” and “today’s”, the older generation made a choice in favor of the lost cultural world of old Russia, not recognizing the need to get used to the new reality of emigration. This also determined the aesthetic conservatism of the “elders”: “Is it time to stop following in Tolstoy’s footsteps? - Bunin was perplexed. “Whose footsteps should we follow?”

The younger generation of writers in exile. A different position was held by the younger “unnoticed generation” of writers in emigration (the term of the writer, literary critic V. Varshavsky), who rose in a different social and spiritual environment, refusing to reconstruct what was hopelessly lost. The “unnoticed generation” included young writers who did not have time to create a strong literary reputation for themselves in Russia: V. Nabokov, G. Gazdanov, M. Aldanov, M. Ageev, B. Poplavsky, N. Berberova, A. Steiger, D. Knuth , I. Knorring, L. Chervinskaya, V. Smolensky, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Y. Mandelstam, Y. Terapiano and others. Their fates were different. Nabokov and Gazdanov won pan-European, and in Nabokov’s case, even world fame. Aldanov, who began actively publishing historical novels in the most famous emigrant magazine “Modern Notes”, joined the “elders”. Almost none of the younger generation of writers could make a living from literary work: Gazdanov became a taxi driver, Knut delivered goods, Terapiano worked in a pharmaceutical company, many earned a penny extra. Characterizing the situation of the “unnoticed generation” that lived in the small cheap cafes of Montparnasse, V. Khodasevich wrote: “The despair that owns the souls of Montparnasse... is fed and supported by insults and poverty... People are sitting at the tables of Montparnasse, many of whom have not had dinner during the day, and in the evening find it difficult to ask get yourself a cup of coffee. In Montparnasse they sometimes sit until the morning because there is nowhere to sleep. Poverty also deforms creativity itself.” The most acute and dramatic hardships that befell the “unnoticed generation” were reflected in the colorless poetry of the “Parisian note” created by G. Adamovich. An extremely confessional, metaphysical and hopeless “Parisian note” sounds in Poplavsky’s collections ( Flags), Otsupa ( In the smoke), Steiger ( This life, Two by two is four), Chervinskaya ( Approximation), Smolensky ( Alone), Knut ( Parisian nights), A. Prismanova ( Shadow and body), Knorring ( Poems about yourself). If the older generation was inspired by nostalgic motives, the younger generation left documents of the Russian soul in exile, depicting the reality of emigration. The life of the “Russian Montparneau” is captured in Poplavsky’s novels Apollo Bezobrazov, Home from Heaven. Also enjoyed considerable popularity Romance with cocaine Ageeva. Everyday prose has also become widespread: Odoevtseva Angel of Death, Isolde, Mirror, Berberova The last and the first. A novel from emigrant life.

Nabokov and Gazdanov belonged to the “unnoticed generation”, but did not share its fate, having adopted neither the bohemian-beggarly lifestyle of the “Russian Montparnots”, nor their hopeless worldview. They were united by the desire to find an alternative to despair, exile restlessness, without participating in the mutual responsibility of memories characteristic of the “elders.” Gazdanov's meditative prose, technically witty and fictionally elegant, was addressed to the Parisian reality of the 1920s - 1960s. At the heart of his worldview is the philosophy of life as a form of resistance and survival. In the first, largely autobiographical novel Evening at Claire's Gazdanov gave a peculiar twist to the theme of nostalgia, traditional for emigrant literature, replacing longing for what was lost with the real embodiment of a “beautiful dream.” In novels Night roads, The Ghost of Alexander Wolf, Return of Buddha Gazdanov contrasted the calm despair of the “unnoticed generation” with heroic stoicism, faith in the spiritual powers of the individual, in his ability to transform. The experience of a Russian emigrant was refracted in a unique way in V. Nabokov’s first novel Mashenka, in which a journey to the depths of memory, to “deliciously precise Russia” freed the hero from the captivity of a dull existence. Nabokov portrays brilliant characters, victorious heroes who triumphed in difficult and sometimes dramatic life situations Invitation to execution, Gift, Ada, Feat. The triumph of consciousness over the dramatic and wretched circumstances of life - such is the pathos of Nabokov’s work, hidden behind the playful doctrine and declarative aestheticism. In exile, Nabokov also created: a collection of short stories Spring in Fialta, global bestseller Lolita, novels Despair, Pinhole camera, King, Queen, Jack, Look at the harlequins, Pnin, Pale Flame and etc.

In an intermediate position between the “older” and “younger” were the poets who published their first collections before the revolution and quite confidently declared themselves in Russia: Khodasevich, Ivanov, Tsvetaeva, Adamovich. In emigrant poetry they stand apart. Tsvetaeva experienced a creative takeoff in exile and turned to the genre of the poem, “monumental” verse. In the Czech Republic, and then in France, they wrote to her Tsar Maiden, Poem of the Mountain, Poem of the End, Poem of the Air, Pied Piper, Ladder,New Year's, Room attempt. Khodasevich publishes his top collections in exile Heavy lyre, European night, becomes a mentor to young poets united in the group “Crossroads”. Ivanov, having survived the lightness of the early collections, received the status of the first poet of emigration, published poetry books included in the golden fund of Russian poetry: Poetry, Portrait without likeness, Posthumous diary. Ivanov’s memoirs occupy a special place in the literary heritage of emigration St. Petersburg winters, Chinese shadows, his famous prose poem Atomic decay. Adamovich publishes a program collection Unity, a famous book of essays Comments.

Scattering centers. The main centers of dispersion of Russian emigration were Constantinople, Sofia, Prague, Berlin, Paris, Harbin. The first place of refugee was Constantinople - the center of Russian culture in the early 1920s. The Russian White Guards who fled with Wrangel from Crimea ended up here and then scattered throughout Europe. In Constantinople, the weekly Zarnitsy was published for several months, and A. Vertinsky spoke. A significant Russian colony also arose in Sofia, where the magazine “Russian Thought” was published. In the early 1920s, Berlin became the literary capital of the Russian emigration. The Russian diaspora in Berlin before Hitler came to power amounted to 150 thousand people. From 1918 to 1928, 188 Russian publishing houses were registered in Berlin, Russian classics - Pushkin, Tolstoy, works of modern authors - Bunin, Remizov, Berberova, Tsvetaeva were published in large editions, the House of Arts was restored (in the likeness of Petrograd), a community of writers, musicians, artists "Vereteno", the "Academy of Prose" worked. An essential feature of Russian Berlin is the dialogue between two branches of culture - foreign and those remaining in Russia. Many Soviet writers travel to Germany: M. Gorky, V. Mayakovsky, Y. Tynyanov, K. Fedin. “For us, in the field of books, there is no division between Soviet Russia and emigration,” declared the Berlin magazine “Russian Book”. When hope for a quick return to Russia began to fade and an economic crisis began in Germany, the center of emigration moved to Paris, from the mid-1920s the capital of the Russian diaspora.

By 1923, 300 thousand Russian refugees settled in Paris. The following people live in Paris: Bunin, Kuprin, Remizov, Gippius, Merezhkovsky, Khodasevich, Ivanov, Adamovich, Gazdanov, Poplavsky, Tsvetaeva, etc. The activities of the main literary circles and groups are connected with Paris, the leading position among which was occupied by the “Green Lamp”. The “Green Lamp” was organized in Paris by Gippius and Merezhkovsky, and G. Ivanov became the head of the society. At the Green Lamp meeting, new books and magazines were discussed, and the works of older Russian writers were discussed. The “Green Lamp” united “seniors” and “youngers” and was the busiest literary center in Paris throughout the pre-war years. Young Parisian writers united in the “Kochevye” group, founded by the philologist and critic M. Slonim. From 1923 to 1924, a group of poets and artists called “Through” also met in Paris. Parisian emigrant newspapers and magazines were a chronicle of the cultural and literary life of the Russian diaspora. Literary discussions took place in the cheap cafes of Montparnasse, and a new school of emigrant poetry, known as the “Parisian note,” was created. The literary life of Paris will come to naught with the outbreak of World War II, when, according to Nabokov, “it will become dark on Russian Parnassus.” Russian emigrant writers will remain faithful to the country that sheltered them, occupied Paris. The term “Resistance” will arise and take root among Russian emigrants, many of whom will be its active participants. Adamovich will sign up as a volunteer for the front. Writer Z. Shakhovskaya will become a sister in a military hospital. Mother Maria (poetess E. Kuzmina-Karavaeva) will die in a German concentration camp, Gazdanov, Otsup, Knut will join the Resistance. During the bitter years of occupation, Bunin will write a book about the triumph of love and humanity ( Dark alleys).

The eastern centers of dispersion are Harbin and Shanghai. The young poet A. Achair organizes the literary association “Churaevka” in Harbin. His meetings included up to 1000 people. Over the years of the existence of “Churaevka” in Harbin, more than 60 poetry collections of Russian poets were published. The Harbin magazine Rubezh published poets A. Nesmelov, V. Pereleshin, M. Kolosova. A significant direction of the Harbin branch of Russian literature will be ethnographic prose (N. Baikov In the wilds of Manchuria, Great Wang, Around the world). From 1942 literary life shifted from Harbin to Shanghai.

The main events in the life of Russian literary emigration. One of the central events in the life of the Russian emigration will be the controversy between Khodasevich and Adamovich, which lasted from 1927 to 1937. Basically, the controversy unfolded on the pages of the Parisian newspapers “Last News” (published by Adamovich) and “Vozrozhdenie” (published by Khodasevich). Khodasevich believed that the main task of Russian literature in exile was the preservation of the Russian language and culture. He stood up for mastery, insisted that emigrant literature should inherit the greatest achievements of its predecessors, “graft a classical rose” onto the emigrant wild. The young poets of the “Crossroads” group united around Khodasevich: G. Raevsky, I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Yu. Mandelstam, V. Smolensky. Adamovich demanded from young poets not so much skill as simplicity and truthfulness of “human documents,” and raised his voice in defense of “drafts, notebooks.” Unlike Khodasevich, who contrasted the harmony of Pushkin’s language with the dramatic realities of emigration, Adamovich did not reject the decadent, mournful worldview, but reflected it. Adamovich is the inspirer of the literary school, which entered the history of Russian foreign literature under the name of the “Parisian note” (A. Steiger, L. Chervinskaya, etc.). The emigrant press, the most prominent critics of emigration A. Bem, P. Bicilli, M. Slonim, as well as V. Nabokov, V. Varshavsky, joined the literary disputes between Adamovich and Khodasevich.

Disputes about literature also took place among the “unnoticed generation.” Articles by Gazdanov and Poplavsky on the situation of young emigrant literature contributed to the understanding of the literary process abroad. In the article Oh young emigrant literature Gazdanov recognized that the new social experience and status of the intellectuals who left Russia made it impossible to maintain the hierarchical appearance and artificially maintained atmosphere of pre-revolutionary culture. The absence of modern interests, the spell of the past turns emigration into a “living hieroglyph.” Emigrant literature faces the inevitability of mastering a new reality. "How to live? - Poplavsky asked in the article About the mystical atmosphere of young literature in emigration. - Die. Smile, cry, make tragic gestures, walk smiling at great depths, in terrible poverty. Emigration is the ideal setting for this.” The suffering of Russian emigrants, which should feed literature, is identical to revelation; they merge with the mystical symphony of the world. Exiled Paris, according to Poplavsky, will become “the seed of future mystical life”, the cradle of the revival of Russia.

Literary and social publications of the Russian emigration. One of the most influential socio-political and literary magazines of the Russian emigration was “Modern Notes”, published by the Socialist Revolutionaries V. Rudnev, M. Vishnyak, I. Bunakov (Paris, 1920-1939, founder I. Fondaminsky-Bunyakov). The magazine was distinguished by its breadth of aesthetic views and political tolerance. A total of 70 issues of the magazine were published, in which the most famous writers of Russian diaspora were published. The following was published in Modern Notes: Luzhin's defense, Invitation to execution, Gift Nabokov, Mitya's love And Life Arsenyev Bunin, poems by Ivanov, Sivtsev Vrazhek Osorgina, The Road to Calvary Tolstoy, Key Aldanov, autobiographical prose of Chaliapin. The magazine provided reviews of the majority of books published in Russia and abroad in almost all fields of knowledge.

Since 1937, the publishers of “Modern Notes” also began to publish the monthly magazine “Russian Notes” (Paris, 1937-1939, ed. P. Milyukov), which published works by Remizov, Achair, Gazdanov, Knorring, and Chervinskaya. literature Russian emigration

The main printed organ of the writers of the “unnoticed generation”, who did not have their own publication for a long time, became the magazine “Numbers” (Paris, 1930-1934, editor Otsup). Over 4 years, 10 issues of the magazine were published. “Numbers” became the mouthpiece of the ideas of the “unnoticed generation”, the opposition to the traditional “Modern Notes”. “Numbers” cultivated the “Parisian note” and published Ivanov, Adamovich, Poplavsky, Bloch, Chervinskaya, Ageev, Odoevtseva. Poplavsky defined the meaning of the new magazine this way: “Numbers” is an atmospheric phenomenon, almost the only atmosphere of boundless freedom where a new person can breathe.” The magazine also published notes about cinema, photography, and sports. The magazine was distinguished by high quality of printing, at the level of pre-revolutionary publications.

Among the most famous newspapers of the Russian emigration is the organ of the republican-democratic association “Last News” (Paris, 1920-1940, ed. P. Milyukov), the monarchical organization that expressed the idea of the white movement “Renaissance” (Paris, 1925-1940, ed. P. Struve ), newspapers “Link” (Paris, 1923-928, ed. Milyukov), “Days” (Paris, 1925-1932, ed. A. Kerensky), “Russia and the Slavs” (Paris, 1928-1934, ed. Zaitsev ) and etc.

The fate and cultural heritage of the writers of the first wave of Russian emigration are an integral part of Russian culture of the 20th century. , a brilliant and tragic page in the history of Russian literature.

Second wave of emigration (1940s - 1950s)

In emigrant poetry of the 1940-1950s, political themes predominate: Elagin writes Political feuilletons in verse, Morshen publishes anti-totalitarian poems ( Seal, On the evening of November 7). Criticism most often names Elagin as the most prominent poet of the second wave. He called citizenship, refugee and camp themes, horror of machine civilization, and urban fantasy the main “nodes” of his work. In terms of social emphasis, political and civic pathos, Elagin’s poems turned out to be closer to Soviet wartime poetry than to the “Parisian note.”

Ivask, Klenovsky, and Sinkevich turned to philosophical, meditative lyrics. Religious motives are heard in Ivask’s poems. Acceptance of the world - in the collections of Sinkevich Coming of the day, Flowering herbs, I live here. Optimism and harmonious clarity mark the lyrics of D. Klenovsky (books Palette, Trace of life, Towards the sky,Touch, Outgoing sails, Singing burden, Warm evening e R, Last thing). Chinnova, T. Fesenko, V. Zavalishin, I. Burkina also made significant contributions to emigrant poetry.

Heroes who did not come to terms with Soviet reality are depicted in the books of prose writers of the second wave. The fate of Fyodor Panin in Yurasov’s novel is tragic Parallax. S. Markov polemicizes with Sholokhov Virgin soil upturned in the novel Denis Bushuev. B. Filippov addresses the camp theme (stories Happiness, People, In the taiga,Love, Motif from La Bayadère), L. Rzhevsky (story Bunker Girl (Between two stars)). Scenes from the life of besieged Leningrad are depicted by A. Darov in the book Blockade, Shiryaev writes about the history of Solovki ( Unquenchable lamp). Rzhevsky's books stand out Dina And Two lines of time, which tell the story of the love of an elderly man and a girl, of overcoming misunderstandings, life’s tragedy, and barriers to communication.

Most of the writers of the second wave of emigration were published in the New Journal published in America and in the magazine Grani.

Third wave of emigration (1960-1980s)

With the third wave of emigration, mainly representatives of the creative intelligentsia left the USSR. The emigrant writers of the third wave, as a rule, belonged to the generation of the “sixties”; the fact of its formation in war and post-war times played an important role for this generation. The “children of war,” who grew up in an atmosphere of spiritual uplift, pinned their hopes on Khrushchev’s “thaw,” but it soon became obvious that the “thaw” did not promise fundamental changes in the life of Soviet society. The beginning of the curtailment of freedom in the country is considered to be 1963, when N. S. Khrushchev visited an exhibition of avant-garde artists in the Manege. The mid-1960s was a period of new persecution of the creative intelligentsia and, first of all, writers. The first writer exiled abroad was V. Tarsis in 1966.

The two largest writers of the realistic movement who worked in exile are Solzhenitsyn and Vladimov. Solzhenitsyn creates an epic novel in exile Red wheel, which addresses key events in Russian history of the 20th century. Vladimov publishes a novel General and his army, which also touches on a historical theme: at the center of the novel are the events of the Great Patriotic War, which abolished the ideological and class confrontation within Soviet society. Dedicates his novel to the fate of the peasant family Seven days of creation V. Maksimov. V. Nekrasov, who received the Stalin Prize for his novel In the trenches of Stalingrad, publishes after departure Notes from an onlooker, A little sad story.

The work of Aksenov, deprived of Soviet citizenship in 1980, reflects the Soviet reality of the 1950-1970s, the evolution of his generation. Novel Burn gives a panorama of post-war Moscow life, brings to the fore the heroes of the 1960s - a surgeon, writer, saxophonist, sculptor and physicist. Aksenov also acts as a chronicler of the generation in Moscow saga.

In Dovlatov’s work there is a rare combination of a grotesque worldview with a rejection of moral invective and conclusions, which is not typical for Russian literature. His stories and tales continue the tradition of depicting the “little man.” In his short stories, he conveys the lifestyle and attitude of the generation of the 1960s, the atmosphere of bohemian gatherings in Leningrad and Moscow kitchens, Soviet reality, and the ordeals of Russian emigrants in America. Written in exile Foreign woman Dovlatov ironically depicts emigrant existence. 108th Street Queens, pictured in Foreign woman, - gallery of cartoons of Russian emigrants.

Voinovich tries himself abroad in the dystopian genre - in a novel Moscow 2042, which parodies Solzhenitsyn and depicts the agony of Soviet society.

Sinyavsky publishes in exile Walking with Pushkin, In the shadow of Gogol.

Sokolov, Mamleev, and Limonov include their work in the postmodernist tradition. Sokolov's novels School for fools, Between a dog and a wolf, Rosewood are sophisticated verbal structures, they reflect the postmodernist attitude towards playing with the reader, shifting time plans. The marginality of the text is in the prose of Mamleev, who has now regained his Russian citizenship. The most famous works of Mamleev are Wings of Terror, Drown my head,Eternal Home, Voice from nothing. Limonov imitates socialist realism in the story We had a wonderful era, denies the establishment in the books It's me - Eddie, Diary of a Loser, Teenager Savenko, Young scoundrel.

Literature

1. Gul R. I took away Russia. New York, 1984-1989

2. Glad John. Conversations in exile. M., 1991

3. Mikhailov O. Literature of Russian abroad. M., 1995

4. Struve G. Russian literature in exile. Paris - M., 1996

5. Agenosov V. Literature of Russian abroad (1918-1996). M., 1998

6. Russian Paris. M., 1998

7. Modern Russian abroad. M., 1998

8. Menegaldo E. Russians in Paris. 1919-1939. M., 2001

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Literature of Russian abroad, writers and works. Three waves of Russian emigrant literature

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FIRST WAVE OF EMIGRATION (1918–1940)

The situation of Russian literature in exile

The older generation of emigrant writers.

The younger generation of writers in exile

Scattering centers

Main events in the life of Russian literary emigration

Literary and social publications of the Russian emigration

SECOND WAVE OF EMIGRATION (1940s – 1950s)

THIRD WAVE OF EMIGRATION (1960–1980s)

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