We have already deviated quite far from the topic of this book, but we needed this “zigzag to the side.” Without it, it was impossible to consider another version of the origin of man, which we have not even mentioned yet. I mean the version that is presented in the ancient Sumerian texts, where we are talking about precisely those gods for whose sake we deviated for so long...

Rice. 266.Sumerian cuneiform tablet

“According to Sumerian texts, Man was created by Ninhursag with the assistance of the “wisdom” of Enki... Ninhursag created Man who could not hold urine, a woman who could not give birth to children, and a being devoid of any sexual characteristics. Ninhursag produced a total of six such defective human beings. Enki was credited with creating an imperfect creature with weak eyesight, shaking hands, and a diseased liver and heart; the other quickly died of premature old age, and so on” (Z. Sitchin, “12th Planet”).

“Several texts were found in Nippur... In one of them, Ninti (aka Ninhursag) says to Enki: “Create servants for the gods, so that they produce others like themselves.” And Enki replies: “The creature you named already exists”!.. He obviously meant humanoid creatures that could be “improved” with the help of genetic manipulation. Improve just enough to learn how to use tools and understand the orders of the gods. In any case, it is completely acceptable and legitimate to interpret the Mesopotamian texts in this way” (V. Coneles “They Came Down from Heaven and Created People”).

This is a rather indicative and important point - the “creation” of a person does not occur from scratch, but from a certain “being” that already existed on Earth. For some reason, this “creature” in its “pure form” was not suitable for the gods, and it needed to be “improved.” Sumerian texts do not indicate the reason why the existing “creature” was not suitable for the gods, but this is explained in the mythology of other peoples, which says that this “creature” for some reason “was not capable of serving the gods.”

We will return to this important point, but for now we will continue about the process of “creation” of man as described by the Sumerians.

“When the gods decided to create Man, their king proclaimed: “I will collect the blood and give life to the bones.” Ea [aka Enki] proposed to choose a “donor” god and said: “Let primitive creatures be like him”... Having agreed to fulfill the high mission entrusted to her, the goddess (here called NIN.TI, that is, “the maiden who gives life”) puts forward certain requirements for this complex operation, including certain chemicals (“resins from Abzu”) to carry out the “purification”, as well as “clay from Abzu” ...

After listening to the goddess, Ea understood and accepted all her demands and conditions, saying: “I undertake to prepare a bath of purification. Let one of the gods give his blood... Let Ninti prepare a mixture from that flesh and blood”...

To fashion a person from this mixture of clay and other components, female help was required - some kind of gestation or birth. Then Enki offered his wife to help: “My Ninki, the goddess and my wife, will give birth. And next to her will be the goddesses of the lower births - seven in number" ...

This artificially produced being is invariably called in Mesopotamian texts the “model”, “model of Man” or “form”... Thus, after several failures, Adapa/Adam was “bred” - the first “model” of Man. And at first Adam was alone. When it turned out that Adapa/Adam fully satisfied all the requirements... he was used as a genetic model, or “form,” to create physiological copies of him that were not only male, but also female” (Z. Sitchin, “12 planet").

Rice. 267.Ninhursag creates Adam

“The Mesopotamian texts provide us with a wealth of information about the process of carrying out the first “copying” of Adam. The gods strictly followed Enki's instructions. In the House of Shimti, where the breath of life was “blown in,” Enki, the Mother Goddess and fourteen assisting birth goddesses gathered. The divine “essence”—the blood of God—and the “pool of purification” had already been prepared. “Ea cleansed the clay, speaking incantations incessantly.” “The God who purifies Napishtu, Ea, has spoken. Sitting opposite, he helped her. Having said the spell three times, she touched the clay carefully... Ninti pinched off fourteen pieces from the clay; seven she put to the right, seven she put to the left”...

Birth goddesses were divided into two groups. “Learned and glorious in their wisdom, the births of the goddess gathered in number twice seven,” read the verses. The Mother Goddess placed fourteen pieces of “kneaded clay” into their wombs...

After the operation is completed, all that remains is to wait: “The birth of the goddess stayed together. Ninty sat nearby, counting the months. The fateful tenth month was approaching; now that tenth month has come; and at the appointed time their bosoms trembled. With a face full of hope and compassion, she covered her head and became a midwife. She hugged her waist and whispered words of blessing. And so I took out the form; and life was poured into it.”

The epic “When, like people, the gods...” contains a passage whose purpose is to explain why it was necessary to mix the “blood” of the gods with the “clay.” This "divine" element was not the blood of a god in the usual sense. The passage reports that the god chosen by the “donor” had T.E.MA - a word that leading textual scholars W. G. Lambert and A. R. Millard from the University of Oxford interpret as “personality.” However, in the language of the ancient people this word had a much more specific meaning. Literally translated, it means “that which contains that which memory conveys.” Moreover, in the Akkadian version this word sounds like “etemu”, that is, “spirit”. In both cases we are dealing with “something” in the blood of God, which was the bearer of his individuality. Based on all this, we can confidently say that Ea, with the help of the “baths of purification,” isolated in the blood of God nothing more than the genes of God” (Z. Sitchin, “12th Planet”).

Let us note that the “clay” mentioned in the texts has a slightly different meaning from our usual one. This is not natural clay at all, but a kind of “mixture used for modeling” - “that from which one sculpts (or creates)”...

Translating all of the above into ordinary language, we get that, according to the ancient Sumerian texts, man was bred by the gods as a result of a series of genetic experiments based on “local material”, that is, possibly on the basis of one of those whom we now consider his ancestor within the framework of evolutionary theory. In the first experiments, non-viable disabled people and even complete monsters were obtained. Then things got better, but the result still had some drawbacks. In particular, some texts report that a person either could not speak or could not reproduce. Only the last series of experiments was successful, when it was decided to add the genes of the gods themselves to the “local procurement”. After this, a successful copy was “replicated” using genetic engineering and surrogacy, and goddesses specially selected for this acted as surrogate mothers.

Non-randomness of coincidences

If we compare the testimony of ancient Sumerian legends and traditions with modern achievements in the field of genetic engineering, a number of interesting and very revealing parallels will emerge.

Point one: getting scary monsters at the first stage.

This is reminiscent of the results of some experiments that geneticists conducted in the second half of the twentieth century. Then they got real monsters - frogs with paws on their heads, eyes on their backs and generally something “indigestible”...

The second point: in the course of further experiments, a person appears who is unable to speak.

Currently, many biologists are of the opinion that the ability to speak in the form that modern humans possess is closely related to certain structural features of the larynx and skull that are absent in animals. So, with an appropriate error or simply not taking these features into account, there is nothing unrealistic in obtaining a result of a genetic experiment incapable of speech.

Point three: the gods create a person incapable of reproduction.

This is generally quite an ordinary result in hybridization experiments. Not only does it not contradict modern science, but it is completely consistent.

Point four: man is ultimately created as a hybrid of “local stock” and “god.”

All the details of the description of the procedure for obtaining a hybrid are extremely reminiscent of modern experiments in the field of genetic engineering. Including even in the part when, after receiving a satisfactory specimen, the gods proceed to “replicate” it - in modern cloning experiments, after certain primary procedures, gestation of the embryo is required in the usual way. And although human cloning has not yet been carried out, it is obvious that the embryo in this case will need to be incubated in a woman’s womb - a practice that is already widely used today in surrogacy, for example.

Rice. 268.Goddesses took on the role of surrogate mothers

Point five: during the first series of experiments, a sample is created that quickly ages and dies.

The very first known positive cloning experiment was the creation of Dolly the sheep. Dolly, in all respects, was no different from her original, but from a certain moment she began to age quickly and died, ultimately living just a few years. There are different versions of the explanation for her sudden death, but the likelihood of linking this sad result directly with shortcomings in the technique itself or directly in the process of cloning is quite real...

As you can see, the similarity of details is so great that it cannot be a coincidence. And we must either assume that the ancient Sumerians possessed genetic engineering technologies (for which there are no objective grounds) or that they received information about the real manipulations and actions of the gods, which the Sumerians simply presented in terminology that was accessible and understandable to them...

We, of course, are still very far from such an operation as obtaining a new species (or at least subspecies) of a person that would have any significant differences from the original sample. However, science does not stand still. In addition, we are still practically at the very beginning of the path in genetic engineering as such, if we talk about the potential possibilities of this direction. So it is absolutely impossible to exclude the possibility that the civilization of the gods, by the time of the “creation” of man, had advanced in genetic engineering much further than modern science.

Rice. 269.Dolly the sheep herself was successfully cloned again

By the way, the assumption that the civilization of the gods possessed genetic engineering technology is definitely confirmed.

Thus, ancient legends and traditions of many nations report that “the gods gave agriculture to people.” The famous Soviet scientist Nikolai Vavilov, back in the 30s of the twentieth century, came to conclusions that indirectly confirm this statement of our ancestors. During his expeditions to various countries of the world, studying wild varieties and cultivated plants, Vavilov discovered that there were eight isolated centers of ancient agriculture, which arose here simultaneously and independently of each other approximately 10-12 thousand years ago. It is curious that it is in the places of these hotbeds that we find the most obvious and distinct traces of highly developed technologies.

It is noteworthy that for the main grain crops, Vavilov did not find any transitional forms from wild varieties to cultivated species. Cultivated species in the centers of ancient agriculture seemed to appear out of nowhere immediately in a ready-made form.

Moreover. Wheat, for example, appears in three independent foci at once. And the difference between the wheat varieties in these outbreaks can be traced at the genetic level - they have 14, 28 and 42 chromosomes, that is, there was a doubling and tripling of the chromosome set.

Modern biologists are already able to obtain new varieties with doubled and tripled sets of chromosomes. However, this requires exposure to so-called mutagens - chemical or radiation factors that lead to changes at the gene level. That is, at the very dawn of agriculture, someone carried out genetic modification of the main grain crops. It is clear that a primitive farmer could not do this, but a highly developed civilization of gods could easily do it - after all, by that time it knew how to overcome interstellar distances.

Rice. 270.Nikolay Vavilov

However, it is precisely the alien origin of the civilization of the gods that sometimes raises doubts about the version of the “creation” of man as a hybrid during genetic experiments. They say that for such experiments it is necessary to have close genotypes of not just two civilizations or species, but also life forms on two different planets, which at first glance seems very unlikely. However, a number of considerations can be made against this skeptical point of view.

Firstly, the discussion in Sumerian legends may not necessarily be purely about that genetic crossing, which is understandable to us already at this stage of the development of science. After all, we cannot exclude the possibility of some other way of influencing the genes of the “earthly preparation”.

Let's say that quite a few researchers now agree that not everything is determined purely by the chemical composition of DNA and the bonds between atoms and groups of atoms within it. There is ongoing discussion that the structure of both DNA itself and its constituent parts plays an important role. And the experiments of Pyotr Goryaev and Andrei Berezin show the possibility, for example, of a wave effect on this structure. Moreover, the effects of both destroying DNA and restoring damaged structures. So why shouldn’t the civilization of the gods, instead of the genetic manipulations we are used to, use some kind of “wave genetics” (as Goryaev himself prefers to call this method of influence)?.. There is no special need for the similarity of the genotypes of the “earthly preparation” and the alien gods...

Secondly, it is absolutely impossible to exclude the possibility that the similarity of genotypes did occur due to some additional reasons. For example, life both on our planet and on the planet of the gods had a common source. Or in general, the gods themselves sowed the form of life familiar to them on our planet in time immemorial. Such options are not so fantastic.

And thirdly, why shouldn’t there be similarity in gene pools even with the independent origin of life on different planets? The likelihood of this is actually not that small. At least, this is what another recent study indirectly indicates - studies of the genetic code conducted by Sergei Petukhov, who works at the intersection of biology and mathematics.

I will not go into details of his work so as not to burden the reader with specific terminology. Those interested can easily find the necessary information on the Internet. The only important thing for us here is that the “Biperiodic Table of the Genetic Code” constructed by him, which describes the basic principles of encoding the hereditary information of all known living systems, amazingly turned out to be strictly consistent with... the well-known table of hexagrams in the Chinese Book of Changes “I-Ching”! .

Rice. 271.Biperiodic table of the genetic code of S. Petukhov

Meanwhile, if in the table of hexagrams we replace solid lines with zero and broken lines with one, and write them horizontally rather than vertically, we will get six-digit numbers in the binary number system. In this case, the values ​​of these numbers will turn out to be a complete set of numbers in the range from 0 to 63 (in the usual decimal form of notation), located in the table strictly in order!.. The probability of a random arrangement in this way is negligibly small - only one chance out of 64 ! (factorial of sixty-four, that is, the product of all numbers from 1 to 64 by each other) options. In physics, such a low probability is correlated with forbidden or impossible processes. In other words, this simply cannot be an accident in any way.

Rice. 272.Table of hexagrams “I Ching” and its “numerical double”

Let's leave aside the question of where the Chinese even got such a table. For us now something completely different is much more important. After all, then it turns out that Petukhov’s “Bi-periodic table of the genetic code” is not at all accidental, but is directly related to some basic mathematical principles or laws of our universe!.. If this is so, then the similarity of the genotypes of life on two different planets is not only probable, but it must also take place!!!

Very indicative in this regard are the so-called “black smokers” - underwater volcanoes, near which a whole biosystem of living organisms was discovered, existing on the basis of a fundamentally different biochemistry - they extract energy from hydrogen sulfide coming from the depths with the gases of underwater volcanoes. The study of these living organisms in the “black smoker” system did not reveal any serious differences in the genetic code from known protein systems. This would hardly be possible if there were sharp differences in the principles of constructing the genetic code. It seems that we are still dealing here with some general laws of self-organization of matter, which are reflected in the universality of the genetic code...

Rice. 273."Black Smoker" and its inhabitants

And one more important point.

Paradoxical as it may seem, the version set forth in ancient Sumerian legends does not at all contradict the evolutionary theory as such. Let us remind you: before starting the experiments, Enki mentions that the creature the gods need already exists - that is, that on Earth there is already a “natural semi-finished product”, a “blank”, which only needs to be slightly modified. This indicates precisely that man was not created “out of nothing” (as is the case, for example, in the biblical version), but on the basis of “local preparation” (let’s call it that for now), which appeared on the planet during all that the same evolution. Accordingly, a significant part of both genes and traces of ancient mutations inevitably had to pass through the used “blank” and passed on to the resulting hybrid.

The Sumerian version of the “creation” of man actually only complements and expands the evolutionary theory, allowing for the factor of external intervention, which the evolutionary theory simply does not take into account. But the results of our own practice in the field of artificial selection, genetic engineering and cloning provide us with quite tangible and concrete examples of the influence of that very factor of external intervention that evolutionary theory does not take into account. So why don’t we take into account the impact of such a factor on ourselves in the past?!

Nothing passes without a trace

Specific actions also leave traces corresponding to these actions. Therefore, if in some past on Earth there was interference in the evolutionary process at the genetic level, then traces of this interference could – and even should – remain at this level. And it turns out that there really are such traces!.. True, some of them are more obvious, and some are doubtful...

For example, such a remarkable fact has been known for quite some time: humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), and their closest modern “relatives” (gorillas, chimpanzees and orangutans) have 48 (24 pairs). The two arms of human chromosome No. 2 correspond to two chromosomes each in chimpanzees, gorilla and orangutan. And at the moment there is no absolutely unambiguous answer to the question for what reasons and when this difference arose.

There are other differences in the gene set of primates and humans. For example, some studies mention some kind of “inversion between the regions p14.I – q14.I, which led to the difference between human chromosome No. 5 and the chimpanzee chromosome.”

Back in the early 80s, the American Page from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology discovered that if you climb the evolutionary ladder of mammals, then all of them, right down to monkeys, have the same piece of DNA on the female sex chromosome X, approximately 4 million chemical in size links (nucleotides), but only in modern humans this piece of DNA was also copied onto the male sex chromosome Y. It later turned out that after copying onto the Y chromosome of a hominid, a section of the X chromosome underwent a major mutation, which resulted in it splitting in two and these halves then swapped places. And just a few years ago, molecular geneticist Nabil Affara from the University of Cambridge, in this mysterious piece of DNA (available on both sex chromosomes only in humans), found two genes with similar functions (PCDHX and PCDHY), responsible for the production of proteins that exist only in human brain and play a key role in the formation of the nervous system...

Rice. 274.Sex chromosomes

One of the “purely human” genes that distinguishes us from monkeys is the so-called prodynorphin. This gene encodes pleasure substances - endorphins, with the help of which emotional regulation of behavior is carried out, that is, we get pleasure from some of our actions, but we don’t get from others. Differences from monkeys were found to be concentrated in the regulatory region of this gene. As a result, endorphins are synthesized in us in some different situations than in monkeys. That is, we get pleasure from something different and get a different amount of pleasure than monkeys. And in fact, this is a certain mechanism for controlling behavior - something that largely determines our actions...

But we will not go into listing here all the differences that are already known and can still be discovered. The only important thing is that among the reasons for the genetic differences between humans and primates, there may well be the same genetic intervention of the gods (that is, an alien civilization), which is associated with the process of “creating” them from “local materials.” It is not necessary that all differences are due to this intervention; most likely - only some part of them. The very possibility of this is important to us.

Modern researchers talk about mutations. But in the light of the problem we are considering, it is worth asking the question: are these mutations in the full sense of the word?! More precisely, one should ask another question: if by mutations we mean all changes in the structure of DNA, then were all mutations natural in nature and not the result of external meaningful and targeted influence?!

Within the framework of a purely evolutionary theory, it is impossible to assume otherwise. However, as a fact, we can only state the difference between a particular DNA section in one sample and the corresponding DNA section in another sample. And “natural mutation” is already an interpretation. And if you can’t argue with the fact, then the interpretation may well be wrong!..

We were not present at the events of many thousands of years ago. We are only observing the consequences of these events. What will we see if a natural mutation occurs?.. We will see differences in the structure of DNA. And what will we see if there was a genetic change by the gods of the “earthly preparation”?.. We will see absolutely the same thing! That is, differences in the structure of DNA!..

The very fact of the presence of a mutation - as a change in the structure of DNA - says absolutely nothing about whether this mutation was natural, arising during the “normal” evolution of human ancestors, or obtained as a result of genetic intervention on the part of an “alien” intelligent being!..

It turns out that we have the same set of empirically established facts, explained by two different theories.

And here we are faced with a serious problem. Is it even possible to somehow determine whether the mutation that occurred was natural or artificially caused?..

At the current stage of scientific knowledge, it is necessary to state that, strictly speaking, we do not have such a possibility. It cannot be ruled out that appropriate technologies and techniques will appear someday in the future. But now, alas, they are gone. And in the current situation, we can only make some assumptions that require verification in the future.

Rice. 275.Is it possible to distinguish a natural mutation from an artificial one?

However, the matter is not as hopeless as it might seem. And here, oddly enough, evolutionary theory itself can help us. After all, we know some patterns of evolution, and therefore we can evaluate how much a particular mutation and its consequences correspond to these patterns. And we can identify those “abnormal” or “strange” mutations, the very appearance and consequences of which do not fit into the patterns of the general evolutionary process or lead to negative evolutionary consequences. It is these mutations that have every chance of becoming candidates for the title of “the result of external intervention of the civilization of the gods in the process of the emergence of man” and for the title of “evidence of the creation of man by the civilization of the gods.” And in this regard, several interesting conclusions obtained in the course of the latest research attract attention.

The first conclusion, literally striking, is that the genotype of different people is extremely similar. And so much so that it causes great bewilderment.

“If you compare the DNA of different people, it turns out that they differ from each other by only 0.1%, that is, only every thousandth of our nucleotide is different, and the remaining 99.9% are the same. Moreover, if we compare all the diversity of DNA of representatives of the most different races and peoples, it turns out that people differ much less than chimpanzees in one herd” (L. Zhivotovsky, E. Khusnutdinova, “Genetic History of Humanity”).

One can often come across the statement that such a result is due to the fact that the process of migration and settlement of our predecessors around the planet was allegedly accompanied (for unknown and unspoken reasons) by a decrease in the rate of mutations. However, such a statement raises legitimate surprise and great doubt.

If migrations and gradual settlement really took place, then we must take into account the fact that the climate in different places on our planet is different - the conditions of the northern regions differ sharply from the equatorial conditions of Africa, for example. Consequently, as a result of migrations, a person found himself in conditions different from those in which his ancestors lived. And changes in external conditions do not slow things down; on the contrary, they increase the likelihood of mutations occurring. And according to all the known laws of the general evolutionary process, we should have a completely different result - an expansion, rather than a narrowing, of differences in DNA.

Rice. 276.Humanity is closer to each other than chimpanzees in the same herd

Such small differences between people from each other are possible only if we are descendants of a very, very small (!) group of ancestors (or themselves) of Homo sapiens, who lived in the very recent past, compared to our separation from the branch of primates. And if the separation of the chimpanzee and human branches is now considered to have occurred 5-7 million years ago, then the time of existence of the mentioned small group, from which all of humanity originated, is significantly closer to the present time. Different researchers give different estimates: some call the moment 200 thousand years ago, others much later - only 70-75 thousand years ago. But be that as it may, these are not millions of years at all...

The conclusion about a very narrow “base” of humanity was also obtained in the course of other studies, which are now widely known thanks to the loud name of the search for “mitochondrial Eve” and “Y-chromosomal Adam”. Different studies have obtained different dates for such “Adam and Eve,” but in general we are talking about a time range of approximately 100 to 200 thousand years ago. It was at this time that humanity, according to researchers, went through something like a “bottleneck” in the size of its population, almost ceasing to exist as a species altogether. The reasons for the emergence of this “bottleneck” are absolutely not clear...

Rice. 277.Humanity's passage through a bottleneck

It turns out that evolutionary theory, based on the findings of modern research, indicates a very, very small composition of the human population at a certain point in time that was of “key importance.” Most often, researchers prefer to talk about thousands of individuals of this population, but this does not fit well with the fact that the gene pool is so narrow, which is lower “than that of chimpanzees in one herd.” Therefore, according to some “radical” estimates, we are the descendants of such a group, which at the time of the “bottleneck” numbered only 20 to 200 individuals!..

But the Sumerian legends about the “creation” of man by the gods during genetic experiments also speak about the same thing. Even the size of the first “mass party” – fourteen “Adam clones” (seven men, seven women) – in order of magnitude coincides with the lower limit in scientists’ estimates of the population size at the time of passing the “bottleneck”!..

Moreover. Research on mitochondrial DNA generally points to a single “Eve,” and on the Y chromosome to a single “Adam.” But this is exactly what the ancient Sumerian legends talk about - after all, they replicated a single successful copy!..

Again, two theories describe the same result.

However, conventional evolutionary theory cannot find the reasons for the appearance of a strange bottleneck. Moreover, there are many complaints about the “bottleneck” version, precisely from the standpoint of the theory of evolution. Why, of all the representatives of early sapiens, only such a small branch continued?.. Did representatives of other branches of early sapiens withdraw themselves from procreation?.. Hardly. But then, where are their (!) descendants?..

But the Sumerian version is devoid of all these inconvenient questions. Within its framework, the “bottleneck” turns out to be just an illusion - there was no “bottle” in front of the “neck”, since there simply were no people of the modern type at all. There was only a certain “earthly preparation” (more on that a little later), and there were gods, the addition of some part of whose genome to the genome of this very “earthly preparation” became the “starting point” of modern humanity.

And one moment.

Genetic studies of recent times have forced researchers to hypothesize that some unknown population, supposedly living somewhere in Central Africa, also contributed to the genetic baggage of modern humanity. However, there are absolutely no material finds that could be associated with this population.

The Sumerian version allows us to do without this hypothetical population. Within the framework of this version, the missing contribution to the genome of modern humanity may be an additionally constructed artificial “supplement” produced by the gods during the modification of the “earthly preparation”, or perhaps part of the gene pool of the gods themselves...

Evolutionary "oddities"

A lot of controversy has occurred (and is still happening) around the characteristics of human hair. And in the overwhelming majority of cases, the naturalness of the process of loss of body hair by a person (or some of his ancestors) is disputed. But, in my opinion, skeptics are coming from the wrong direction.

Just like if a person were just a “naked ape”, then there would be no questions. Well, wool disappeared during evolution as unnecessary - nothing surprising. However, in the absence of serious hair covering almost the entire body, a person has hair on his head, which grows at an incredible speed. In just a few years, a “mane” a meter long can easily grow. And modern “record holders” grow their hair more than one and a half tens of meters long.

So imagine a primitive human ancestor who, already in childhood, receives such a “gift of nature.” This “gift” makes it incredibly difficult for him not only to hunt, but also to simply walk. It’s not like you’re running through thickets or bushes, but you can’t really run around in the open savannah either.

Moreover. Long before the hair reaches such a length that a person begins to step on it, it will grow so long that it will constantly fall over the eyes and block normal vision.

From the point of view of the laws of evolution, such a hominid with such a “gift of nature” should have become extinct in the shortest possible time. But for some reason he didn’t do this.

An interesting detail: in almost all reconstructions of ancient hominids (down to our “closest relative” - the Neanderthal) you can only see hair, not only on the body, but also on the head. And not long hair. The question is, why?.. As far as I know, no remains of these ancient hominids have been found that would indicate the presence of long hair on their heads. And this despite the fact that the hair is preserved from decomposition for quite a long time...

Rice. 278.Mummies with long hair in burials of the Nazca culture (Peru)

To be fair, it is worth noting that in hot southern countries, hair still grows at a slower rate. And there is clearly a direct connection here - for example, when traveling to hot countries you have to shave noticeably less often. And one could try to attribute everything to the fact that the rate of hair growth in our ancestors increased during migration to cooler areas - as a natural reaction to changing external conditions. But then the question arises - why didn’t the hair on the rest of the body also react?.. After all, it was not only the head that needed to be warmed. Then why did the evolutionary mechanism suddenly decide to protect only her?..

Okay, let's say your nails grow quickly too. But nails can at least wear down during certain types of activities. And the hair?!. They don't shorten on their own. There is no way to do this without scissors or at least a sharp knife. However, tools suitable for such a procedure as hair cutting appeared, by historical standards, quite recently. It was possible, of course, to come up with some kind of scarves or garters with the help of which to fix the head of hair on the head, but the same garters also had to be made from something...

So if we consider the appearance of fast-growing hair to be some kind of natural mutation, then it must be dated no earlier than the time when the skills of creating special garters or tools such as scissors appeared. And this seems very, very doubtful, since it does not fit in at all in terms of time scales - even garters clearly appeared no earlier than several tens of thousands of years ago. With some optimism, it is possible to push back the time frame for their appearance, say, a hundred thousand years ago. And note that in this case we strangely find ourselves in the same time frame that is reserved for “mitochondrial Eve” and “Y-chromosomal Adam”!..

Rice. 279.Ways

On February 20, 2018 in the State Duma, chaired by Vyacheslav Volodin Large parliamentary hearings were held on the topic: “Formation of legal conditions for financing and development of the digital economy.”

They were attended by representatives of the parliamentary corps, leading employees of large banks, officials of relevant ministries, and well-known specialists in the field of digital technologies. Discussion was broadcast on parliamentary TV and lasted several hours. During this time, 22 reports were heard. With God's help, we managed to summarize the main points from the speeches of the main speakers.

Below are the most typical excerpts.

First of all, it must be noted with regret that only supporters of “universal digitalization and biometrization of the entire country” spoke at the hearings. Opponents were not invited to this forum. There were no representatives of the Russian Orthodox Church, academic economists (what kind of economics can we talk about then!) and representatives of the public. That is, a fairly narrow group of interested parties decided the fate of the country and people behind closed doors.

Here we can recall how immediately after the World Bank in Moscow “Concept, international trends and vision of the digital economy - towards a long-term strategy” on December 20, 2016, it was decided to include Russia “in the process of global digital transformation”, and on July 7, 2017 at the Summit The G-20 focused on the development of the digital economy on a global scale.

After this, digitalization became a particularly obsessive idea in the minds of Russian officials, bankers and IT specialists, and on July 28, 2017, the “Digital Economy of the Russian Federation” Program was approved by Order of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 1632-r.

At the hearings on February 20, 2018, the sensible voices of 2-3 people were drowned in loud hymns to the “new technological order.” What did the speakers promise to their captivated listeners?!

100% protection of citizens’ personal data on the Internet (!), exclusively national technological and software solutions, legalization of mining and cryptocurrencies, prevention of “digital” unemployment with general robotization.

The meeting was opened by the First Deputy Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation Igor Shuvalov. Having complained that “Economic growth in the country is still shaky”, He said: “The rate of economic growth is not yet enough for an ordinary family to live well, but a new quality of life for Russian citizens is impossible without the development of the digital economy.”

According to the Deputy Prime Minister, the main problem is the legislative support for the digital economy. “Here is the question of human rights: how protected will the individual be. It is quite difficult to combat organized crime, - Shuvalov noted. - There is no consensus in society on identification issues yet...»

Everything seems to be correct, but then there’s a new twist in the government representative’s reasoning:

“Of course, there are many ethical issues behind the introduction of the digital economy, but there is no alternative to this... Everything is to improve the lives of the population. Without a digital economy, it is impossible to ensure growth... Everything for the convenience of citizens. If an individual wishes to conveniently interact with the state and commercial structures, this is done on a voluntary basis... How secure the databases will be, and how this data should not be used against a person are issues of cybersecurity. A person’s life becomes transparent, but there is no other way out.”, concluded Shuvalov.

In general, his speech followed the well-known formula: “Execution cannot be pardoned.”

Following him, the Chairman of the State Duma Committee on the Financial Market came to the podium Anatoly Aksakov, who expressed hope “in 5-7 years to reach the level of advanced countries in the development of the digital economy.” The key to this is regulation. We need to pass 50 laws in this area.

“First of all, this is the protection of human rights. Our citizens have different attitudes to this topic. Voluntariness must be ensured. Describe rights and responsibilities. Of course, there are problems with databases. We must protect our citizens."- the deputy began cheerfully.

Many citizens know from experience how “voluntary” very quickly turns into mandatory.

Speaking about biometric identification in the banking sector, Aksakov noted: “The matter is purely voluntary, only with the consent of the person, and then these norms (related to anti-human identification and authentication- author) we will extend it to other government institutions.”

This is the Jesuit logic of the legislator: “We invite you, citizens, to “voluntarily” renounce your rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution of the Russian Federation.” As the previous speaker said, “This is necessary to improve the quality of life of citizens.”

The ancient serpent said approximately the same thing to our forefathers in paradise. Although it is very difficult to imagine that the digital economy will help to dramatically improve the situation of our compatriots, of whom more than 20 million live below the poverty line, another 15 million are “dangerously close” to it, and more than 40 million are barely making ends meet. These are only official figures.

However, the Minister of Communications and Mass Communications, who spoke after Aksakov Nikolay Nikiforov He immediately admitted that digitalization innovation requires very, very serious financial investments. Attracting private investment is, in principle, possible, but financing of basic information platforms should be exclusively budgetary. From this it is clear that the state will have no time to help the needy.

Nikiforov did not forget to mention that “The digital profile of a citizen should be the prerogative of the state, and in the identification system, from July 2018, biometrics will be used, which will replace conventional methods.”

In conclusion, the minister promised that “By 2024, the share of those who have digital skills should reach 40% of the Russian population.”

Chairman of the Board of the Skolkovo Foundation, State Counselor of Justice, Candidate of Legal Sciences Igor Drozdov outlined his approach to the problem of identification. “There are no uniform rules for electronic identification of citizens when concluding transactions on the Internet. It is necessary to ensure paperless remote interaction between companies and consumers, and companies among themselves... We need to move towards simpler methods of identification, such as by credit card, by smartphone... In my opinion, there are great prospects here, because this can seriously improve the quality of services provided to citizens,”- Drozdov noted.

According to him, a serious challenge is the still unresolved question: who owns personal data - the person or the one who stores and processes it?

“Improving the quality of life of citizens occurs through intervention in their personal lives, - emphasized the legal specialist. - At the same time, everything should be on a voluntary basis. It is necessary to preserve all options for those who want to use traditional methods.”

Apart from Igor Drozdov, no one specifically raised the issue of the need to preserve the traditional system for many citizens who, even under the threat of death, will never enter the electronic swamp, from which there is only one way out - to the underworld.

Head of the United Russia faction Sergey Neverov also pointed out one of the global challenges of the digital economy. Will one group of people gain some kind of superiority over others? According to the politician, it is possible to divide people into a new elite and slaves. For those who own robots and others.

“The digital economy carries not only new opportunities, but also new serious risks: growing socio-economic inequality and the possibility of social tension. Compliance with the principles of equality will require significant government regulation, because we will need to take into account the interests of all citizens,”- warned the main Duma member of United Russia.

A representative of A Just Russia suggested something similar. Alexey Chepa: “I would like to warn against taking an overly optimistic view of the problem. Digitalization will not solve the problem of inefficiency in the real sector, - he's sure. - Despite the active introduction of digital technologies in the public administration system and in the banking sector...”

The deputy called for paying special attention to the social consequences and risks of introducing new technologies: “The digital economy will inevitably lead to a reformatting of the labor market and labor relations. Researchers are already talking about the formation of a special class of “non-standard” people (these are, apparently, those who do not want to submit themselves to digital slavery- author) The rights of workers must be reliably protected. Associated with the digital economy is the possibility of flexible use of labor resources, but the downside of this process is the deepening of social inequality. Without a carefully calibrated and thoughtful plan to prevent digital unemployment, digitalization will create more problems than solutions. In addition, threats to the information security of citizens’ private lives are increasing.», - the legislator warned.

The president of the InfoWatch group of companies spoke about information security in her speech. Natalia Kasperskaya. “We are talking about the digital economy, and we are all talking about its advantages. I want to talk about risks. An information “bubble” is created around technology when everyone starts talking about it. A certain agenda is imposed on us: “We will be late... We are always in the position of catching up...” New digital technologies are associated with remote control. Data about our citizens, on the basis of which geopolitical conclusions can be drawn, poses very serious risks. By introducing the technologies that come to us from the West, we are descending into a state of digital colonization", - said Kasperskaya.

“In reality, a “bubble” of new technologies is beginning to spread here. Some we know, some we haven't heard of yet. If they become foreign, then our technological dependence will deepen... What is the correct scenario for the development of a technological society? If the technologies are only partially foreign, and partially ours. We must understand that when we talk about digital technologies, we need to develop them on our own basis, so as not to fall into digital dependence,”- the speaker summed up.

With all due respect to Natalya Ivanovna’s judgment regarding threats to national security and the ongoing digital colonization of Russia, it should be noted that she said nothing about threats to God-given freedom and personal safety of citizens in a digital society.

You need to understand that the construction of an electronic concentration camp in a single country “using its own technologies” is no different from the same process on a global scale.

A presidential candidate and deputy has long been advocating for such a world order Vladimir Zhirinovsky. In his usual relaxed manner, he explained his postulates to the audience: “First we need to introduce digital into democracy. Direct voting. Everyone at home votes. Create special programs that would analyze the speeches of candidates over all the years of their public activity, and based on this analysis would deduce their IQ and ability for political leadership. And people will see what each candidate is worth... determine and evaluate...

Everything should be electronic, everything - volunteers and guardianship authorities will help the older generation. And young people are already ready - a card, a smartphone, a mobile phone... They need to take fingerprints, retina, voice from everyone without exception - there will be complete identification! »- exclaimed the leader of the LDPR.

“And stop crime. How to give a bribe if there is no cash? How to sell drugs? It’s difficult, if the movement of money is by bank transfer, then everything is visible there. And set limits. There should be cash and electronics everywhere,”- Zhirinovsky said.

It must be said that direct electronic voting is the dream of the forerunners of the Antichrist. In this case, the anonymity of voters is completely lost. The focus is on “issues of unambiguous identification and authentication of citizens when interacting with authorities for the successful implementation of e-democracy mechanisms.” This is where they “count everyone correctly” and always make the most “fateful decision.”

Zhirinovsky knows what he's talking about. It will be almost impossible to check the results of “direct electronic voting,” which will allow the owners of the system to carry out 100% falsification of voting results and the adoption of any “unpopular” laws by an “overwhelming number of votes.”

The Adviser to the President of the Russian Federation on Internet Development made a very interesting statement at the hearing. German Klimenko: “There is an economy, there is a digital economy. If we don't convince the real economy to come to our side, we won't be able to act., we will not be able to seriously change our economy... What is required? The experience that was acquired during the existence of the Internet Development Institute shows that we need some kind of working group...

It is extremely important to have some position of the State Duma itself on these issues. It would be ideal to have some kind of working group, where there would be deputies from each committee... The digital economy is an end-to-end thing. And by and large, the development of the digital economy depends solely on the bills that we pass,”- explained the adviser to the President of the Russian Federation.

With his speech, Klimenko showed that he perfectly understands the difference between the real and the “digital” economy, which serves as a cover for the unseemly deeds of the builders of a society of total control.

Chairman of the Committee on Economic Policy, Industry, Innovative Development and Entrepreneurship Sergey Zhigarev and head of Udmurdia Alexander Brechalov focused on cryptocurrencies.

“For the first time in human history, the state’s monopoly on the production of money will be broken, Zhigarev announced. - Mining is one of the types of business that should be legalized. There are costs - high electricity consumption. However, mining as a way to make money is in a gray area. Legalization could be useful for a new industry..."

Now the chairman of the Duma Committee believes: “Digital currencies open up new horizons. In Russia, this could help attract investors from Western countries, which we need.” This “transformation” of judgments occurred in Zhigarev in a very short period of time.

Alexander Brechalov literally began lobbying the interests of cryptocurrency scammers in an aggressive manner: “Since last year, different ideas have been heard in Russia on how to regulate the circulation of cryptocurrencies and how to create working conditions for mining organizations in conducting ICOs. But until now, a unified concept for the development of this area of ​​the digital economy has not been formulated, there is no consolidated position of the authorities and the business community... The proposed legislative initiatives do not establish a framework for the development of the crypto-economy, the procedure for organizing the work of crypto-exchanges, taxation of transactions with crypto-currencies and income from their receipt, procedure for crediting money to a bank account from the sale of cryptocurrency. At the same time, the bills overly regulate the ICO process. All these factors, in the context of the rapid development of the market, will lead to the departure of companies to jurisdictions where the ICO process is not regulated in detail, but systemic conditions for work have been created,” - emphasized the head of Udmurtia.

He did not forget to throw a remark towards Natalya Kasperskaya: “Changes are happening so quickly in the world that the format of excessive caution will once again put us in the position of catching up, and this is very difficult...”

This thesis was fundamental at the hearings. “We must ride digital and rush along the broad road to a bright new digital future.” The words of the Holy Gospel come to mind here: “Enter at the narrow gate, for wide is the gate and broad is the way that leads to destruction, and many go in through it; For narrow is the gate and narrow is the way that leads to life, and few find it.”(Matt. 7:13-14).

Leader of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation Gennady Zyuganov, from whom we expected to hear words in defense of citizens from biometric lawlessness, began to talk about something completely different: “The basis of the digital economy is electronics, machine tools, robotics, artificial intelligence, biotechnology...

Let's look at the real situation - otherwise we will be very vulnerable. If we take, say, robotics, Europe has 600 units per 10 thousand population, the USA - 55, China - 30. We have only two robots! And if we don’t invest here, we can say whatever we want, but we will be absolutely dependent and the first sabotage in this direction will stop our entire production,”- emphasized Gennady Andreevich.

It turns out that this is our problem: a small number of robots per capita, but in general the digital economy is a good thing.

The same was repeated by two deputy chairmen of the main usurious offices of the country - the Central Bank - Olga Skorobogatova and Sberbank - Bella Zlatkis. Nabiullina and Gref did not honor the high meeting with their presence this time.

In particular, Skorobogatova stated: “The financial industry around the world has become a driver of digitalization. Global trends speak for themselves: about half of clients do not go directly to offices, but receive their services remotely... In 2018, we should launch remote identification... We plan to extend this to government services and other services that will in demand by clients..."

The dangers that lie in wait for “clients” included in the ESIA and EBS have been discussed more than once in our publications. For example, in the article ""

Nevertheless, the “digital evangelists” do their job with amazing persistence. There is no doubt that the enemy of the salvation of the human race contributes a lot to this.

February 19, 2018 in the press center of MIA "Russia Today" took place presentation of the anti-human Unified Biometric System developed at PJSC Rostelecom for remote identification of “bio-objects”.

The system was created on the initiative of the Ministry of Telecom and Mass Communications, the Central Bank and Sberbank.

Rostelecom noted that more than twenty Russian banks are already testing the system. A complete list of credit institutions that will use the Unified Biometric System will be compiled by the Central Bank.

According to Law No. 482-FZ, signed on December 31, 2017, in the future the biometric system can be used in various industries - the financial sector, healthcare, education, retail, e-commerce, for receiving government and municipal services.

The press conference at MIA Rossiya Segodnya was opened by Deputy Minister of Communications and Mass Communications of the Russian Federation Alexey Kozyrev, from whom we heard a sensational revelation: « Obviously, the digital economy requires digital people. This means that, unlike in the conventional economy, people should be able to conduct transactions electronically. In order to complete any transaction electronically, we must be able to determine the identity of the person making it. This electronic identification is the most important “key” for digital individuals to start living and working in the digital economy. And this “key”, in fact, cannot be created in any other way except with biometrics...”

These words are the essence of the transformation of the human personality into a certain commodity, which a soulless computer system recognizes mechanically according to given parameters. This is not just a humiliation of human dignity, but rather the transformation of God’s highest creation into a numbered, controlled “biological object.”

This has never happened in the history of mankind, but for the “evangelists of the new digital world” such “little things” mean nothing.

Therefore, Igor Shuvalov’s closing words at the parliamentary hearings on February 20, 2018 are of particular interest:

“There is a high demand in society for serious changes. Without a digital agenda, such changes are impossible. We can discuss as much as we want how vulnerable we are putting ourselves, what will happen, what negative consequences will accompany us, but the most important thing is that if we do not move forward on this agenda, then there will be no qualitative change. People want us to live like in Germany or Switzerland, but you and I, comrades, have everything for this. But in order to convert all this into a specific service and consumption, for this you need to go through digital transformation. For us now, this is the most realistic way out of the current situation.

I do not advocate blindly copying foreign technologies. Our people are talented. Everything can be done where appropriate, using domestic technologies... But it is impossible to come to every household with domestic technologies, and therefore, Contrary to the caution that was sounded here... we definitely need to hurry, otherwise we will simply miss the chance...

Of course, personal security is an extremely important point in all this work, the most important thing that we must ensure. But are we informationally in such a safe environment? No. How many examples have there been of people losing their money from their bank accounts, and printouts of telephone conversations and correspondence becoming available to absolutely everyone? Not to mention email and everything else. This security does not exist, it is imaginary! If a person has a little bit of money and social advancement, these people become the most vulnerable to criminals, and this is already a serious concern for all of us today. Therefore, is it necessary for this regulation to be very strict...

For me, the most important conclusion today is that, while ensuring the legislative process, we should not insist that legislation must be detailed. It should be such that we can act and act quickly within the framework of this legislation, and not every time we first develop a bill for a year, then we will develop by-laws with this bill, and this ad infinitum.

Today, without a sufficient legislative framework, it is necessary to rely on explanations from departments. In this discussion we need to decide what we cannot do. If we are ready to agree on some bans, then these bans must be carried out so that they are minimal, but mandatory, through the law, and the rest must be carried out by departments or market participants, without relying on any will of the state...

You see, this is now a key moment for us... Can we convert our entire economic structure in the coming years?.. The only answer is how quickly we move along the digital agenda... It’s like with mineral resources, with all the wealth, what Russia has... Land, fresh water - everything is there, but for some reason we still haven’t organized ourselves in such a way that it would be the richest economy in the world. The digital agenda can do this. We need to act more boldly here. Of course, exercise caution, but act boldly. If we don't do this, we will then miss our chance. Thank you",- Shuvalov finished.

So, we are invited to join the digital race to live, “like in Germany or Switzerland”, despite the obvious dangers in the information sphere. It is suggested to forget about cybersecurity: “This security does not exist, it is imaginary!”

But most importantly, you need "without sufficient legislative basis" give an opportunity “departments or market participants should act without relying on any will of the state.”

Strongly said. This is a death sentence for the state, which, according to the plans of the globalizers, “should leave the market.” What is the bottom line?

Banks are becoming bodies of total control and management in all spheres of human life, which will concentrate all the personal data of citizens, including biometric ones. Banks with foreign participation become an active government institution that will “remotely” provide paid “services” to citizens.

This means only one thing: a pilot project is being carried out in Russia to turn our country into an electronic digital concentration camp, and its citizens into digital slaves of a gang of international financial tycoons - kings of speculation and moneylenders on a global scale, preparing the coming of the Antichrist.

Valery Pavlovich Filimonov, Russian writer

If we talk about the possibility of the approach of two mega-civilizations, then it is important to return “to each other’s faces” (according to Kipling) in order to hear the other, to understand him. Civilizational differences will remain, but misunderstanding will disappear, and therefore the feeling of superiority of some over others.

It is in the preservation of cultural and historical diversity that many researchers see as the basis for a successful future of humanity. Supporters of this position emphasize the indisputable idea that the basis for the development of any viable organism (including a community of people) is the diversity of forms and species. The spread of common cultural traditions and ways of life, common to all civilizations, will put an end to the development of human society.

There is another point of view. According to it, the difference in civilizational values ​​that are preserved will lead in the future to a clash of civilizations, primarily Christian and Arab-Muslim. Viennas will cease to have an interstate, interethnic character; they will become intercivilizational, and therefore even more destructive.

In order to prevent such a scenario, it is necessary to strive to erase the differences between cultural and historical communities, so that a single world civilization can be established in the future. Western researchers believe that today many values ​​that originated in European civilization are becoming universal. In the economic sphere, this is the achieved level of development of productive forces, modern technologies generated by a new stage of the scientific and technological revolution, and market regulation of the economy. In the political sphere, the universal basis consists of a legal state operating on the basis of democratic political norms and a mature civil society. In the spiritual and moral sphere, the heritage of all peoples is the great achievements of science, art, as well as universal moral values. What is your position in this soup?

Basic Concepts

Values. East. Values. West. Traditional society. World civilization

Typology. Hierarchy. Theocratic state

Self-test questions

1. How is the civilizational diversity of the world expressed?

2. What types of civilizations are distinguished by historians and sociologists of different directions?

3. How and why the division of the world into. East and. West?

4. What features are inherent in Eastern society?

5. What factors influenced the mentality of people in the Western world?

6. What is the essence of the discussion on the prospects for civilizational development?

1. Some researchers compare the differences stored between. East and. The West with the asymmetry of the human brain, in which the right hemisphere is responsible for the artistic vision of the world, intuition, and the left hemisphere is responsible for logic and analysis. Normal brain activity is ensured by both hemispheres in unity. Likewise, human society can fully develop only if its originality is preserved. East and. Is it appropriate to compare the West? wok?

2. Consider an example:

home workers, when paid 10 marks per product, produces 10 such products per day, thus earning 100 marks daily. After doubling the payment per unit of production, he began to make 5 products, leaving the room with his earnings the same. Another worker, initially in the same conditions, after increasing the payment per unit of production by 2 times, began to make 15 products a day, thus bringing his daily income to 300 marks. The behavior of any employee is typical of the mentality of a traditional society, and what of an industrial society? bir.

3. Indian writer. R. Tagore expressed the following thought: The East will change the whole picture of Western civilization, "breathing life into it where it was mechanical, replacing cold calculation with human feeling and a desire not so much for power and success, but for harmonious and living development, for truth and beauty." Do you agree with this role assessment. East in world development?. Justify your visnovvok.

And Stephen Hawking said that this could be the greatest scientific discovery of all time.

What discovery confounded the great scientific minds of the last century, and why did it force them to rethink the origins of the universe? New, more powerful telescopes have revealed the secrets of the universe and raised new questions about the origin of life.

Has science discovered God?

Wait! But hasn't science proven that we don't need God to explain the Universe? Lightning, earthquakes, and even the birth of children were once attributed to the acts of God. But now we know their origin. What is fundamentally different about this discovery and why did it stun the entire scientific world?

This discovery, along with discoveries in molecular biology about the amazingly complex DNA code, has now led many scientists to accept that the universe appears to be part of a grand design.

One cosmologist put it this way: “Many scientists admit that their views are inclined toward a teleological explanation, or a grand design explanation of the universe.”

And it is surprising that many of the scientists who talk about God have no religious faith at all.

So what stunning discoveries suddenly made scientists talk about God? Three revolutionary discoveries in the field of astronomy and molecular biology stand out clearly:

1. The universe had a beginning

2. The Universe Is Surprisingly Suitable for Life

3. The DNA code suggests it was intelligently created.

The statements made by leading scientists about these discoveries may shock you. Let's get a look.

One-time start

Throughout human history, people have always looked in amazement at the stars scattered across the sky and wanted to know what they were and how they got there. Although about 6,000 stars can be seen with the naked eye on a clear night, observations from Hubble and other powerful telescopes indicate there are trillions of stars in more than 100 billion galaxies. Our sun is comparable to one grain of sand among all the sand on the shores of the world's oceans.

However, until the 20th century, the prevailing opinion among scientists was that our galaxy, the Milky Way, occupied the entire Universe, and that there were only about 100 million stars.

And the prevailing opinion of most scientists was that our Universe never had a beginning. They believed that mass, space and energy had always existed.

But at the beginning of the 20th century, astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered that the Universe is expanding. Extrapolating a model of this process into the past, he mathematically calculated that everything in the Universe, including matter, energy, space and even time itself, actually had a beginning.

This statement caused a huge shock in the scientific community. Many scientists, including Einstein, reacted negatively to him. Einstein later called “The biggest mistake of my life” that he adjusted his equations to avoid the conclusion that the universe had a beginning.

And, perhaps, the most ardent opponent of the beginning of the Universe was the British astronomer Fred Hoyle, who sarcastically called the event of the creation of the Universe the “big bang.” He stubbornly adhered to his theory of the constancy of the Universe, which has always existed. Einstein, along with other scientists, adhered to this theory until the facts of the beginning of the Universe could not be denied. This problem, which was preferred to be ignored, this existence of a beginning of the Universe implied that something or Someone, not subject to scientific discovery, was the beginning of everything.

And finally, in 1992, experiments using the COBE satellite confirmed that the Universe did have a one-time beginning in the form of an incredible burst of light and energy. And although some scientists called this beginning the moment of creation, many preferred to call it the “big bang.”

Astronomer Robert Jastrow tries to help us imagine how it all began. “The picture implies the explosion of a cosmic hydrogen bomb. The moment of the explosion of a cosmic bomb marks the birth of the Universe."

Everything from nothing

Science cannot explain to us what caused or who caused the beginning of the Universe. But some believe that this definitely points to the Creator. “The British theorist Edward Milne wrote a mathematical work on the theory of relativity, concluding as follows: ‘As for the first cause of the Universe, in the context of its expansion, the reader must make the insertion himself, since our understanding is incomplete without Him.’”

Another British scientist, Edmund Whitaker, attributed the beginning of our universe to “Divine will, creating Nature out of nothing.”

Many scientists have been amazed at how this one-time creation out of nothing matches the biblical creation account in Genesis 1:1. Before this discovery, many scientists considered the biblical explanation of the creation of the world out of nothing to be unscientific.

Despite the fact that Jastrow considered himself an agnostic, under the pressure of facts he was forced to admit: “We now understand how knowledge of astronomy leads to a biblical view of the origins of the world.”

Another agnostic, such as George Smoot, the Nobel Prize winner who led the COBE experiments, recognizes this parallel. “There is undoubtedly a parallel between the big bang and the Christian idea of ​​the creation of the world out of nothing.”

Scholars who scorned the Bible as a book of fairy tales are now recognizing that the biblical concept of creation out of nothing was right after all.

Cosmologists specializing in the study of the Universe and its origins soon realized that a random cosmic explosion had little better chance of creating life than an atomic bomb, except by carefully thought out engineering calculations. And this meant that it was planned by the creator. They began to call such a creator “Super-intelligence”, “Creator” and even “Supreme Being”. Let's see why.

Fine tuning for life

Physicists have calculated that gravity and other natural forces must be just right for life to exist. Otherwise, our Universe could not exist. If the degree of expansion were slightly less, then the force of gravity would pull all matter back into the “big squeeze.”

And we are not talking about one or two percent reduction in the degree of expansion of the Universe. Stephen Hawking writes: “If the rate of expansion one second after the big bang had been less than one hundred-thousand-millionth of a million, the universe would have collapsed before it could reach its present size.”

On the other hand, if the expansion had been even a fraction greater than it was, then galaxies, stars and planets would never have been able to form, and we would not be here today.

As for the existence of life itself, the conditions in our solar system and on the planet also had to be ideal. For example, we all understand that without an atmosphere containing oxygen, we would not be able to breathe. Without oxygen there would be no water. Without water there would be no rain, which is necessary for crops. Other elements - hydrogen, nitrogen, sodium, carbon, calcium and phosphorus - are also necessary for life.

But this is not the only thing necessary for life to exist. The size, temperature, relative proximity and chemical composition of our planet, sun and moon must also meet certain precise conditions. And dozens of other conditions must be very precisely tuned, otherwise we simply would not be here, and there would be no one to think about it.

Scientists who believed in God may have assumed such fine-tuning, but atheists and agnostics could not find an explanation for these amazing “coincidences.” Theoretical physicist and agnostic Stephen Hawking writes: “ The amazing fact is that the values ​​of these parameters seem to have been very precisely adjusted to make the development of life possible.”

Accident or miracle?

But can such fine tuning be attributed to chance? Professional gamblers know that even betting on a horse with the lowest odds can ultimately bring success. And, in the same way, despite the insignificance of the chances of winning the lottery, someone still manages to win. So what are the chances of human life accidentally arising from a random explosion in cosmic history?

The emergence of human life in the Big Bang defies all laws of probability. One astronomer estimates that this impossible chance would be “one in a trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion.” It would be much easier for a blindfolded person, in one attempt, to find a specially marked grain of sand among all the sand on all the coasts of the world's oceans.

Another example of how unrealistic it is for life to arise from a random big bang would be the odds of winning a multimillion-dollar lottery over a thousand consecutive attempts by purchasing just one lottery ticket for each attempt.

How would you react to such news? This is only possible if someone behind the scenes predetermined everything, you say. And this is exactly the conclusion that many scientists come to - Someone behind the scenes planned and created this Universe.

This new understanding of the miracle of human life in our universe led scientists such as agnostic astronomer George Greenstein to ask the following question: “ Is it possible that we have suddenly and unintentionally encountered scientific evidence of the existence of a Supreme Being?”

But while an agnostic, Greenstein retains faith in science, not a Creator, to ultimately explain our origins.

Jastrow explains why some scientists are slow to accept a transcendental Creator.

There is a kind of religion among scientists; it is the religion of a person who believes in order and harmony in the Universe...This religious belief of the scientist is disturbed by the discovery that the world had a beginning under conditions under which the known laws of physics do not apply, and as a product of forces or circumstances that we cannot discover. When this happens, the scientist loses control. If he had considered what conclusions would follow, he would have been traumatized by it.

It's understandable why scientists like Greenstein and Hawking are looking for an explanation other than attributing the fine-tuning of our Universe to a Creator. Hawking speculates that there may be other undetected (and untested) universes, which would increase the chances that one of them (ours) is perfect for life. But since this is just an assumption that cannot be verified, it can hardly be called scientific. British astrophysicist Paul Davies, also an agnostic, rejects Hawking's idea as too speculative. He's writing: “Such a conclusion must be based on faith and not observation.”

And although Hawking, as a leading scientist, continues to explore purely scientific explanations for our origins, other scientists, including many agnostics, recognize facts that seem convincing in favor of a Creator. Hoyle writes:

“Common sense when interpreting facts suggests that some superintelligence has taken charge of physics, chemistry, and biology, and that there is no point in talking about some blind natural forces.”

Although Einstein was not religious and did not believe in God, he thought about the brilliant creator of the Universe, calling him “a mind of such excellence, in comparison with which all systematic thinking and actions of people pale in their insignificance ”.

Atheist Christopher Hitchens, who devoted most of his life to studying the question and denial of God, was most puzzled by the fact that life could not exist if the conditions for its existence were " at least a little different«.

Davis admits that

To me there is compelling evidence that there is something behind all this. It looks like someone very precisely tuned all the components of nature to create the Universe... I have the full impression that there was a plan.

DNA: The Language of Life

Astronomy is not the only area in which science sees evidence of design. Molecular biologists have discovered the amazingly complex structure of the microscopic world of DNA. In the last century, scientists discovered that a tiny molecule called DNA is the “brains” of every cell in our bodies and all other living things. But the more they learn about DNA, the more they are amazed at the genius of its creation.

Scientists who believe that the material world is all that exists (materialists), such as Richard Dawkins, argue that DNA evolved through natural selection without the participation of a Creator. However, even the most ardent evolutionists admit that they cannot explain the origins of DNA's intricate complexity.

This amazing complexity of DNA led scientist Francis Crick, who was one of the first to discover it, to believe that it could not have arisen naturally on earth. Crick, being a proponent of the theory of evolution, believed that life in such a complex manifestation must have been brought from space:

“An honest man, armed with all the knowledge now known to us, can say in one sense only that the origin of life seems, at the moment, to appear almost a miracle, since its origin would not have been possible unless numerous conditions had been fulfilled.”

The DNA code speaks of an intelligence that defies imagination. A pinhead of DNA contains as much information as enough paperback books to circle the earth 5,000 times. And DNA acts like a language with extremely complex programming code. Bill Gates, founder of Microsoft, says the DNA program “ many times more complex than any program that has ever been developed”.

Dawkins and other materialists believe that all this complexity is the result of natural selection. But at the same time, as Crick notes, the first molecule could not possibly have been the result of natural selection. Many scientists believe that the coding within the DNA molecule indicates an intelligence that far exceeds what could arise through natural causes.

In the early 21st century, the atheism of leading atheist Anthony Flow hit a dead end during the study of DNA. He was amazed at the intelligence of her creation. Flo explains what prompted his change of heart.

I think the DNA material shows that there must be intelligence behind the combination of all these extremely complex elements. The enormous complexity of the results achieved, in my opinion, is the work of intelligence... It seems that the results of more than fifty years of DNA research provide material for a new and much stronger argument in favor of the design of the Creator.

And although Professor Flow was not a Christian, he admitted that the “program” underlying DNA was too complex to be created without a “designer”. The discovery of incredible intelligence in the creation of DNA, in the words of a former leading atheist, "provided the materials for new and extremely compelling arguments for the design of the universe."

"Fingerprints" of the Creator

Are scientists now convinced that the Creator left his fingerprints on the Universe?

Although many scientists still stubbornly deny God's involvement in the creation of the universe, most of them recognize the religious background to these new discoveries. In his book Great design Stephen Hawking, who does not believe in God, tries to explain why the Universe does not need God. But even Hawking, in the face of facts, also admits that “ There must be some religious overtones. But most scientists would probably prefer not to touch on the religious side.”

The agnostic Jastrow's conclusions have no hidden agenda against Christianity. However, he freely accepts convincing evidence in favor of the Creator. Jastrow writes about the shock and despair experienced by those scientists who believed that God had no place in their world.

For the scientist who lived by faith in the power of logical arguments, this story ends like a nightmare. He conquered the mountains of ignorance; and is about to reach its highest peak; and just as he pulls himself up over the last ledge on the rock, he is greeted by a group of theologians who have been sitting here for many centuries.

Personal Creator?

If there is a super-intelligent Creator, then the question arises - what is he like? Is he some kind of Force, like in Star Wars, or is he a Being like us? Since we humans are bound by personal relationships, is he bound by personal relationships since he created us?

Many scientists like Arthur L. Scholow, a Nobel Prize-winning physics professor at Stanford University, believe that these new discoveries strongly favor a personal God. He's writing: " It seems to me that when discussing the amazingness of the existence of life and the Universe, we need to ask the question “why?”, and not just “how?”« The only possible answers are religious answers... I find a need for God in the Universe and in my life.” If God is personal and since he has given us the ability to communicate, is it unreasonable for us to expect him to communicate with us and answer us why we are here?

As far as we know, science cannot answer questions about God and the meaning of life. But since the Bible was right in creating the universe out of nothing, maybe we should also trust it in questions about God, life and its meaning?

Two thousand years ago, a man stepped onto our planet and declared that he knew the answer to the question of life. And although his stay on earth was short-lived, it changed our world and is still felt today. His name is Jesus Christ.

Eyewitnesses of Jesus Christ tell us that he constantly demonstrated creative power over the laws of nature. They say he was wise, modest and sympathetic. He healed the lame, the deaf and the blind. He instantly stopped raging storms, created food for the hungry, turned water into wine at a wedding, and even raised the dead. And they claimed that he rose from the dead after a terrible execution.

They also say that Jesus Christ scattered the stars in the sky, fine-tuned our universe, and created DNA. Maybe he is the one whom Einstein, without knowing it, called the “supreme intelligence” that created the Universe? Could Jesus Christ be the one whom Hoyle, unknowingly, believed to be the one who “fine-tuned physics, chemistry and biology?”

And isn't the mystery of who was behind the big bang and the intelligence in creating DNA revealed by the following account in the New Testament?

Now Christ is the visible expression of the invisible God. He was before the beginning of creation, and it was through him that everything was created, both spiritual and material, visible and invisible. Through him and for him, power and dominion were also created. In fact, everything was created by him and for him.... Life began through him from nothing, and life from the dead began through him, and therefore he is rightly called the Lord of all.

Christ spoke with confidence about God's love for us and the reason for our creation by Him. He said that he had a purpose for our lives, and that this purpose was based on a connection with him. But for this connection to be realized, Christ had to die on the cross for our sins. And he had to rise from the dead so that we too could have life after death.

If Christ was the Creator, then he truly had the power of life and death. And those who were closest to him claim that they saw him alive three days after his death.

Did Christ really rise from the dead?

The Apostle Paul tells us that life from the dead began through Jesus Christ. The words and actions of witnesses to Jesus Christ indicate that they believed in his physical resurrection from the dead after his crucifixion. If they were wrong, then this means that Christianity is based on lies. But if they were right, then such a miracle confirms everything that Jesus Christ said about God, about himself and about us.

However, should we accept the resurrection of Jesus Christ on faith alone, or is there strong historical evidence for it? Some skeptics began to examine historical materials in order to prove the inconsistency of the resurrection. What did they find?

Further reading on origins

• Accident or Intelligent Design?
• Did the Universe Have a Beginning?
• Why is Only Earth Suitable for Life?
• Is the Universe a Product of Design or Chance?
• Was Darwin Right about the Eye?
• Does DNA Point to a Designer?
• Where are Darwin's Predicted Fossils?
• Are Humans the Result of Evolution?
• Is a Designer Revealed in Creation?

Notes

1. Harrison, E. 1985. Masks of the Universe. New York, Collier Books, Macmillan, pp. 252, 263.
2. An atheist believes God doesn't exist. An agnostic believes we can’t know.
3. Brian Greene The Elegant Universe(New York: Vintage, 2000), 81-82.
4. George Smoot and Keay Davidson Wrinkles in Time(New York: Avon, 1993), 241.
5. Robert Jastrow, God and the Astronomers,(London: W. W. Norton, 1992), 13.
6. Ibid., 104.
7. Ibid., 103.
8. Genesis 1:1, “In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.”
9. Jastrow, 14.
10. Smoot and Davidson, 17.
11. Stephen Hawking The Illustrated A Brief History of Time(New York: Bantam, 1996), 156
12. Hugh Ross, The Creator and the Cosmos(3rd ed.) (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2001), 224.
13. Stephen Hawking A Brief History of Time(New York: Bantam, 1990), 125.
14. Hugh Ross, The Creator and the Cosmos(Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2001), 198.
15. George Greenstein, The Symbiotic Universe(New York: William Morrow, 1988), 27.
16. Ibid., 189.
17. Jastrow, 105.
18. Paul Davies God and the New Physics(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983), 174.
19. Fred Hoyle, “Let there be Light,” Engineering and Science(November 1981).
20. Albert Einstein Ideas and Opinions-The World As I See It(New York: Bonanza, 1931), 40.
21. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GDJ9BL38PrI
22. Paul Davies The Cosmic Blueprint(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988), 203.
23. Francis Crick, Life Itself(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1981), 88.
24. Quoted in William A. Dembski and James M. Kushiner, eds., Signs of Intelligence(Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos, 2001), 108.
25. Quoted in Gary Habermas, “My Pilgrimage from Atheism to Theism”: Interview with Antony Flew, Philosophia Christi, (Winter, 2005).
26. John Boslough Stephen Hawking's Universe(New York: Avon, 1989), 109.
27. Jastrow, 107.
28. Margenau, H. and R. A. Varghese, eds. Cosmos, Bios, Theos: Scientists Reflect on Science, God, and the Origins of the Universe, Life, and Homo Sapiens(Open Court Pub. Co., La Salle, IL, 1992).
29. Colossians 1:15-17, J. B. Phillips.
30. John 3:16; John 14:19.

Permission to reproduce this article: The publisher grants permission to reproduce this material without written permission, but only for non-commercial use and in full. It is prohibited to change or use out of context any part of the article without written permission from the publisher. Printed copies of this article and journals Y-Origins And Y-Jesus can be ordered from the website: http://jesusonlineministries.com/resources/products/

© 2012 JesusOnline Ministries. This article is a supplement to the magazine Y-Jesus Published by Bright Media Foundation & B&L Publications: Larry Chapman, Editor-in-Chief.

“Kemalova L.I., Parunova Yu.D. The personality of the marginalized and the possibilities of its socialization in the conditions of a transitive society Simferopol, 2010 to the 10th anniversary of the Kerch Economic and Humanitarian...”

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What is the situation with value guidelines in modern Ukraine? Now many researchers are talking about the formation of a special type of person - a person in the transitional period. What does this person focus on in social conditions of rapid change in priority values? In this context, it is necessary to turn to empirical data from sociological research.

Exploring the mentality of the inhabitants of modern Ukraine V.

Polokhalo in the article “Uncivil Society as a Sociopolitical Phenomenon of Ukraine” notes that “average”

The Ukrainian is prone to social passivity - with a demonstration of the absence of any vital forces. The researcher defines his mentality as a mentality of lack of citizenship. But this, paradoxically, is most likely a protective mechanism in conditions of total human vulnerability, dependence on the policies of central and local authorities and continuously deteriorating living conditions.

The instinct of social and personal self-preservation, taken to the extreme, people’s concentration on the natural desire to simply survive here and now, the feeling of their own helplessness and exhaustion of possibilities - all this narrows the horizon of personal development, in principle, oriented towards self-realization and individual responsibility.

In such a situation, the basis for one’s life position when determining a way of behavior becomes the desire to adapt to any realities of sociopolitical everyday life. Therefore, the choice (in the political sense) is made in favor of the “lesser evil”, adaptation up to the manifestation of servility towards it. This is not only a gesture of one’s own powerlessness and despair, but also a lifestyle that now guides the average citizen of Ukraine.

We are faced with a phenomenon of amazing self-restraint in life's needs. More precisely, it is a phenomenon of self-identification with such established patterns of behavior that in themselves exclude the emergence of civic identity, suppressing even the sprouts of civic consciousness. This is natural in a society of instability and incomprehensibility of social processes. On the other hand, focusing on the family, as a small reference group, is the first step towards civil society, since one of the signs of civil society is a set of non-state voluntary associations of citizens organized by them to realize and protect their interests.

It is also no coincidence that the value of personal material independence occupies one of the first places. In the current economic conditions, when the majority of the population is on the brink of survival, there is an illusion that material wealth can solve all human problems. The majority of respondents consider wealth to be the main indicator of success in life in our society.

It should be noted here that as a result of market reforms, an exaggerated desire to have material goods appeared, which was not provided by an equivalent desire to create these goods, which was expressed in the dehumanization and immoralization of life attitudes.

“interesting work”, “establishing equal opportunities for everyone in society”, “public recognition (respect from friends, colleagues, fellow citizens)”, “good moral and psychological position in society”, “increasing the educational level (intellectual development)”, “state independence". The integral average index of this block is 4.22 points on a five-point scale. These values ​​can be assessed as a close reserve of the core of the respondents’ value system. Over time, depending on the situation, values ​​from the reserve can move into the value core.

True, they can also move in the opposite direction - not into the value core, but to the periphery of the respondents’ value system.

This block combines values ​​that differ from one another not only in content, but also in their nature and level of generalization. Thus, “interesting work”, “public recognition”, “increasing the educational level” are associated, first of all, with the need for human self-realization, which is actualized after satisfaction of primary vital needs. Moreover, the implementation of these life positions largely depends on the individual efforts of people. As for such aspects of life as “a good moral and psychological position in society”, “state independence”, “the establishment of equal opportunities for everyone in society”, they are of a societal nature. Their importance for people is determined both by the level of practical implementation of these life positions in society, and by the corresponding social and political orientations of citizens.

The space of the next most important block of values ​​consists of two blocks of value priorities. One of them, according to individual average statistical indices, approaches a block of fairly important values, the other - to values ​​that are on the periphery of the value system of citizens. The first block includes the following values: “national cultural revival”, “independence in affairs, judgments, actions”, “the opportunity to express thoughts on political and other issues without fear for personal freedom”, “expanding cultural horizons, familiarizing with cultural values”, “democratic development of the country”, “absence of significant social stratification”, “possibility of criticism and democratic control of decisions of power structures”.

The integral average index of this block of values ​​is 3.82 points on a five-point scale.

It is easy to see that the value priorities of this bloc are related to democratic changes in modern Ukraine.

This applies to both political and civil realities, as well as self-realization and social factors of human development.

But, as you can see, all these realities and factors have not reached the rank of “sufficiently important values” in the mass consciousness of Ukrainian residents.

The reasons for this are not only in the external negative manifestations of today's life (economic crisis, rising prices, significant crime rates, inconsistency of reforms), but also in the state of the mentality of citizens, where the problem of survival and everything that comes with it has been in the foreground for more than a decade connected. In this regard, it can be assumed that certain socio-political and self-realization values ​​that are not directly related to solving the problem of survival are pushed to the periphery of the value mentality.

Another block, located on the periphery of values, includes two values: “the possibility of entrepreneurial initiative (organizing private enterprises, doing business, farming)” and “participation in religious life (regularly attending church, services, performing rituals).” On a five-point scale, the integral average index here is 3.22 points.

And finally, such a vital opportunity as “participation in the activities of political parties and public organizations”

was of little importance to the citizens surveyed (average statistical index 2.69).

In general, the results of the 2002 surveys confirm that the structure of the value system has the character of a horizontal-vertical hierarchy. This means that in the structure of the value system of citizens there are blocks of value priorities that have a certain hierarchy. But in the middle of individual blocks, the corresponding value priorities are combined with approximately the same importance for the respondents. Feeling like a free person in various subjective interpretations is important for 76.6% of respondents versus 14.8% for whom this feeling is insignificant, and 8.6% who found it difficult to answer. 69.3% of respondents recognize how important guaranteed freedom of speech is for them, 54.3% - the possibility of open criticism and control over the activities of government structures. But 47.9% of respondents responded that they did not feel free in the state. For the vast majority of Ukrainian citizens, the feeling of freedom comes not from interaction with the state and society, but from the immediate environment: family and communication groups. Almost every fourth – 23.5% – proclaims the importance of the opportunity to take part in the functioning of public organizations. But, as statistics show, the proportion of people who belong to public or political organizations during the first ten years of independence did not exceed 17%. That is, on average, only every seventh of those surveyed was a member of one or another non-state voluntary association. Even belonging to church communities, whose number is 23,400 associations, covers less than 5% of citizens. As for political parties, here too the number of active participants does not go beyond 2%. Thus, the vast majority of the adult population of Ukraine - about 80% - is outside the public organizations representing civil society.

Thus, mass consciousness contains contradictory intentions. On the one hand, awareness of the need for human freedom, his independence from power, criticism of power and control over its actions and decisions, the need for people to self-organize into different associations and movements, on the other hand, distrust of such associations and a pessimistic attitude about their and their capabilities .

This situation is typical for a transforming society.

A sociological survey conducted in March 2005 “Ukraine:

monitoring of social changes" shows that archaic-traditionalist values ​​still prevail in Ukraine, which is expressed in an orientation towards the vital needs of the family, the expectation of a traditionalist leader, a "spiritual shepherd", isolationist and xenophobic attitudes.

And one more position requires consideration. Civil society is now taking the form of a network that spans the globalizing world. One of the modern economists, M. Castells, suggests that as the countries of the world develop, they will be covered by this network, and over time, vertical connections will be replaced by horizontal ones. Power will dissolve into global networks that will not be controlled by any one specific agency.

We are talking about the formation of a global civil society, which is defined as a civil society that has gone beyond the boundaries of national states and operates on an international scale, uniting representatives of different countries in its networks and organizations and directing its activity to the sphere of global public good. Is Ukraine ready to respond to the challenge of a globalizing world?

In particular, we are talking about what foreign policy orientations prevail among the population of Ukraine, and how much readiness for integration with other countries is entrenched in the public consciousness. For Ukraine, as is known, there are two vectors in this direction - the maximum expansion of ties either with the countries of Western Europe, or with the USA, or with Russia.

Although they are not mutually exclusive.

Monitoring data from 2002 indicate that the idea of ​​integrating Ukraine into Europe does not yet have sufficient support among the population. About 56% of respondents demonstrated an orientation toward the sociocultural space in which Ukraine was located before gaining independence (13.4% were in favor of expanding ties primarily with the CIS countries, 8.6% were in favor of developing relations directly with Russia, 34.1% were in favor of creating a union Russia, Ukraine and Belarus). Only 12.7% were in favor of establishing ties with developed Western countries. This indicates that “the Big Seven failed to impose on the mass consciousness the idea of ​​​​orienting Ukraine to their socio-economic model.

At the same time, a considerable part of the population (44.6%) has a positive attitude towards Ukraine’s accession to the European Union.

This can be explained by the fact that the previous survey recorded predominantly the general orientation of respondents towards one or another sociocultural system, while other questions concerned a specific action, which in the mass consciousness is associated with ideas about well-being. For a long time, the media have been reporting that the European Union is a kind of island of prosperity. In this regard, the idea is being formed that Ukraine’s entry into this Union will automatically result in an increase in living standards, broad social security, etc.

This position is especially typical for young people. Thus, half of the high school students surveyed in 2003 in large cities of Ukraine connect their future with self-realization abroad.

The fact that the desire to join the European Union is not a principled position is evidenced by the fact that among those who have a positive attitude towards Ukraine’s accession to the European Union, 48.5% also support joining the Russia-Belarus union. That is, here we are dealing not so much with the internalization of the values ​​of the Western way of life and the system of social relations, but with the desire to find a better life, the search for opportunities to improve the economic situation. And here it doesn’t really matter who will help with this - the West or the East. This position confirms the fact that for the residents of Ukraine, vital values ​​are still a priority.

According to research from 2005, among Ukrainian citizens there are more opponents than supporters of Ukraine's entry into the European Union and NATO, but in different proportions: in the European Union - in the ratio of 39% versus 33%, in NATO 57% versus 16%.

If you look at the 2007 omnibus, you can see that the cultural and civilizational orientations of Ukrainians have remained virtually unchanged. There were 47 percent adherents of the values ​​prevailing in East Slavic countries: those to whom East Slavic values ​​are closest and most likely to be close, 21% and 26%, respectively. About 20 percent of respondents are guided by Western European values. Of particular note is the number of undecided citizens - this is about a third of the population of Ukraine. The figure is truly impressive, allowing us to even talk about a crisis of values ​​in Ukrainian society. Respondents in the western regions of Ukraine comprise three large groups: 28% of them are focused on East Slavic values, 40% are focused on Western European values, and 32% are undecided in their preferences.

These data can partly serve as a refutation of the myth about the universal “Westernization” of residents of the western regions. After all, almost a third is guided by the East Slavic value-cultural matrix, and even more are those who are undecided.

The distribution of orientations in the center and south of the country indicates a significant number of those who have not decided on civilizational guidelines. There are 38% and 39% undecided, respectively. Such a large number in central Ukraine of those who have not chosen the direction of civilizational preferences can be explained precisely by the middle position of this region. After all, he is influenced by both the East and the West. More curious is this indicator in the South, which is traditionally considered, along with the East of the country, to be “pro-Slavic”. The age indicator, in principle, confirms the already deep-rooted opinion that the older generation (people over 55 years old) are guided by East Slavic values ​​- 54% of them. Among young people and middle-aged people there are also quite a few of them - 43 and 44 percent, but this is still less than half.

Among the settlement groups (depending on the type of settlement), it is necessary to highlight Kyiv. There are 32% adherents of the East Slavic value-cultural matrix, while supporters of the Western European one are 25%. However, it is noteworthy that the number of undecided Kiev residents is especially large - 43 percent. It turns out that the capital, the city in which the intellectual and creative elite of the nation is concentrated, setting the tone, shows much less certainty than the province. We can explain this distribution by the phenomenon of anomie. Many Kiev residents cannot accept Western European values. But the years spent under conditions of an aggressive attack on Orthodox East Slavic culture bore fruit. People's former spiritual guidelines have already been denigrated, suppressed and almost crowded out. It is impossible not to mention the educational indicator. About people with primary education, we will only say that half of them are adherents of East Slavic values. However, this indicator is related to the age indicator, since predominantly people of the older generation have primary education, and we have already talked about their likes above. We are more interested in the group of people with higher education. Among them, there are 43 percent supporters of East Slavic values, and in relation to supporters of Western European values ​​and those who have not decided, they are the majority. That is, for now, within the entire country, the intelligentsia is more oriented towards the East. The clearest distribution of their value preferences is demonstrated by representatives of different faiths. This is logical, since cultural and civilizational orientations are closely related to religious ones. East Slavic values ​​traditionally find their stronghold in Orthodoxy.

Western European - among representatives of the Greek Catholic Church. However, historical and regional factors also play a big role here. Let us only note that even on religious grounds the number of undecided citizens is close to 30%.

There is still a large percentage of respondents who support Ukraine’s accession to the European Union (41%) and the Russia-Belarus union (59%). The only alliance that Ukrainians categorically refuse to join is NATO. Here the indicators have traditionally been unambiguous for the last five years. According to monitoring by the Institute of Sociology for 2009, 60% of the Ukrainian population is against joining NATO and only 14% is in favor. The number of opponents of the alliance even increased compared to last year, while the number of supporters, on the contrary, decreased (according to a 2008 survey, 57.7% and 18%, respectively). So, Ukrainian society has an extremely complex and multifaceted cultural and civilizational structure. Basically, East Slavic values ​​predominate in it, but the regions of Ukraine differ quite greatly from each other in this indicator. In addition, one should not underestimate the prevalence and potential of the Western European value-cultural matrix, which every year penetrates deeper into the Ukrainian cultural environment. However, we would especially like to once again note the significant number of people who have not decided on their value orientations. It is they who, at certain moments in the modern history of Ukraine, have a decisive influence on the internal and external life of the country.

The process of revising spiritual values ​​is painful, but not tragic. It does not mean abandoning the ideal. According to V.S.

Barulin, modern gaps between man and society are at the same time the liberation of man from these couplings, the restoration in society of a certain social distance between man and social institutions. In Ukrainian history, space appears for personal activity. This is a movement towards a normal social life of a person, in which it is the person who creates his social life, and the institutions of this life serve the person.

The period of value uncertainty must be used to develop a more effective model of relationships between a person and society.

Thus, at the present stage, in the conditions of sociocultural transformations of Ukrainian society, there is value uncertainty, when the old scale of values ​​has lost its relevance, and a new one has not yet emerged. Ukrainian society very quickly moved from the value-stable Soviet system to the instability of postmodernity, which largely caused a crisis of personal identity.

The values ​​of civil society are the priority at this stage at the official level. It is in them that the ideal model of future reality is seen. Currently, most people are guided by the values ​​of small reference groups, primarily the family, which is a positive moment on the path to civil society, of which it actually consists. Other values ​​of civil society, such as justice, solidarity, freedom, are in their formation stage.

2.2.Marginality of the population of Ukraine: conditions and factors

Recognizing that the process of transformation is impossible without the emergence of marginalized layers, it should be noted that today the scale and pace of modern marginalization in Ukraine are becoming dangerous. That is why it is important to consider in this paragraph the conditions and factors of marginalization of the population of Ukraine.

Virtually all social changes create the effects of marginalization as integral elements of transitions, transformations. In the process of transition, an individual inevitably finds himself in a “borderline” situation, that is, “on the border” between the old and the new. If the transition is unsuccessful, then you can find yourself in this state for a long time or remain in it forever, and this can turn a full member of society into a “declassed element.”

The reasons for the marginalization of the population in our country are determined by both external and internal factors. External factors include migration, social and economic upheavals in society. Internal - inability to adapt to new conditions, loss of social status. The coincidence of these factors in the life of an individual contributes to increased marginality. In the context of the increasing destructive direction of marginalization processes in Ukraine, the authors consider it important to separately consider the issue of the main determinants of this process.

Considering any one factor as the initial cause of the marginal situation in Ukrainian society is unlawful, especially when we are talking about the totality of this phenomenon. In Ukraine, the existence of marginality in all its diversity of forms is the result of the interaction of a complex of social factors.

If we talk about the marginalization of Ukrainian society, then, according to the authors, four periods can be roughly distinguished.

The first of them is the period of building Soviet society (starting from the October Revolution and up to the end of the 80s of the twentieth century). At this stage, as a result of the fundamental changes that occurred in the national economy, the processes of migration and urbanization intensified. It is noteworthy that these processes (for example, the relocation of rural residents to the city), as a rule, were not accompanied by the creation of an appropriate social infrastructure, which caused certain problems and led to an increase in the number of marginalized people.

The second period begins in the late 80s and lasts until the early 90s. XX century This was a time when the country's economy was characterized as unstable, political, social and spiritual ties were being destroyed. In addition (and this is important), the system of values, which had been formed and operated for quite a long time, was deformed in a short time.

The collapse of the USSR occurs, as a result of which an identity crisis arises, which leads to an increase in the rate of marginalization in this period.

The third period is the mid and late 90s. XX century - one of the most difficult periods in the life of Ukrainian society.

The main factors of marginalization here are:

destruction of social ties and traditional social institutions; low rates of modernization in the economic, political, social and cultural spheres; extremely high rates of property polarization of the population, growing poverty.

The fourth is the modern period, characterized by the deepening of the processes of property stratification of people;

high level of unemployment; uncertainty of prospects for the development of society; high level of corruption.

The main sign of marginalization is the breakdown of social ties, and in the classic case, economic, social and spiritual ties are consistently broken.

Economic ties are the first to be broken and the first to be restored. Spiritual connections are restored the slowest, because they depend on a certain “revaluation of values.”

One of the most important problems of modern Ukrainian society, shaken by social cataclysms, is deformation in the social structure. The social structure today is characterized by extreme instability both at the level of processes occurring in a social group and between them, and at the level of an individual’s awareness of his place in the system of social hierarchy. Poverty, unemployment, economic and social instability intensify the processes of marginalization of the population. As a result, there is an active erosion of traditional population groups, the formation of new types of intergroup integration in terms of ownership, income, and inclusion in all power structures. Thus, the complexity of the general state of Ukrainian society determines the complexity of the dynamics of marginal processes in it.

In Ukraine, society is being marginalized “from above”

(clan) and “from below” (lumpenization), opposing both national and democratic values. The roots of this phenomenon were laid in the past under the Soviet regime, which did not value the individual qualities of the individual. Among the main historical reasons for marginalization: the alienation of the citizen from property (the peasant from the land), the decline of spirituality, and the decrease in passionarity (self-sacrifice for the sake of selfless patriotism). The loss of economic dignity contributed to the establishment of a slave-equalizing psychology and was the basis for the arbitrariness of power in relation to the individual. The authorities are accustomed to dealing with the cheapest commodity - a person. In Ukrainian society, socio-psychological discomfort is increasing for the majority of citizens deprived of the right to paid work and state social protection. The objective difficulties in the formation of Ukrainian statehood lie in the need to overcome socio-cultural, territorial and political bipolarity in society. The multidimensional political, geo-economic and communication space of Ukraine as an independent state was never planned. As a result of the superposition of different-scale spatio-temporal processes, the energy of marginal states and destructive trends in society and the economy has intensified.

Modern Ukrainian society, in the context of growing economic, political, sociocultural problems, is distinguished by its unpredictability, rising unemployment, rising prices, crime, and declining quality of life. As a consequence, there is an increase in suicides and other manifestations of deviant human behavior.

Thus, in terms of suicide rates, Ukraine ranks first among European countries. According to all-Ukrainian statistics, at the end of the 90s, the number of suicides amounted to 15 thousand people (with the majority being young people aged 15 to 24 years, 188 cases per hundred thousand boys and girls). The likelihood of suicide is significantly influenced by factors such as interpersonal crises, a drop in self-esteem, loss of prospects and meaning in life. Leaving life for such people seems to be the only way to get rid of problems. According to official statistics, according to the Information and Analytical Weekly (No. 42 (444) October 25, 2009), Ukraine is included in the group of countries with a high level of suicidal activity (25-26 suicides per 100 thousand population).

Another consequence can be considered the intensification of migration processes. According to the Institute of Ethnic Studies of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, published in NEWSru.ua // economics // April 9, 2008, now, according to expert data, there are 4 million 500 thousand Ukrainian labor migrants abroad. In particular, there are over 2 million Ukrainians in Russia (the official number is 169 thousand), Italy – 500 thousand (195 thousand 412), Poland – over 450 thousand (20 thousand), Spain – 250 thousand ( 52 thousand 760), Portugal - 75 thousand (44 thousand 600), Czech Republic - 150 thousand (51 thousand), Greece - 75 thousand (20 thousand), the Netherlands - 40 thousand, Great Britain

– about 70 thousand, USA – about 500 thousand.

The features of marginal characteristics depend on the objective situation and conditions characterizing the position of the individual or group and on the subjective characteristics of the individual (that is, the degree of experienced marginality depends on the personal characteristics of the person manifested in these situations).

Objective indicators of marginality include:

Territorial movements;

Social and professional movements caused by the new employment situation as a result of economic transformations;

Economic displacement associated with the property stratification of society.

Subjective indicators of marginality:

The degree of self-assessment of forced or voluntary movement;

The degree of awareness of the cardinal or evolutionary nature of the change in socio-professional status;

Assessing the increase or decrease in one’s socio-professional status;

The social well-being of an individual or a social group as a whole in a certain situation of social movement.

The distinctive features of the state of marginality in Ukraine are: 1) that it is caused by massive downward mobility in conditions of a general crisis; 2) the fact that it is predominantly forced under the influence of external factors associated with the socio-economic and socio-cultural transformation of society as a whole.

The specificity of the marginalization of Ukrainian society is manifested in the fact that in its process, on the outskirts of the social structure, along with the lumpen proletarians, the so-called new marginalized people appear, who have high education and qualifications, a developed system of needs, high social expectations and political activity. As they declassify, marginal groups change the value system that they previously had. Individualism, antisocial behavior, and moral relativism appear. Apathy, a feeling of hopelessness and powerlessness are increasing in society, and faith in the future is being lost.

Constant stress leads to demoralization (which manifests itself in an increase in drunkenness and drug addiction), to aggression (which is characterized by criminal behavior).

The main criterion of social marginality in the conditions of a transforming Ukrainian society is the uncertainty of social status, incomplete inclusion or non-inclusion in social structures or groups. In the social structure of modern Ukrainian society, new marginal groups are appearing, which differ from the marginal groups of a stable, stable society. Among them: 1) those who, due to current economic circumstances, are forced to change their social and professional status; 2) those who strive to adapt to new conditions and find something to do that would help them survive in a crisis (for example, representatives of small businesses); 3) migrants - both refugees and internally displaced persons. In addition, the groups of new marginalized people were replenished by public sector workers (science, culture, education) who were forced to eke out a miserable existence, middle-aged and elderly people, school and university graduates who were not in demand in the labor market.

Since, according to the authors, the main determinants of the process of marginalization in modern Ukrainian society are the recession in the economy, unemployment, migration, increased crime, decline in the social sphere, the crisis of the value system during the period of modernization, all this allows us to identify the main factors of marginalization of modern Ukrainian society: economic, political, social.

The economic factor includes the following components: 1) changes in interregional ties, which led to a weakening of the economic basis of the country’s integrity;

2) a general decline in production, which resulted in a change in the sectoral structure of the economy; 3) difficulties with sales of products, which led to the shutdown of many enterprises; 4) the dominance of outdated technologies and primitive forms of labor, which gave rise to the existence of a huge number of unskilled workers with a low level of needs.

All this caused unprecedented unemployment. As of January 1, 2006, there were 903.5 thousand unemployed citizens registered with the State Employment Service of Ukraine.

The current economic situation in Crimea, as well as in Ukraine as a whole, is characterized by the uneven development of market relations in various sectors of the economy. This led to the alienation of a significant part of the economically active population from participation in the creation of a mixed economy and had a negative impact on the formation and use of labor resources.

The issues of formation and use of labor resources in Crimea have a number of specific features determined by the geographical location, the return of deported peoples, and the release of a large number of workers and employees from the sphere of material production.

Throughout 2005, the number of arrivals to Ukraine for permanent residence increased compared to the number of those leaving: 35.7 thousand by 32.2 thousand people and migration growth over 11 months. 2005 amounted to 3.5 thousand.

Human . But, despite migration processes, including those associated with the return of previously deported peoples to Crimea, trends in the reduction of the economically active population and the share of the employed population persist.

As a result of an ill-conceived policy for the return of repatriates, the majority of the population who returned to Crimea experienced a sharp decline in their standard of living. Many families survive in this situation thanks to additional income from their small and poorly developed land plots or from small businesses. The situation is much worse for those who do not have jobs either in the public sector of the economy or in enterprises of other forms of ownership. All this aggravates the already difficult situation in the region, as a result of which interethnic relations are complicated and the threat of social conflicts increases. The increase in the number of unemployed people entails the replenishment of the army of those thrown to the margins of life, that is, the marginalized. Therefore, consideration of this issue in the context of the problem under study seems extremely important.

Relocation itself is an important element of downward social mobility, since as a result, most people move from the middle levels of the social hierarchy to the lower ones. Having resettled, a migrant loses everything: his homeland, social status, housing, work, friends, and is separated from the culture into which he is already integrated.

Having arrived at a new place of residence, he needs to make up for losses and integrate into a new socio-cultural environment. However, it is very difficult. Like the unemployed, forced migrants usually find employment with a significant decrease in social status. Many specialists have to perform the duties of unskilled workers. The state of long-term unemployment leads to a decrease in working skills, and work motivation weakens.

A serious problem for migrants is acquiring social and legal status in their new place of residence.

Objective difficulties in the material sphere are superimposed on the state of psychological tension from the loss of property, poor living conditions, and a specialty that is not in demand at the new place of residence. Thus, after a forced change of residence, migrants find themselves in a situation of multiple marginality due to the need to adapt to a new environment.

Among the objective factors that aggravate the marginal situation of forced migrants, it is worth highlighting the attitude of the local population towards them: from open attacks against them to hidden rejection, manifested in hostility, coldness, unresponsiveness, and sometimes ignorance.

When migrants enter a foreign cultural environment, an imbalance occurs in the person-environment system, which entails an aggravation of cultural problems. Forced migrants have a marginal ethnic identity, balancing between two cultures without adequately mastering the norms and values ​​of either of them.

The state of marginality of migrants, on the one hand, leads to depersonalization and gives rise to internal tension, mental disorders, and breakdowns. On the other hand, combining elements of different cultures can lead to enrichment of the individual if vital needs are satisfied and the prerequisites are created for the development of his creative abilities.

The marginal situation for migrants can develop in negative and positive directions. With a positive direction of changes in the social situation for migrants, they seamlessly integrate into a new sociocultural environment for them, comprehend social reality in a new way and show high creative activity. When the social situation of migrants changes in a negative direction, they often experience neurotic manifestations in the psyche, aggressiveness, non-normative behavior, and its extreme manifestation is suicide. All of the above areas of change in the social situation for migrants can contribute to both their rise to a new, higher level of the social ladder, and their movement to a lower level as a result of insufficient support from society, the state and lack of their own efforts.

The main social source of marginalization of society is growing unemployment in its obvious and hidden forms. With acceptable unemployment of 5-6% of the working-age population (threshold norm), according to available data, the real number of unemployed will increase several times in the coming years. Employment of the population is a socio-economic category that expresses the state of its economically active part, which is characterized by the presence of people with work, or legitimate, that is, not contradicting current legislation, profitable occupation. The economically unemployed population includes: job seekers, job changers, temporarily unemployed and unemployed.

As noted by I.M. Pribytkov, unemployment threatens, first of all, people of pre-retirement age (43%), disabled people (34.5%), women with small children (32%). Every fifth respondent (22.8%) “is convinced that any able-bodied resident of Ukraine could end up on the street today. This category of people are potential marginalized with a “minus” sign, since their low level of existence throws them to the margins of social life.” Among the most vulnerable in terms of employment prospects in their specialty were persons previously engaged primarily in mental work, middle management employees, engineering and technical workers, and public sector employees. They formed a reserve of highly qualified labor resources unclaimed on labor markets and, accordingly, joined the ranks of marginal groups.

Since the unemployed constitute one of the types of marginal groups, an increase in their numbers means an intensification of the process of marginalization in society. Marginal groups are formed on the border between those who are still included in the structure of the labor market and those who are no longer included. The basis for the expansion of marginality is the underutilization of labor in society.

Russian sociologists Z.G. Golenkova, E.D. Igitkhanyan, I.V.

Kazarinova noted in connection with the study of the problem of unemployment three groups with different levels of potential marginality:

Stabilizing (conservative), which focuses on preserving the profession, specialty and overall social status. It has zero marginality;

Reducing: it focuses on any job, including less qualified work. Here potential marginality has a negative meaning;

Advanced: it focuses on a new profession, one that is well paid and qualified, which means an increase in social status. This is potential marginality with a “+” sign.

These groups have their own behavioral strategies, as discussed in the previous section. A stabilizing strategy with zero marginality is the axis of balance, and an advanced and downward strategy “sets the entire social architectonics in motion.”

Failure to enter a new, higher social stratum, or a slide down the social ladder, causes many negative consequences leading to social degradation and lumpenization. The accumulation of such negative energy can lead to the formation of marginal groups that are prone to spontaneous self-regulation.

Under the influence of market reforms, two differently directed processes took shape in our country: one part of society, unable to adapt to changing social conditions, became increasingly poor, lost jobs, became declassed and lumpenized; This category of people was characterized by a destructive type of behavior, the so-called avoidant behavior. The other part, having joined the system of market relations, actively sought work in the structures of official business or in the “informal economy”, showing a constructive orientation towards marginality, demonstrating seeking behavior.

Replenishment of the army of unemployed leads to an increase in conflict potential in the region. The mortality rate, the number of suicides, the number of prisoners and mentally ill people are increasing.

To solve the problem of unemployment, government policy and self-organization of the population are necessary. Moreover, the state must support the self-organization of the population, facilitating the development of its most optimal forms for various groups.

In general, it can be noted that the process of marginalization of the population will not decrease in the near future, and negative trends associated with rising unemployment can lead to social upheaval in society. A significant decline in the status of many intellectual professions forces people to give up their specialty and engage in work that does not require a high level of education and high qualifications. A person of creative work who does routine work for a piece of bread is the personification of social dynamite. Historical experience shows that such lumpen intelligentsia are the most active carriers of social discontent.

Political factors of marginalization are factors associated with the destruction of civil society.

These include:

1) severance of social ties that integrate people into voluntary organizations; 2) destruction of these organizations themselves; 3) lack of personal freedom and broad political rights; 4) division of society according to socio-political orientations; 5) lack of political ideas capable of captivating a significant part of the population.

Most of the country's population is alienated from the political system of power; electoral support for any political forces is external; The political parties themselves are focused not so much on defending their political programs as on access to the highest political leadership. In conditions of economic and political chaos, negative social energy of the marginal masses accumulates.

An increasing marginal layer of the population in a crisis situation can play the role of a detonator for various kinds of social upheavals. This is confirmed by the events in Andijan (Uzbekistan) in 2005, interethnic clashes in Kyrgyzstan on June 11, 2010, where the unresolved socio-economic problems, alienation from the political system of power, and the increase in connection with this marginal layer in the social structure of society led to social explosion.

In the conditions of modern transformation processes in Ukraine, society is being divided according to various socio-political orientations. There is a constant oscillation between longing for an authoritarian order and hopes for democracy, between civilizational aspirations and a craving for aggressive isolationism. The coincidence in a crisis of objective social preconditions and subjective factors - the expanded reproduction of marginal groups with a crisis of the authority of the authorities - creates a favorable environment for the deformation of vast areas of the country's public life, the most striking manifestation of which is political extremism, as discussed in previous chapters. Today, political extremism is especially dangerous. It manifests itself in inciting social, racial, national and religious hatred, the spread of xenophobic sentiments and extremist groups.

To achieve their goals, many political forces take advantage of the pliability of the marginalized to any external influence that promises them a clear social status. History has repeatedly proven that these forces, in periods of complex social upheaval, always appealed to those who turned out to be unnecessary to society at the moment. At the same time, they declared the marginalized to be the leading socio-political force and promised a change in their status. And the marginal masses, believing any promises to change their difficult situation, were ready to accept any political ideas. Increasing marginalization in Ukraine can lead to the fact that the value system characteristic of the marginalized (social impatience, rejection of existing social relations) spreads to wider circles of society. Such a development could lead to serious political consequences. Therefore, to suppress the negative and cultivate the creative potential of marginality, a long-term and systematic state policy is necessary.

According to the authors, a specific feature of the marginalization of Crimea is the strengthening, along with political extremism, of religious extremism. The appeal to religious identity is a natural consequence of the process of transformation of the socio-political system. Religious identity is one of the possible ways of spiritually relating oneself to other people on an individual level. However, the growth of religious self-awareness, characterized by the spread of religious extremism, is a kind of reaction to forced modernization. At the same time, preachers of religious extremism focus their activities on marginalized sections of the population, trying to use them for their political purposes. Extreme radical political forces and extremist religious associations are particularly active against these groups.

The social base of all radical religious movements is, as a rule, young people.

Thus, today the emergence in Crimea of ​​an extensive network of the Islamic liberation party “Hizb ut-Tahrir al-Islami”, which is opposed by supporters of traditional Islam, is alarming. Today, the number of supporters of this party in Ukraine numbers, not much, not less - five thousand people, most of them are young people. In Western Ukraine, interreligious conflicts arise between Orthodox Christians and Greek Catholics - Uniates. All this cannot but cause concern, since extremist groups place their main bet on those marginal layers that are easy to manipulate, taking advantage of their difficult situation.

Marginalized people, as noted above, are characterized by unique psychological characteristics: extreme forms of social intolerance, a tendency to simplified maximalist solutions, denial or hostility towards existing social institutions, lack of purposefulness, increased aggressiveness. The deepening of these features and their use by some political forces may entail serious political consequences. That is why the search for a solution to the problem of marginalization of society in the conditions of transformation, the removal of its destructive orientation is now extremely important.

Since in our country marginalization is mainly of a forced nature, it is the state that must change this situation and take it under its constant control.

In times of crisis, the protest potential of the marginalized increases. From the point of view of political participation, the protest behavior of marginal groups is expressed in two extreme forms: in the form of apathy and in the form of spontaneous short-term actions with the use of violence. Moreover, both forms of protest behavior do not achieve social and political effect for marginal groups. Apathy, political passivity, reconciliation with one's position and status are quite natural for a marginalized person, with his serious doubts about his personal worth, the uncertainty of connections with friends and the constant fear of being rejected. This leads to an even greater consolidation of the peripheral position of marginal groups. Spontaneous short-term actions also cannot enable these groups to overcome their marginal status. However, at the individual level, it is quite possible to overcome marginality. Thus, by adapting to the dominant culture in society, a marginalized person can increase the level of his identity with it and not be considered by other groups as an outsider. Such adaptation, however, requires quite a long time.

In relation to Ukraine, it should be noted that the specific growth in the number of actions initiated by marginal groups is growing. Increasingly, protests are accompanied by protesters addressing political parties and movements. Social frustration, apathy, and various types of deviation are considered forms of passive protest. In a society where the most common form of political behavior of the masses is apathy, the interaction between society and government is disrupted.

Often the “powers that be” view apathy on the part of citizens as a high level of social harmony and political stability. But this is only a semblance of stability in a state where the percentage of people with a marginal status is high.

Neglecting this type of protest is unacceptable, since apathy contains a real threat to internal political stability and national security of the state. Its strengthening can lead to the destruction of the social organism, and an increasing marginal layer of the population in a crisis situation for society can play the role of a detonator for various kinds of social upheavals.

Compared to other regions of Ukraine, the most difficult situation is developing today in Crimea, since it is a multi-ethnic region, and it is here that repatriates return, which further complicates the socio-economic and political situation in the region. They find themselves in the most marginal position, because while the process of adaptation and integration into the new society is underway, they are in a situation “in between”: the previous living conditions and environment no longer exist, and they have not yet integrated into the new environment. Migrants experience a complex process of adaptation to new conditions, falling under a kind of “double pressure” of problems. On the one hand, these are problems characteristic of all residents of the region in the context of transition from one formation to another: these are economic, social, and political problems. On the other hand, these problems are aggravated by the situation of lack of housing, a sharp decline in the social status of many, associated with the inability to find work in conditions of rising unemployment, and, consequently, to provide their families with the most necessary things. As noted in his studies by I.P. Pribytkov, current problems identified by residents of Crimea are unemployment (86.5% of votes), poverty (70.5%), access to free medicine (35.2%), social protection of the unemployed, the poor and those in need of help (27 .2%), crime (21.6%). Due to these circumstances, they represent a layer that can easily be used as a detonator for social upheaval in the region.

The social factor includes a set of problems associated with changes in the social status of people, the transformation of the social status of the majority of the population.

The consequence of social injustice and social inequality is increasing poverty. Poverty as an economic factor causes certain social problems, is one of the significant factors in the replenishment of the marginal part of the population and a source of growth in the protest potential of the population, which is why the dissertation examines this problem in the context of marginality.

The poor segments of the population include those who, not of their own free will, are deprived of the necessary things: normal housing, food, clothing, health, and the opportunity to receive an education. Because of this, it becomes impossible to maintain the lifestyle characteristic of a particular society in a particular period of time, and a change in the social status of people occurs.

Confucius once spoke about social justice as one of the conditions for the prosperous existence of the state. Recognizing the divine and natural origin of the division of people into classes, he insisted that it was necessary to evenly distribute the wealth created by society. The main task, according to Confucius, is to make the state rich and the people happy.

Plato later argued in the Republic that a healthy society should implement the principles of justice, ensuring social stability. Aristotle also spoke about the danger of sharp inequality for the state.

In the Middle Ages, many thinkers were convinced of the inviolability of social differentiation of society, of the advantage of some over others. N. Machiavelli in the Renaissance anticipated the idea of ​​modern sociology about an “open society”, in which inequality of status is as legitimized as the equality of chances to become unequal. In modern times, T. Hobbes believed that in a state created on the basis of a social contract, no privileged classes are allowed, since they destroy the equality of rights provided by the ruler.

K. Marx defined poverty from the point of view of the egalitarian concept as the lack of means of production among those who, through their labor, contribute to the accumulation of wealth among the owners of the means of production [see: 66].

In modern conditions, the growth of social injustice and social inequality leads to a deterioration in the situation of the majority of the population in Ukraine. The low standard of living of the population as a whole leads to migration outflow from the country.

Ukraine has become a supplier of cheap and sufficiently qualified labor to many countries near and far abroad. This process indicates an increase in the number of forced marginalized people, since their existence “on the edge”, “on the sidelines” of society is caused by external circumstances.

In Ukraine, there is a sharp differentiation of the population into rich (3%) and poor (87%) against the backdrop of a constant increase in the unemployment rate. Researchers note a significant increase, along with the “traditional” groups of the poor (pensioners, single-parent or large families, youth), of the so-called “new” poor. These include the unemployed, social and professional groups that are quickly losing their strong previous positions in the employment market (including, increasingly, skilled workers). Doctors, teachers, scientists, engineers, who were considered representatives of the middle class at the beginning of the transition period, today find themselves among the “new poor,” which determines their marginal position.

Among the various forms of poverty today, the so-called subjective poverty, determined by self-identification, is distinguished. The importance of such a distinction is due to its direct connection with the marginalization of society and dependent sentiments. It is subjective poverty that forms unconstructive marginal behavior, contributes to a decrease in economic activity and leads to a readiness to accept destructive ideas. As a result, such a person submits to any political force.

In addition to this form, hereditary poverty is emerging in Ukraine: children from poor families cannot get a good education and, as a result, good, well-paid jobs. Another form of poverty in Ukraine is working poverty. Almost a quarter of workers receive wages below the poverty threshold. With low wages, even two working parents sometimes cannot provide a decent standard of living for their minor children. This category of people also joins the ranks of the marginalized and acquires corresponding socio-psychological characteristics.

Currently, as a result of the crisis state of the Ukrainian economy, its own “social bottom” has formed. Its main characteristic is isolation from the institutions of society, compensated by inclusion in specific criminal and semi-criminal institutions. Poverty, unemployment, economic and social instability, unrealistic hopes, and collapse of plans intensively promote the process of marginalization of the population, as a result of which a stable layer of social paupers appears as a consequence of increasing downward social mobility. This is how the social bottom is formed and strengthened, which includes beggars constantly begging for alms; homeless people who have lost their homes;

street children who have lost their parents or run away from home; alcoholics, drug addicts and street prostitutes. There are more than 100 thousand homeless people in Ukraine alone. 75% of homeless people are people from 20 to 50 years old (they don’t live much longer). Of these, 55% have general secondary education, 20% graduated from vocational schools, 10% have higher education. 57% of homeless people live in train stations, attics, and basements, where there are no basic sanitary conditions. 4% generally live on the street. There are about 7 million people who are poor.

As noted above, among those who can fall to the “social bottom” today are: lonely elderly people, pensioners, disabled people, large families, the unemployed, single mothers, refugees, and migrants. The “social bottom” is already absorbing peasants, low-skilled workers, engineering and technical workers, teachers, creative intelligentsia, and scientists. The process of mass pauperization occurs due to the imperfection of economic reforms, the strengthening of the criminal world and the inability of the state to protect its citizens.

Thus, the social consequences of poverty, according to the authors, include:

the emergence of the underclass, social isolation, alcoholism, the formation of a dependent culture, “brain drain”, migration, hereditary poverty and the formation of the “social bottom”.

Among the various factors that can give rise to marginality, decisive importance today should be given to the process of changing value orientations, motives of activity, stereotypes of behavior and thinking, that is, the entire complex of cultural factors that ensure entry into a new era.

The process of reorientation gives rise to uncertainty in oneself and the future, an inferiority complex, anger and fear, which often leads to aggressiveness and a tendency to extremes.

The absence of a unified scale of values ​​in the transition period creates the effect of marginalization.

The marginalized, in order to merge with the new environment and become full-fledged in it, is forced to either abandon the usual norms or not show them off. At the same time, he must behave like everyone else around him. The desire to enter a new environment as quickly as possible makes a person irritated by everything that connects him with the past. The marginal masses, who are in a prolonged state of stress and have unstable spiritual values, are fertile ground for manipulating them in times of crisis in political, socio-economic and international life.

Today, in the context of the growth of the destructive direction of marginality, we are talking not just about political and economic difficulties, but about a sociocultural crisis, which is the basis of negative processes in politics, economics, culture, as well as in the spiritual health of people. In conditions of sociocultural reorientation, Ukrainian society is experiencing a kind of “culture shock”, characterized by a serious transformation of the traditional value-normative system. The disintegration of cultural and ideological homogeneity characteristic of Soviet society led to the relativization of moral norms and the accompanying diversity of values, life styles and worldviews.

In conditions of marginalization of society in Ukrainian society, the process of social atomization of individuals, individualization, is growing, as a result of which people do not show interest in group values. An important trend in life orientations has been the displacement of values ​​of a spiritual and moral nature by purely material, pragmatic values.

As a result of the absence in Ukrainian society of a single, generalizing system of values, the individual is deprived of the most important guidelines for his social behavior. Her position in society becomes unstable. According to Ukrainian political scientist N. Mikhalchenko, “in Ukrainian society there are practically no accepted and generally binding identification criteria. Even educational and scientific status lose the importance of professional and social criteria.

For a significant period of time, individuals are gripped by a feeling of social disorder, and therefore are often forced to redefine themselves in the world. Hence the unemployed, those working outside their profession, etc. Individuals can construct not just one identity, but a plurality, moreover, ordered at the level of everyday consciousness.”

An internal conflict arises, which becomes the source of attitudes towards the social environment characteristic of a marginal subject, marked by a feeling of loneliness, alienation, and anxiety.

The fragility and mobility of the social status of various social strata, the lack of forms and methods of social organization hinder the awareness of one’s community and the interests that bind it. People found themselves pushed out of the circle of pre-existing social stereotypes, habitual norms, and ideas and are aligned with new, unsettled ones. All this taken together means the marginalization of huge masses of the population.

Marginal groups are formed - scourges, homeless people, refugees, internally displaced persons, criminal elements, drug addicts, etc.

The process of marginalization is accompanied by an individual’s loss of subjective identification with a certain group and a change in socio-psychological attitudes. All this forces a certain part of people in this category to social movements, both horizontally and vertically. In turn, an individual’s “entry” into a new social stratum or group does not always occur immediately. Sometimes an individual “hangs” between social groups and before he changes his social position, he develops certain attitudes caused by a subjective assessment of his own capabilities. Depending on the self-assessment of the situation, the individual forms the level of aspirations and develops an appropriate behavior strategy.

So, in the conditions of transformation processes in Ukraine, economic, political and social factors of marginalization of society are taking shape. They are closely interrelated, since indicators such as the weakening of the economic basis of the country’s integrity, problems associated with the general decline in production, the shutdown of many enterprises, which led to increased unemployment, and increased material poverty, certainly affect the political situation in the country.

A special factor of marginalization is the lack of a unified scale of values ​​in the context of transition. In the value field of Ukrainian society, several systems can be distinguished. Among them: a system of values, oriented towards the values ​​of countries of Western civilization, the old, Soviet, system of values ​​and values ​​of traditional national culture, which is being revived in the conditions of post-Soviet development. The sociocultural crisis is the basis of negative processes in politics, economics, culture, as well as in the spiritual health of people. All this exacerbates the destructiveness of marginality.

Crimea, while experiencing the impact of economic, political, and social factors of marginalization common to Ukraine, at the same time has specific characteristics.

They are associated with migration processes occurring in Crimea (on the one hand, the outflow of qualified labor from Crimea in search of work, on the other, the return of repatriates). The region’s unwillingness, due to its weak material and economic base, to accept huge masses of the population results in complex problems of an economic, political and social nature, which affects the moral and psychological climate of the country. Against this background, problems of interethnic relations are intensifying. In this regard, it seems relevant to consider in the next paragraph the forms of manifestation of marginality and its specificity in the conditions of the Crimean region.

2.3. Specifics of marginality in Crimea

In order to identify the specifics of the marginalization of Ukrainian society in the conditions of transformation processes, it seems important to consider the various forms of manifestation of marginality in Ukraine in general and in Crimea in particular. This will allow us to determine not only the negative, but also the positive potential of marginality.

As noted, at present, most people are developing a feeling of uncontrollability by society, the insolvency of the authorities, mass uncertainty in the future and in their ability to influence the processes taking place. There is a feeling of social lack of demand. In the context of modernization processes, a contradiction arose: people who were striving for change and renewal found themselves disappointed and felt alienated both from the authorities and from society as a whole. Against this background, social anomie arises, the form of which is marginality.

The specificity of the current situation in the transforming society of Ukraine is that elements of modernization are combined with social regression and disorganization. Among the main forms of manifestation of marginality are positive and negative, destructive forms of manifestation. The reasons for the growth of the destructive direction of marginality in Ukraine lie, as already noted, in the increasing migration processes, in the instability of the social system caused by structural changes, the socio-economic, political crisis, in the destruction of social ties and traditional social institutions (including the family) , in the discrepancy between cultural values ​​and institutional means of achieving them, in the weak controllability of social processes.

Destructive forms of manifestation of marginality in modern Ukraine include the emergence of marginal groups as a result of the deepening socio-economic and political crisis in the country. Taking the above typology of marginality as a basis, we can distinguish certain types of marginalized people.

Thus, biological marginality leads to the emergence of such types of marginalized people as mentally ill people, seriously ill people, disabled people and many old people; these are those people and groups whose health is indifferent to society.

Social marginality causes the emergence of such a type of marginalized as sociomarginal - those who are in a state of unfinished social movement from one social group to another, or on the borders of social groups.

These include: workers of enterprises on the verge of closure, representatives of small and medium-sized businesses, whose position is also unstable in the context of the transformation of our society. They demonstrate different types of behavior - constructive - orientation towards finding a way out of the situation, readiness for change, destructive - deviant behavior, a tendency towards alcoholism, drug addiction, even suicide.

Cultural marginality is caused by an inconsistent change in the value-normative complex, which is accompanied by the destruction of established norms, rethinking of previously unshakable guidelines, and revaluation of values. As a result, the individual is deprived of the most important supports and guidelines for his social behavior. Her position in society becomes unstable, and an identity crisis arises. This can be expressed in various forms of “escaping reality,” voluntary self-isolation, or forced self-exclusion of marginal subjects to the periphery of cultural life. But this situation can also become a prerequisite for the innovative activity of an individual located “at the border of cultures.” This is the constructive potential of this type of marginality. This could be a marginal intellectual, a dissident, a woman - a mother with a focus on a professional career, an old man with a young soul. Associated with this type of marginality is ethnocultural marginality, which forms such a type as ethnomarginals - these are people and communities living in a national environment alien to them, being a national minority in the country of residence, or children from mixed marriages. This type of marginals is discussed in more detail in this subsection.

In conditions of political marginalization, the so-called political marginals are formed - individual figures, organizations and groups who are not satisfied with the legal (legitimate) ways of waging political struggle - that is, political radicals, extremists and terrorists.

Economic marginals are the fixed unemployed;

poor people with income levels below a certain social minimum; This includes the homeless: their growth is associated with economic reforms, an increase in the pace and size of population migration, and processes of housing privatization, in which criminal elements often participate; poor, needy. The economic marginalized include paupers - poor people who live according to the level of individual income below a certain poverty line. Vagrants, beggars, alcoholics, drug addicts can be combined into one group - lumpen. A significant part of them live solely on funds received from begging. The loss of the economic foundations of existence, exclusion from social production, entailing the severance of all systemic connections, form such characteristic features of the lumpen as lability and socio-political unprincipledness.

At the opposite pole of the marginal group of the poor is a group of so-called “new Ukrainians” who have significantly improved their financial situation over the past decade. This includes businessmen, entrepreneurs, some highly skilled workers, engineers, scientists who have found recognition at the international level or in new commercial structures, as well as the bureaucratic elite who used their position for personal enrichment.

The religious type of marginality is a condition for the formation of religious marginals - people and groups who do not belong to the dominant (officially recognized) faiths (for example, Hare Krishnas), various kinds of sectarians (White Brotherhood, Aum Shinrikyo, etc.), oppositionists - heretics within the framework of any religion.

Age marginality is formed when the connection between generations is broken: street children, infantile, or young “old men” who know everything. Young people also belong to the age or natural marginal groups.

Moral marginality - is formed in the absence of a moral standard, and leads to deviant behavior - criminal elements.

Each of these types of marginalized people can be characterized as either destructive or constructive, and demonstrate different types of behavior: from search activity, a focus on increasing status, to “sinking” to the “social bottom.”

This depends not only on the objective conditions in which this type of marginalized person is formed, but also on his personal qualities and readiness for change.

The second layer - the middle one - is the so-called ordinary marginals, who are either in the process of transition from the middle layer to the lower one, or in the process of transition from the middle layer to the upper one.

The third layer is the so-called new marginalized people, who are characterized by high mobility and a high degree of adaptation to changing conditions. This is an example of a positive version of marginality, when marginalized people quickly adapt to a new environment and acquire new traits. In the context of this study, it is important to emphasize once again that a marginal situation in a transforming society cannot always be a source of demoralization and individual and group forms of protest. It can also be a source of a new perception of the surrounding world, society, and people, which can be reflected in atypical forms of intellectual, artistic, and religious creativity, as evidenced by the history of human society. This indicates another, positive, form of manifestation of marginality in society.

Among the marginalized groups in transition, young people stand out in particular. Young people are a specific transitional group, located at a “crossroads in life” and belonging to the group of “planned marginalized”. In addition to the fact that young people by their nature, due to their transitional status, can be considered a marginal group, they gravitate toward marginality for objective reasons.

Young people are being pushed to the margins of society, deprived of their future. The marginalization of young people is facilitated by flawed socialization, social insecurity, blocking of channels of self-realization, and the absence in their consciousness of the sociocultural mechanisms of this socialization. The increasing marginalization of youth leads to various types of deviant behavior and disorientation.

Let us especially focus on the constructive forms of manifestation of marginality, since this is important for understanding the issue of socialization of a marginal personality in the conditions of transformation processes of society. The process of marginalization, as noted, is characteristic not only of social destruction, but also of the formation of a new one.

The role of marginality is manifested in the fact that it prepares society for future changes, when not only the old system is destroyed, but a new one is created. By the time the marginalized sections form a significant part in the social space, quantitative changes will turn into qualitative ones.

In this case, it makes sense to talk about the birth of a new integrity with fundamentally different properties and structure in relation to the previous system. At the same time, marginality “provokes”

the subject to certain active actions in society and is “provoked” by society itself, forcing it to somehow react to marginality.

The objectivity of the existence of marginality in social space lies in the fact that marginality is a prerequisite for social change. It represents a certain border zone necessary for the further development of humanity. Marginalized people, trying to adapt or searching for themselves, are capable of making an ideological revolution that makes innovation the norm. As a result of the creation of a new social integrity, many marginal elements are formed into a single social whole.

Marginality is an active process that accompanies periods of crisis and stagnation of social life; it is the result of deformation and transformation of social structures.

This phenomenon contains the potential to influence the course of transformation processes in the social systems themselves. Since change is a necessary condition for the further development of the social organism, marginality plays a huge role in the formation of social integrity.

The marginal strata formed in society influence the nature of historical development and “signal” the need for change. Marginality in a crisis “states” the fact that certain processes are occurring in society (for example, the negative direction of marginality is increasing, the marginal layer in society is growing excessively, ethnic tension is growing due to the increase in the number of ethnomarginals), ignoring which is fraught with serious consequences for society. Marginality, having an intergroup, intersocial character, connects those who are on different sides, being a “crossing bridge” between the past state of society and the future.

Marginality constitutes the intentionality of the movement, ensuring the deployment of this phenomenon into social space. Moreover, the intention of marginality is multifaceted. Depending on the prevailing conditions, marginality can be destructive or constructive both for an individual and for society as a whole. But whatever its direction, it acts as one of the conditions for a person’s self-expression in social space. This allows the individual to freely construct both himself and social reality.

The phenomenon of marginality acts as a factor of “gap”

ideological continuity. “With all the negative consequences,” says V.A. Chernienko, - the factor of marginality (along with other significant factors - economic, political and others) determines a progressive change in worldviews: from tribal self-consciousness, through class, class self-consciousness, to planetary self-consciousness - the self-consciousness of humanity."

It can be assumed that some of the marginalized, under the influence of the changes taking place in society, will continue to sink to the social bottom, identifying themselves with those who are already there. Alcoholics, homeless people, and beggars cease to occupy an intermediate position and are finally determined in their lumpen status. The other part finds ways to adapt to new realities, acquires a new status, new social qualities and connections. They fill new niches in the social structure of society and begin to play a more active, independent role in public life.

A marginal situation in a transforming society may not always be a source of demoralization. It can also be a source of new perception of the world around us.

Richard Rorty, a famous American pragmatist philosopher, spoke frankly about the benefits of marginalized people and outsiders:

“When faced with another culture, we cannot crawl out of our Western social democratic skin, and we should not try to do so. What we should do is try to get close to representatives of a foreign culture enough to understand how we look in their eyes, and whether they have any ideas or innovations that are useful to us.”

A necessary condition for acquiring the essential “I”

the margin is freedom. The marginal has the ability to see, perceive and understand what has not been noticed by anyone until that moment. This allows him to bring innovative ideas into the world that provoke phenomena that can radically change the established sociocultural reality. Marginalized people, feeling their otherness in a given social space, are aware of the discrepancy between goals and conditions for achieving them. This forces them to take shape in the social system, that is, to socialize. Therefore, today it is important not just to record the fact of the presence of marginalized people in the social structure of society, but to take into account the differences within the marginalized people themselves, based on the existence of marginalized people who join the ranks of representatives of the “social bottom”, and marginalized people who demonstrate search activity and are focused on increasing their social status.

The Crimean region is characterized by the same factors of marginalization as Ukraine as a whole. But at the same time, the study of the problem of marginality showed that Crimea also has its own specifics.

It can be explained by the following reasons:

In Crimea, the processes of marginalization are most intense.

The reason for this is the active return of repatriates, which creates additional problems for the region economically, politically, and socially.

The underdevelopment of infrastructure, poor living conditions, and the unwillingness to provide everything necessary for such a number of migrants leads to an increase in the number of marginalized subjects;

Crimea is a multi-ethnic region where over 100 different nationalities live. Here the problem of ethnic marginals arises with particular urgency, since this group includes not only individual representatives of ethnic communities who find themselves in a position “on the margins of life” in relation to the entire society, but also entire strata. Moreover, not only repatriates from among the Crimean Tatars are dissatisfied with their situation, but also Russians, who make up the majority of the population in this region, and Ukrainians, who represent a smaller part of the population compared to Russians, and representatives of other ethnic communities. In this regard, the problem of achieving interethnic harmony in Crimea arises, since inept, harsh policies towards representatives of different nationalities can ignite a “bonfire” of interethnic conflicts.

Because of this, in the context of the growing destructive nature of marginality in Crimea, it seems necessary to particularly focus on the ethnocultural forms of its manifestation in a multinational state. The problem of ethnocultural marginality is of particular significance, both in scientific-theoretical and practical-political terms, since ethnic minorities are a source of constant growth of tension in the CIS countries and, in particular, in Ukraine and Crimea.

The problem of the formation of ethnomarginals in Russian literature turns out to be less developed. There are no works devoted to the formation of new ethnomarginal groups in the state, their evolution and place in the system of interethnic relations.

The formation of ethnomarginals is a socio-historical process.

Refugees and migrants, as a rule, create a special marginal group: ethnocultural marginals. The emergence of such a group is due to the fact that their economic, political, cultural, and social ties are cut off one by one.

Groups of migrants, finding themselves in a different ethnocultural environment, become strangers even when they try to assimilate.

Ethnomarginals, as a rule, cause rejection, dissatisfaction and irritation among representatives of a different ethnic cultural tradition, and a bearer of ethnocultural marginality can be a potential source of conflict. That is why studying the forms of both negative and positive manifestations of the marginalization of ethnic groups in Crimea is one of the most pressing tasks facing researchers of this problem.

The problem of ethnocultural marginality was first raised by R.E. Park. Among domestic researchers of the ethnic aspect of marginalization, one can note the works of such authors as T.V. Vergun, I.I. Dmitrov [see: 15; 28]. A special contribution to the development of the problem of ethnocultural identity and interethnic harmony in Crimea was made by O.A.

Gabrielyan, K.V. Korostelina, A.D. Shorkin [see: 131]; Crimean researchers - I.I. - devoted their works to the problems of the relationship between government and society in the conditions of transformation processes, building a civil society based on consent. Kalnoy, F.V. Lazarev, A.P.

Tsvetkov [see, for example: 39; 52; 124].

Ethnic culture is a holistic phenomenon. Its essential property is the reproduction of unique behavioral stereotypes of a mass and individual nature. Stereotypes unite communities of people into a certain sociocultural system. In moments of crisis, while consolidating “their own,” ethnostereotypes differentiate “outsiders” to the same extent. In each ethnoculture, on the one hand, there is a desire to preserve ethnic identity, on the other hand, in relationships with other cultures, the mutual enrichment of cultures with each other’s values.

The cultural direction of theories of ethnocultural interaction gave rise to the concept of acculturation, a phenomenon that occurs when groups of individuals from different cultures come into direct and prolonged contact, the consequence of which is changes in the elements of the original culture of one or both groups.

There are four main acculturation strategies:

Assimilation (this is a variant of acculturation in which the emigrant completely identifies himself with the new culture and denies the culture of the ethnic minority to which he belongs);

Separation (means that members of an ethnic minority deny the culture of the majority and retain their ethnic characteristics);

Integration (characterized by identification with both old and new cultures);

Ethnocultural marginalization (if the migrant does not identify himself with either the culture of the ethnic majority or the culture of the ethnic minority).

Ethnocultural marginality is a phenomenon that arises in the process of interaction of ethnic cultures and reflects the subject’s break in ties with his original culture and his incomplete entry into a new ethnoculture. The period of ethnocultural marginality can be short-term or long-term.

It can end “not only with assimilation, but also with a return to its original state - re-emigration.”

Ethnocultural marginality is (from an existential point of view) a certain type of relationship that arises between the subject of the interaction of cultures and the values ​​of these cultures. The ethnomarginal (the subject of ethnocultural marginality) is, as it were, “torn” between the values ​​of interacting ethnocultures, while feeling alienated from both cultures.

Marginal groups that do not identify themselves with the dominant culture deprive themselves of the opportunity to participate at the group level in the production of universally significant values. They become isolated in a cultural sense, experiencing cultural loneliness. People experience such loneliness when they feel that the connection with their own cultural heritage is broken or that the generally accepted culture is unacceptable to their inner world. In modern cross-cultural psychology, such a psychological state of immigrants in a new cultural environment is called culture shock. A. Farnham and S.

Bochner (it was they who introduced this term into scientific use) noted that “the culture shock hypothesis is based on the fact that the experience of a new culture is unpleasant or shocking because it can lead to a negative assessment of one’s own culture.”

Ethnomarginals are a historically specific form of an ethnic community formed as a result of mixed marriages, or when part of the original community is separated as a result of a change in the border, as well as the migration of part of a given ethnic group to another country, where it lives in a foreign ethnic environment and in the corresponding social, political and cultural conditions

The danger of marginalization of ethnic groups lies in its destructive consequences, which contribute to the deformation of self-awareness, views, and norms of behavior of the ethnic group. The concept of “vertical movement of social groups” can be applied to ethnic marginality: the loss for some reason of its social status can push an ethnic group to look for another place in life, and contribute either to the evolution of the ethnic group itself, or lead to stress, depression, and be accompanied by aggressive manifestations. The classic type of marginal ethnic group are repressed peoples who, as a result of forced displacement during the years of Stalinism, found themselves in a country alien to their culture and way of life. In the positive version, marginality was gradually overcome through the inclusion of marginalized people in a new environment and the acquisition of new traits. In the negative version of marginalization, the state of transition and peripherality, being conserved, persists for a long time, and the marginalized bear the features of declassed, lumpen behavior. This type of marginality is a consequence of downward mobility. The consequences of migration and forced displacement largely depend on the adaptive abilities of a particular ethnic group, while the external environment, which can give it certain opportunities or deprive it of its last hope, is also of no small importance.

The sustainability of the existence of ethnomarginals depends on various circumstances: on the compactness of settlement, on the difference in the cultural level of the indigenous and newcomer ethnic groups, on the proximity of the languages ​​of both ethnic groups, on the religious situation in a given country, etc. As noted by L.

Malinovsky, “blacks in the USA survived as an ethnoracial community due to the presence of a social and racial barrier (the color of their skin did not give them the opportunity to dissolve in the new community, racial discrimination further increased this barrier), but the French are Huguenots and Czech Protestants in Prussia in 200 years they completely dissolved - there was a language barrier, but there was no racial, social, or religious one:

they were white Protestants in a Protestant country."

The problem of the inability of ethnomarginal people to adapt to new living conditions is expressed in internal tension, a feeling of isolation and leads to psychological conflict, despair, and re-emigration. A clash of values ​​between parents who adapt less well and children who adapt better to new conditions can cause destructive behavior and delinquency. One of the forms of adaptation is socialization, that is, the process of an individual acquiring values, ideals, and norms of behavior inherent in a given society or ethnic group. Different cultures have different methods of socialization depending on what character traits are valued. The process of socialization among the Crimean Tatars, for example, occurs under the influence of the family and the wider non-Crimean Tatar environment.

There are several groups in the younger generation of Crimean Tatar repatriates:

Young people who came to the country at school age.

They undergo secondary socialization, which is superimposed on what was already received at their previous place of residence. They already have their own habits and value orientations. They are forced to change many old stereotypes. But, ultimately, they gravitate towards their ethnic group, although they intend to stay in the country to live here, get an education, a profession;

Teenagers who came to the country without being schoolchildren.

Here, during primary socialization, the child joins the subculture of his ethnic group. With the start of school, the process of familiarization with a new sociocultural environment begins.

The young people who make up this group become carriers of two cultures;

Those who were born in the host country. They consider themselves more natives than immigrants. It is in this group that the difference between expected and real opportunities for vertical social mobility is actualized. This group of young people quickly develops the traits of a marginal personality.

Often, as a result of the policy of artificial marginalization, deliberately pursued by the authorities, masses of people move to a peripheral position. This happens when marginality becomes an excessively widespread and long-term social phenomenon and acquires the features of social stability.

As a result of artificial marginalization carried out by the country's leadership during the era of repression, the marginalization of ethnic groups occurred, in which a significant part of the so-called “unreliable peoples” living on the territory of the Soviet Union were subjected to forced relocation. Characteristic features of the marginal status of these peoples were their social isolation, reduced contacts and narrowing of the social environment. As a result of the change in the former social status, the marginal position predetermined a sharp reduction in most of the opportunities that the peoples had. When they found themselves in a difficult situation, they found themselves alone with their problems and troubles, while such social needs as the desire for self-affirmation, recognition and approval by other ethnic groups, and the need for protection from the state were not satisfied. The situation of many deported peoples, including the Crimean Tatars, was aggravated by their position as “special settlers” and the corresponding attitude towards them both from the authorities and from local residents. In addition, in the Asian republics, for example, they fell under the general definition - “Russians” (= “strangers”), just like the Armenians, Jews, and Ukrainians who lived in this territory. Marginalization processes among the resettled peoples deepened, creating obstacles to the inclusion of these peoples in a full life. It took decades for the socio-psychological and psychophysiological process of adapting the individual to the new conditions of the social environment in the places of resettlement, that is, for adaptation. The adaptation process is carried out simultaneously at the physiological, biological, psychological and social levels. As a rule, this is a rather lengthy process, often complicated by difficulties in settling migrants. As a result of long-term adaptation, representatives of the deported peoples managed to achieve a certain status in society, however, their rights were largely infringed (in particular, access to the highest echelons of power and security agencies was denied). It should be noted that before the collapse of the USSR, “Russian-speakers” belonged to the dominant group in the nominally sovereign union republics, while their indigenous inhabitants, with the exception of the local ruling elite, were members of a marginal, subordinate group. As a result of the collapse of the USSR, united by the idea of ​​national independence and sovereignty, the former marginal groups acquired the status of dominant groups in their own country, and the former dominant groups were forced to leave their former key positions and embark on a search for their lost identity as citizens of other countries.

The current marginal status of “Russian-speakers” in the former republics of the USSR indicates the existence of a deliberate policy of ousting them to the social periphery by constructing the image of a “stranger.” These mechanisms include: appeal to national identity and calls to “be masters of your own country”; holding the Russians responsible for the current difficult situation in the republics; occupation of key positions in government and economic management by “national personnel”. Thus, the main reasons for forced relocation are: nationalist sentiments in the republics, the general difficult economic situation, lack of regular work, ignorance of the local language, difficulties with the education and future work of children, crime situation, threat to personal safety, violation of the rights of citizens and owners. Among the main pushing factors are nationalism and the difficult economic situation in the republics. At the same time, marginal groups are not completely excluded from socio-economic, political and socio-cultural ties, but their position and the roles they play are changing greatly. Given the impossibility of coping with a marginal situation in the context of the dominant culture, the only rational solution is to escape from it, forced relocation. Those who, due to various circumstances, cannot leave, become involuntarily marginalized, strangers.

The marginal status of migrants in a new place is characterized by the fact that, on the one hand, due to a change in the social environment, they become “typical” in their ethnic characteristics and way of life in places of compact residence, but, on the other hand, for other peoples they are different.” “strangers”, the same as at the previous place of residence.

In addition, significant downward mobility, an uncertain legal status, the inability to apply professional knowledge and experience, and a lack of resources to support life create the marginality of betweenness, transition, or dynamic marginality. All this allows us to characterize the condition of migrants in their new place of residence as marginal, the outcome of which should be either integration or sinking to the social bottom. Any migrant is homeless and unemployed for some time.

Acute deprivation of material needs, lack of housing and income contribute to the marginalization of this group. Losses due to relocation are not limited only to people's material resources. The subjective component of marginality is negative feelings about the marginal situation of one’s incompatibility with the environment or one’s new status.

Objective material difficulties are superimposed on the state of frustration from the loss of property; the difference between past and current living conditions is striking. This condition is also aggravated by the loss of social connections and personal resources. Social and psychological problems of migrants arise: uncertainty about the future, dependence on external circumstances, lack of self-confidence, inability to navigate the situation.

Specific to migrants is the problem of socio-legal status at their new place of residence. The process of adaptation to new living conditions depends on the adaptive abilities of the individual, and a long stay in a state of marginality depends not only on objective circumstances, but also on the reluctance of some people to leave this state.

The situation is aggravated by the spread of patternist attitudes in our society. Thus, according to sociologists, only 17% of respondents, when asked who should take responsibility for the difficult financial situation of people, answered that they must rely on their own strengths, the rest place responsibility on the state.

According to sociological research by I.P. Pribytkova, 79.4% of respondents from among the deportees believe that the source of the problems and difficulties that their family is experiencing is insufficient assistance from the state. Every third person believes that the source of problems is the passivity of the Mejlis (33.3%), and every fifth person (20.5%) believes that the source of problems is insufficient humanitarian assistance from international organizations.

Paternalism is also manifested in the assessment of the possibility of each person personally changing something in the sphere of political life: for example, only 8% of the total population of Ukraine believes that they can do something if the local government makes a decision that infringes on their interests.

However, migrants cannot be considered as “social” disabled people who require care and attention from society and the state, since they have a wide range of resources that allow them to integrate into a special social environment on their own.

Among them:

Social resources: presence of relatives, friends in a new place, help from them. An important factor in entering a new environment are the difficulties common to the local population, which contributes to self-identification with the locals.

Economic resources: property brought with you, money. But it should be noted that, like the unemployed, forced migrants usually find employment with a strong decrease in social status.

Legal resources: citizenship, passport registration (propiska). This is important for employment and solving the housing problem.

Activity resources: readiness to take on any work, readiness for difficulties. Psychological preparation for difficulties is the basis for coping with difficulties.

Symbolic compensation for lost opportunities:

searching for the positives in any event. This helps to avoid stress and soberly assess your capabilities.

Emotional resources: against the background of discrimination at the previous place of residence, getting into one’s ethnic environment is considered as a benefit.

Help from the state and public organizations [see: 65].

The protection of ethnomarginals through the protection of personality can be resolved satisfactorily, subject to the consistent democratization of society and the state. At the same time, we note the falsity of concepts that proclaim the absolute hostility of ethnomarginals to the sociocultural foundations of the country that has adopted them.

Marginality is a consequence of an identity crisis. In conditions of ethnocultural marginality, a crisis of ethnic identity is formed. Ethnic identity is a person’s awareness of his belonging to a particular ethnic group. It satisfies, on the one hand, a person’s need for identity and independence from other people, and on the other, the need for belonging to a group and protection. Ethnic identity can be considered in two aspects, firstly, as a social process, and secondly, as part of an individual’s self-awareness. The elements that form the system on the basis of which the process of ethnic self-identification takes place are: the value of the native language; memory of the historical past; adherence to customs, rituals, national holidays, folklore;

ethno-confessional values ​​and others.

Researchers identify the following types of identity:

Normal identity, in which a positive image of one’s own people is set and perceived, natural patriotism and tolerant attitudes towards other peoples;

Ethnocentric identity, which implies some isolation and, possibly, non-aggressive ethno-isolationism;

Ethno-dominant identity, in which ethnicity becomes only the primary identity among other types of identity;

Ethnic fanaticism, in which the absolute dominance of ethnic interests and goals is accompanied by a willingness to make any sacrifices and actions in their name, including the use of terrorism;

Ambivalent identity, in which there is also an unexpressed, as if dual or transitional, identity when, for example, children from mixed families in one situation feel like representatives of one people, in another - of another;

Ethnic indifference: people are practically indifferent to the problems of ethnicity and interethnic relations;

Ethnically disadvantaged identity, in which the low status of one’s ethnic group is realized, its unequal value in relation to others, and the tactic of avoiding demonstrating one’s ethnicity, and sometimes even denying any ethnicity, is adopted;

Ethnonihilism in the form of cosmopolitanism, when in individual consciousness and behavior a rejection of ethnic identity is declared, sometimes even qualified as harmful [see: 29, p. 16-47].

Each of the identified types is often variable and transitional. Ethnic identity is a dependent variable; it waxes and wanes according to external circumstances. The meaning and role of the characteristics by which an individual identifies himself with an ethnic community also depends on the specific historical, political and economic situation. It should be noted here that most regions of Ukraine are characterized by cultural and linguistic marginalization of large groups of the population. This is due to increased pressure in the ethnocultural and linguistic sphere, which leads to increased psychological tension. Thus, according to sociological research, the real share of Ukrainians who consider Russian their native language is from 30 to 35%. This picture quite clearly reflects the marginal position of this group of the “Russified” Ukrainian population, in whose minds there is a conflict between ideal and real linguistic behavior.

Fragmented identity, deteriorating social status, limited social contacts - all this suggests that marginality can become a problem not only for individual segments of society, but also for ethnic groups as a whole. In such a case, the situation is fraught with difficult to predict social consequences.

Marginality creates the preconditions for deviant behavior:

marginal groups are not only socially unprotected, but also represent a convenient object for all kinds of manipulation. In the context of transformation processes taking place in Crimea and Ukraine as a whole, there is a danger of using ethno-dominant identity and ethnic fanaticism to incite interethnic conflicts.

Studying the ethnic aspect of marginalization in modern society is an important task facing researchers, because interethnic harmony in Ukraine and, in particular, in Crimea depends on its solution. Despite the complexity of the situation of migrants in a new place of residence, important resources for coping in new conditions are social connections, self-reliance and readiness to be active.

Crimean scientist A.D. Shorkin notes that “the subtle and complex process of a person acquiring ethnocultural identity... has an optimal and productive condition for the entire wide and complex range of interactions of ethnic groups as free and equal in society. Only on this path will the ethnic groups themselves find a non-empty future; only in this way is it possible to overcome interethnic tensions and achieve agreement.”

Therefore, today it is important to realize that the problem of increasing the number of ethnocultural marginalized people is connected with problems of interethnic relations, because ignoring it can lead to increased ethnic tension in the region. At the same time, in solving this problem one cannot rely only on the state and unilateral assistance on its part, but there must also be a desire of the individuals themselves, who find themselves in a situation of ethnic marginalization, to strive to get out of this situation, attracting the resources mentioned above. Interethnic relations are subjectively experienced relations between people of different nationalities, between ethnic communities. They manifest themselves in attitudes and orientations towards interethnic contacts in various spheres of interaction, in national stereotypes, in the behavior and actions of people and specific ethnic communities.

In this regard, the problem of tolerance, acceptance of others as they are and willingness to interact with them is important in the context of the transformation processes taking place in Crimea. Interethnic tolerance is manifested in actions, but is formed in the sphere of consciousness and is closely related to ethnic identity.

Hyperbolization of ethnic self-awareness negatively affects tolerance.

To summarize, we note the following.

Constructive and destructive forms of manifestation of marginality depend on the prevailing socio-historical conditions and circumstances. The negative direction of marginality manifests itself through alienation, escapism, and the growth of deviant forms of behavior, which is typical for marginal groups that find themselves on the periphery of society. Positive - when marginality as a phenomenon represents a kind of bonds of civil society, with the help of which the search for new ways of action is carried out, corresponding to changing conditions. Here, transitional social groups are formed that contribute to the restructuring of the social structure.

In the conditions of transformation of modern society in Ukraine, the destructive direction of marginality is increasing.

The current socio-economic situation in Crimea is very difficult, and assessments of the progress of ongoing reforms are contradictory.

On the one hand, a step has been taken towards a market type of economy:

dismantling elements of the administrative-command distribution system; movement of business activity from the public sector to the non-state sector; adaptation of the population to a new difficult situation. On the other hand, reforms are developing in a contradictory manner, which leads to a drop in production, a decline in the living standards of large masses of the population, and unemployment. The reform process in Crimea is taking place in conditions of deep economic crisis and social upheaval. A complex and painful process of structural restructuring is underway. Many problems in the social and labor sphere are most acutely manifested in Crimea, since in this region of Ukraine there are much more difficult living and working conditions due to a number of socio-economic factors, including the return of previously deported ethnic communities to their historical homeland.

The specificity of Crimea is that in this multi-ethnic region the problem of interethnic relations arises with particular urgency, which is associated, among other reasons, with the problem of increasing the number of ethnomarginals here - individuals located on the conventional border between two ethnic groups, in neither of which they belong are fully recognized as their own.

The marginality of ethnic groups is associated with the loss of social and moral status in a particular social community to which they currently belong, or the inability to occupy a dominant or worthy position in the country of forced or voluntary residence. A specific situation is developing in Crimea: on the one hand, the same socio-economic, political, cultural problems arise here as in Ukraine as a whole as a result of the growth of the destructive direction of marginalization; on the other hand, these problems are aggravated by the emergence of ethnocultural forms of marginality here due to the huge migration flow.

Moreover, not only individuals - representatives of ethnic communities - find themselves in the position of ethnomarginals, but also entire layers of society who find themselves in a borderline position, cut off from their usual environment and adapting to new conditions of existence.

Fragmented identity, deteriorating social status, limited social contacts - all this suggests that marginality can become a problem not only for individual segments of society, but also for ethnic groups as a whole. The danger of marginalization of ethnic groups lies in its destructive consequences, which contribute to the deformation of self-awareness, views, beliefs, and norms of behavior of the ethnic group. Under such conditions, these groups become pliable material in the hands of those who are trying to satisfy their political ambitions at their expense.

2.4. The phenomenon of mass pathology of identity and the possibility of socialization of a marginal personality In this section, we will consider the possibility of socialization of a marginal personality in the conditions of mass pathology of identity in modern society.

The special, allocated position of a marginalized individual, while providing him, on the one hand, with ideological advantages, on the other hand, does not allow him to be completely immersed in culture and deprives him of a sense of cultural particularity. Acquiring this feeling requires a long “introduction to culture” - the process of socialization of the individual. Socialization is of decisive importance for the formation of a marginal personality. Socialization ensures the transformation of the individual into a person capable of living with his own kind in the space of culture. As a result of socialization, there is a coincidence of public and personal values ​​and attitudes, satisfaction with the fulfillment of the entire spectrum of life orientations in the practical life of the individual, and the basic type of personality of a given social system is formed.

Precisely on the extent and extent to which one will “evade”

The process of socialization depends on cultural stereotypes and traditions, and whether the development of the individual will follow the “normative” path for a given community or along a marginal path.

The essential meaning of socialization is revealed at the intersection of such processes as adaptation, integration, self-development and self-realization. Their organic unity ensures optimal personality development throughout a person’s life in interaction with the environment.

Socialization refers to those processes through which people learn to participate effectively in social groups. Therefore, an individual is socialized when he is able to engage in concerted action based on conventional norms. Every person is destined to live in a society, and therefore social inclusion is an extremely important factor in his life. Each person needs a certain ability to adapt to society, otherwise the individual is doomed to a persistent inability to get along with others, isolation, misanthropy and loneliness.

The socialization mechanism includes:

a) projection onto the object of interest, during which the interest is clarified through the prism of cash values, a comparison is made;

b) establishing identity through conscious self-determination and construction of subjective reality in the form of a positive representation;

c) consolidation of this idea with certain symbols, which contributes to the formation of positive stereotypes and the formation of a psychological attitude towards one’s own and others.

A prerequisite for socialization is introjection as the likening of an object to a subject. Introjection includes external standards, values, and relationships into the structure of the “I” without critical verification and assimilation. In childhood, introjection occurs at an unconscious level.

In adulthood, introjections have the following psychosemantic manifestations: “I should:”, “I should:”.

They can manifest themselves in unrealistic expectations from other people and from themselves, in the replacement of some introjections by others, the desire to live by someone else’s rules, etc. Introjections arise in situations where a person is deprived of the opportunity or desire to analyze, compare, refute, doubt, prove, but prefers take on faith the opinions and statements of other people.

But without this psychological mechanism, without the ability to incorporate into one’s inner world the views, motives and attitudes of other people perceived by one, the mechanism of socialization will not take place.

In the process of socialization at the stage of projection, on the contrary, an attempt is made to give an internal form to the entire external world, this is to distinguish an object from a subject by transferring some subjective content to the object.

In the process of projection, a person transfers his own qualities, aspirations and characteristics to similar qualities of the groups present in his environment. What is important here are those qualities that were instilled in a person during the process of upbringing, primary socialization that occurs in the family. In other words, those qualities and norms of behavior that were perceived by a person at the level of introjection. What matters here is how strong positive orientations are in a person, whether he has the ability to adequately assess the influence of society and the environment. By projecting one’s own aspirations onto others, a person gets the opportunity to get to know himself better, really evaluate his own capabilities and identify a group of like-minded people. If the individual’s ability to cope with his negative tendencies is insufficient at this level, attribution of his own undesirable traits to others often occurs (projection in a narrow psychological sense). At the same time, one’s own shortcomings are not noticed (a suspicious person is inclined to attribute this quality to others).

Projection is one of the psychological defense mechanisms when a person understands that he is not alone, that someone else has his inherent individual qualities. On the other hand, projection can become a source of the formation of negative stereotypes in intergroup terms.

Projection acts as a concretized human ability to intentionality, as a meaning-forming aspiration of consciousness towards the world, a meaning-forming ability of consciousness, which is always directed outward. Thanks to intentionality, sensations can be interpreted objectively. Particularly evident is the concretization of intentionality in art, where one’s feelings and moods are transferred (projected) into the work, which leads to a personal interpretation of the work of art. Projection phenomena can also be observed in religion. Particularly significant here are the figures of the suffering Christ, the Mother of God, saints and martyrs. For social life, projection is especially significant in the relations between leaders, elite and masses. The mass man projects himself onto the leader, the leader projects himself onto the mass man.

The next stage of socialization of the individual is associated with his awareness of his own identity, when the individual realizes his belonging to communities and sets priorities: which attitudes of the communities to which he belongs are most important for him. A hierarchy of values ​​is built, and it is always individual in nature. In his contacts, a person strives to understand what the hierarchy of values ​​of his environment is.

The coincidence of these hierarchies serves as the basis for special respect, friendship, and love.

The concept of “identity” has already been mentioned in the previous subsections. Let's look at it in more detail.

Modern dictionaries interpret identity as the complete coincidence of something with something. Naturally, such a coincidence is conditional, since everything in the world is in a state of constant change. This is especially true for humans. Therefore, it is necessary to clarify the concept of identity, based on existing scientific reasoning on this matter.

The concept of “identity” was first introduced into scientific circulation in social psychology. This was done by S. Freud in his work “Psychology of the Masses and Analysis of the Human Self”. Although this term itself was not used here, attention is drawn to such a phenomenon as “the association of one I with another, as a result of which the first I behaves in a certain respect in the same way as the second, imitates it and, in a sense, absorbs it into itself.” Each individual, according to Freud, is a particle of the group, connected to it through a network of imitation. A person builds his ideal Self, guided by many samples and models of behavior that he chooses more or less consciously.

The breakdown of identities turns a person’s everyday environment into an alien and hostile world. Z. Freud also draws attention to the fact that the human I is built from illusions about itself, therefore we can talk about identity more conditionally than unconditionally.

The neo-psychoanalytic approach emphasized the adaptive function of identity. Thus, E. Erikson defined this concept as a sense of an individual’s organic belonging to his historical era and the type of interpersonal interaction characteristic of it, as “the organization of life experience into an individual self.” Personal identity presupposes the harmony of its inherent ideas, values ​​and actions with the dominant socio-psychological image of a person in a given historical period. Identity manifests itself as a subjective feeling of some inspiring wholeness and continuity. E. Erikson identified Self-identity (“ego” identity), which includes two components - organic (immutable reality) and personal (life experience giving a sense of uniqueness), and social identity: group (inclusion in various communities) and psychosocial (feeling of the significance of being from the point of view of society.

The behaviorist approach (M. Sherif, D. Campbell) defined identity as the conscious or unconscious copying of the attributes and characteristics of others. The main theories of identification are protective, developmental, theories of envy, power, theory of similarity. There is an equal sign between identity and identification.

In symbolic interactionism (J. Mead, C. Cooley, E. Goffman, G. Garfinkel), the subject of consideration was the methods of constructing identity and the process of identification itself, the structure of identification was analyzed, conscious and unconscious identities were identified, the dependence of identification on social space and time, systems social institutions. Representatives of this direction give more independence to the person himself in the formation of identity than the Freudian-Eriksonian approach. According to C. Cooley, a necessary condition for the development of self-awareness is communication with other people; there is no sense of "I"

without a corresponding feeling of “Us”, “Them”, etc. C. Cooley formulated the principle of the “Mirror Self”: our “I” is formed through the summation of the impressions that we think we make on others. The “Mirror Self” includes three elements: the image of our appearance in the mind of another person, the image of his judgment about our appearance, and self-awareness of the reaction of others perceived by us. J. Mead believed that personal selfhood, integrity, is not a priori human behavior, but consists of properties produced in the course of social interaction (social interaction).

Identity is initially a social formation, the individual sees (and therefore forms) himself the way others see him.

The cognitive approach (H. Tejfel, J. Turner, G. Breakwell) defined identity as a cognitive system that acts as a regulator of behavior. The central thesis of these studies is that a social group has a need to create positively valued differences from other groups in order to provide its members with positive self-esteem, since individuals tend to define themselves in terms of social group membership. Proponents of this approach attach great importance to the social context, the objective conditions of personality formation. Social identity ensures the formation of content and value structures of the individual.

The structure of identity develops throughout life.

In phenomenology, identity is considered as a specific discovery of intersubjectivity in personal consciousness. E. Husserl defines intersubjectivity as a structure of the subject that corresponds to the fact of individual plurality of subjects. In other words, intersubjectivity is the imprinting in the structure of the subject of the attribute of the plurality of society, its very integrity, the social order itself.

Thanks to intersubjectivity, communication between individuals, their community or relationships between them is possible, the transcendental Self is certified in the existence and experience of the Other. The other in me receives significance through my own memories of myself. Intersubjectivity presupposes the unproblematic, routine nature of our everyday existence. It is when I and the Other act in conditions of routine and everyday life that the Other can comprehend at least some of the goals of my Self.

“The intersubjectivity of the social world serves as a guarantee of the intelligibility of the subjective meanings of other people,” notes phenomenological sociology [Cit. from: 81, p.312].

The phenomenological analysis of intersubjectivity confirms, expands and deepens the provisions put forward by J. Mead regarding the social nature of the “I”.

In A. Schutz, the place of the experience of self-comprehension, to which E. Husserl assigns an important place, is occupied by communicative experience, the experience of social relations. Through continuously renewed reflexive relatedness to another, a person becomes aware of himself as a person and constantly enriches his own experience, “discovering” the world of other people and things. Therefore, a meaningful social world carries within itself “an immanent relation to another” [Cit. from: 101, p.34]. According to A. Schutz, “we would not be individuals not only for others, but even for ourselves, if we did not discover a common environment for us and other people, acting as a correlate of the intentional interconnection of our conscious lives. This common environment is formed through mutual understanding, which in turn is based on the fact that subjects mutually motivate each other in their spiritual manifestations: sociality is constituted as a result of communicative acts in which the “I” addresses the “other”, comprehending him as a person who addresses himself, and both understand this” [Cit. from: 101, p.215].

This means that the anonymous or personified other is always “meant” and present in the horizon of consciousness even in cases of hopeless loneliness or being lost in a crowd.

The intersubjective approach, developed by J. Habermas, assumes that participants in a communicative action must mutually assume that distinguishing themselves from others should be recognized by these others. Therefore, the basis for establishing identity is not just self-identification, but intersubjectively recognized self-identification.

In poststructuralism, identity is acculturation to the ways, norms, and practical recommendations in everyday life. M. de Certeau proposes the following strategy for gaining identity: 1) self-affirmation over time; 2) appropriation of methods of control, vision in spaces convenient for this; 3) mastery of knowledge.

The presence of a large number of concepts of identity confirms the importance of this problem for modern times, when people are looking for groups of “their own” to which they could belong steadily and for a long time in a world where everything moves and moves and nothing is reliable. Indeed, identity introduces a person into certain social norms that give him a canon, a way of life. This is a kind of prism of social life, as the creative tandem of P. Berger and T. Luckman rightly notes in the work “The Social Construction of Reality”.

Through this prism one can view, study and evaluate social reality. In society, everyone is tied to a certain “disciplinary matrix” of collective life, depending on how he defines himself. Having solved the problem of conscious self-determination, a person accepts the corresponding rights and responsibilities and receives a certain status in the group whose opinion he values. Through the act of identification he determines his place in the group and is perceived by others. Conscious self-determination also ensures conscious behavior. In turn, conscious behavior is a manifestation not so much of a person’s objective properties as the result of a person’s subjective ideas about himself. Each person must come to an agreement with himself in the same way as he comes to an agreement with other people in his group, society. In other words, we are talking about a person’s behavior as a member of a certain group. Outside of it, a person experiences a state of psychological discomfort and helplessness. He cannot declare his adequacy and his selfhood outside of his relationship with the group. Only identification with any social entity gives the individual a feeling of security and relieves psychological tension. Identity, forming the image of “our own”, includes the mechanism of reproductive attitude to the world, forms a stable stereotype, and relieves neurosis.

The situation changes dramatically during the transition period, when the old scale of value guidelines has collapsed, and a new one has not yet emerged, when people know where they come from, but do not know where they are. And then the phenomenon of “mass pathology of identity” becomes a reality. People experience their helplessness, powerlessness, alienation from everything and even from themselves. The inclusion of the identification mechanism initiates the activity of the subject, directs his actions, ensuring the subjunctive will of “their own”. The loss of civic identity calls into question the stability and prospects of not only the “friend” community, but also society as a whole. The inclusion of the identification mechanism initiates the activity of the subject, directs his actions, ensuring the subjunctive will of “their own”. The loss of civic identity calls into question the stability and prospects of not only the “friend” community, but also society as a whole.

Identity includes target, content and evaluative parameters. It also includes two aspects: personal and social. Personal identity arises in specific conditions of intersubjectivity, where a person’s self-understanding is inseparable from the reactions of other people to him, primarily those who make up the circle in which the person moves.

Personal identity carries a philosophical intention because behind every truly philosophical formulation of a problem there is hidden the question “Who am I?” . P. Ricoeur showed that the very genesis of a person as a subject (or as a person) is necessarily carried out through identification. The subject is revealed as a subject of speech, as a subject of action, as a subject of “narrative identity”, that is, the narration of the story of his life, and, finally, as a subject of responsibility and each time he is identified.

Personal identity is based on relationships with other people (social structure, role), on the qualities that an individual attributes to himself (competence, attractiveness, intelligence) and self-esteem.

Social identity is based on relationships with groups to which an individual identifies himself.

It is formed and maintained through the following social processes:

nominations, i.e. placing the “I” into socially recognized categories of interaction with significant others, including processes of social exchange and identification, confirmation and validation of the concept of the Self through the presentation of the Self. The meanings of social identity are based on the proximity and difference of the agent’s social position with similar, complementary or opposite positions.

The mechanism of social identity that realizes its meaning-forming function can be the situational formation of a special image “I am a position in social space,” which temporarily acts for the individual as an image of “I.” The establishment of stable connections between a person’s semantic sphere and the image “I am a position in social space” determines its stable integration into the composition of the semantic sphere. For society as a whole, the ideals of a universal social order and its own history are especially important, since they ensure the acquisition of social identity. V.A. Yadov suggests that the method of satisfying the identification need, inclusion in a given social situation, presupposes both the ideological system of value orientations of the individual and his life goals.

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